Career Advancement of Hotel Managers Since Graduation A Comparative Study

Personnel Review
Career advancement of hotel managers since graduation: a comparative study

Thomas N. Garavan Fergal O'Brien Deborah O'Hanlon
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Received 27 March 2003
Revised 23 June 2004
Accepted 7 July 2004
Career advancement of hotel

managers since graduation:
a comparative study
Thomas N. Garavan
Department of Personnel and Employment Relations, Kemmy Business School,
University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
Fergal OBrien
Department of Accounting and Finance, Kemmy Business School,

University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland, and
Deborah OHanlon
International College of Hotel Management, Shannon, Ireland
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the factors predicting the career progression of hotel managers working in
international hotel chains in Ireland, Europe and Asia.
Design/methodology/approach The study uses a cross-sectional questionnaire design
consisting of 337 respondents. It investigates individual- and organisational-level factors that
potentially explain the career progression of hotel managers.
Findings The study reveals significant differences in managerial progression in the three
sub-samples. A multiplicity of factors explains differences in advancement. These include
demographic, human capital, psychological characteristics of the manager and organisational
characteristics. The model developed in the paper explained significant variance in three measures of
managerial advancement: salary level, number of job moves, and position reached in the hierarchy.
Research limitations/implications The study is based on self-report data and the response
rates are slightly below those reported for behavioural science research. The study does not gather the
perceptions of the managers superiors. The findings indicate that managerial advancement is
explained by a complex set of factors, which would benefit from further investigation.
Practical implications The study findings suggest important practical implications for the
provision of training and development, individual and organisational career strategies, the role of
networking in advancement and the respective roles of managers and organisations in managing
careers.
Originality/value The paper has a cross-cultural dimension which to date is largely absent from
this area of research.
Keywords Career development, Hotel and catering industry, Managers
Paper type Research paper
Personnel Review
Vol. 35 No. 3, 2006
pp. 252-280
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0048-3486
DOI 10.1108/00483480610656685
Introduction
Career research continues to thrive. The majority of this research in recent years has
focused on how the shape of traditional career paths has changed in the face of
increasing environmental uncertainty. It has also focused on changing organisational
career management practices, individual career planning strategies and the emergence
of new career models such as the boundaryless and protean careers (Arthur et al., 1989;
Barrett et al., 2000; Blair-Loy, 1999; Phillips, 2001; Van der Heijden, 2002; Hall and
Moss, 1998; Flores et al., 2003). It is argued that flexibility and change have replaced
stability as key career planning and counselling concepts (Sharf, 2002; Bolles, 2001)
There is however an alternative perspective that argues that irrespective of these
environmental changes, for many individuals there is a significant amount of stability
within their careers over time (Betz and Voyten, 1997). For this reason it is legitimate to
study how managers advance within an organisation setting and to explore an
advancement model of career rather than an employability model. Feldman (2002)
argues that managerial career dynamics are best understood only by examining
managers experiences over time. Careers are neither static nor exceptionally dynamic;
they evolve over time and are influenced by characteristics of the individual as well as
by organisational factors (Tharenou, 1997; Sullivan, 1999). The literature conveys
conflicting and different messages concerning the locus of responsibility for career and
the extent of job tenure. While there is evidence of declining job tenure (Allred et al.,
1996) managers are still likely to stay in organisations that provide advancement and
learning opportunities (Carbery et al., 2003). There is lots of evidence that managers
expect career advancement as a norm in organisations and consider that the
organisation has the primary responsibility to ensure that it happens. On the other
hand contemporary career models emphasise that the individual manager has
responsibility for managing career and employability (Hall and Moss, 1998).
The study of managers in international hotel and hospitality organisations
represents a novel context. These organisations are increasingly under immense
pressure to develop and maintain managerial talent. International hotel managers are
also expected to understand and manage in different cultural contexts and different
corporate cultures (DAnnunzio-Green et al., 2002). There is an abundant literature
highlighting that hotel managers report both dissatisfaction with their career
progression and intentions to leave (Carbery et al., 2003). Furthermore, managerial
advancement in hotels is frequently unplanned and unsystematic (Deery, 1999), there
are fewer training and development opportunities (Baum, 1995b), managers experience
work overload (Riley et al., 1998), have low levels of remuneration (Price, 1994) and
experience managerial stress (Zohar, 1994).
This paper builds on previous research in a number of ways. We used a
combination of individual- and organisation-level variables. Previous studies have less
frequently combined them. We measured these variables through the lens of the
respondent. We asked for their self-reports. We utilised three objective measures of
managerial advancement: number of job moves within the managerial hierarchy, the
level of management reached and the number of salary increases. These measures were
considered effective objective indicators of career success. We acknowledge the large
literature and body of research findings on subjective or intrinsic career measures.
They were not however the focus of this study. We captured a cross-cultural dimension
in our study. We categorised respondents by the location of the hotel in which they
currently worked and by country of birth. We consider the cross-cultural feature to be
an important extension on previous research, which has not explicitly included it as a
study variable. Finally we confirmed the importance of factors previously highlighted
and identified a number of variables that are unique to the context we studied.
We structured the paper as follows: We review the literature on managerial
advancement and develop hypotheses. We then describe our methodology and report
Career
advancement of
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descriptive and analytical statistics on our sample. Finally, we discuss the support for
our hypotheses and outline the implications of our findings.
254
Theoretical background and hypotheses development

Individual- and organisation-level variables are relevant in explaining managerial
career advancement. Individual-level variables typically include demographic and
human capital variables and psychological concepts such as career motivations,
satisfaction with the psychological contract, and participation in career development
activities. Organisation-level variables typically include career systems, organisation
size and sector and the way in which job roles are defined.
Individual-level variables
Demographic characteristics. The research, in general, indicates a relationship between
age and managerial career advancement, however the relationship appears not to be
strong. Managerial level increases with age to a certain point at which stage it slows
significantly (Cox and Nkomo, 1992). Age appears to be more important in explaining a
particular objective measure of career success, the level of pay achieved (Tharenou,
1997).
The impact of gender on career advancement is strong. Female managers do not
reach as high a managerial level as their male counterparts (Huffman and Torres,
2001). In the hospitality context, female managers gain more promotions to middle
management but are less likely to reach senior management and in particular general
management positions (Nebel et al., 1995; Riley, 1990). Higher standards may be used
when organisations consider womens managerial career advancement
(DAnnunzio-Green, 1997). Thus we hypothesise:
H1a. The age of the manager is positively associated with the three measures of
managerial advancement.
H1b. The gender of the manager is positively associated with the three measures of
There is evidence of cross-cultural differences in careers and managerial advancement.
Ronen and Shenkar (1985) for example illustrate that countries can be clustered
according to similarities on certain cultural dimensions. It is not as yet
comprehensively studied. There is strong support for Anglo, German, Nordic, Latin
Europe and Latin America clusters. There is modified support for Far East and
Arabian clusters. These findings suggest the cultural background of the manager and
the location of the hotel maybe important factors in explaining career advancement.
Hofstede et al. (1990) in their pioneering research identify cross-cultural differences in
values and managerial practices. There is limited research investigating these
differences in a career context. A small number of studies in the hospitality context
illustrate differences in hospitality managers role expectations, which stem from
cultural differences. These differences relate to styles of management and notions of
service. Leong (2002) highlight different behavioural expectations across cultures in
the degree of personal interaction expected in a managerial relationship. Kim and
Atkinson (2002) points out that in Asia, for example, good service relates to a high level
of personal attention or customisation. There is a much lower concern with efficiency
and timesaving. These are more likely emphasised in European cultures. There are
cross-cultural differences in career expectations, the extent to which managers are

motivated to plan their careers and differences in individual self-efficacy. Chew et al.
(2002) found that men in Singapore reported higher levels of self-efficacy for careers
that were based on enterprising and realistic orientations than did women. Women had
higher self-efficacy for artistic, investigative and social orientations. Flores et al. (2003)
concluded that country and cross-cultural factors influence approaches to career
development as well as career expectations. Studies by Turner and Lapan (2002) and
Wiese et al. (2002) found differences in proactive career management as well as goal
setting orientation. Albion and Fogarty (2002) found that adults in Australia reported
fewer difficulties in making career decisions. Thus we hypothesise:
H1c. Country/region of origin of the manager is positively associated with the three
measures of managerial advancement.
Human capital characteristics. The human capital characteristics of managers are
important in explaining career advancement. Human capital theory postulates that
managers who invest in education, off-the-job training, acquire planned work
experience and enhance managerial competencies will have increased levels of career
advancement. There is a significant level of support for this proposition in the general
and hospitality-specific literatures, with some important qualifications.
Education is moderately associated with career advancement. Tharenou et al. (1994)
and Johnsrud and Heck (1994) provide evidence of direct and indirect effects. Directly it
influences advancement and indirectly it influences participation in training and
development. The relationship is moderated by gender. There is some evidence that the
type of qualification and the educational institution are relevant. Baum (1995b) and
Ruddy (1998) found little support for the proposition that completion of a Diploma or
Degree enhances promotion prospects within the Irish hospitality industry. The career
patterns of managers with or without a degree were substantially similar. In contrast,
Baruch and Peiperl (2000) and Baruch and Leeming (2001) report a positive
relationship between education and career development. Baruch and Peiperl (2000)
found that participation on an MBA programme added value to the graduate and
improved the graduates employability, career advancement and remuneration
prospects.
The relationship between participation in training and development and career
advancement is stronger (Tharenou and Conroy, 1994). Investment in management
development has a more potent effect (Roberts and Biddle, 1994). Being prevented from
participating in training and development is related to a lack of promotion. The
relationship is however complicated. There are gender effects and Baum (1989), in a
hospitality context, found that participation in training and development was more
strongly related to the development of managerial skills than progression.
Significant breadth and depth of managerial experience is positively related to
career advancement (Stroh et al., 1992; Whitely and Coetsier, 1993). There is strong
support for this relationship in the hospitality management literature. Nebel et al.
(1995) found that managers who reached a general manager position within a hotel had
acquired significant experience in general and functional management positions. The
competency literature suggests that experience and skill is positively related to
advancement (Howard and Bray, 1990). A number of hospitality-based studies (Gliatis
and Guerrier, 1993; Jayawardena, 2000) indicate that the possession of particular
Career
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competencies enhanced managerial career advancement. These include language,

people management, entrepreneurial and competencies in managing cultural
differences.
Depth of the managerial role is not significant for advancement to middle level
positions but is significant for career advancement to general managers positions
(Forbes and Piercy, 1991; Judge et al., 1995). Managerial jobs in the hospitality and
hotel sector have unique characteristics. Baum (1989; 1995a) found that operational
skills, usually related to direct customer contact, are considered by managers to be
most relevant to the current job and to future training requirements. Operational
considerations took priority in how managers allocate their time. Managers are most
likely to be involved in supervision in areas such as front office, restaurant, bar and
kitchen. Ladkin and Riley (1996) found that a significant number of general managers
spent time in food and beverage. A relatively small percentage of general managers
spent time in housekeeping, accounting and marketing activities. Front-office and
personnel function experience was also significant. A small percentage of managers
were promoted to a general manager position from outside the hotel and hospitality
sector.
Nebel et al. (1995), in a study of hotel general managers in the USA, found that 80
per cent of respondents had performed assistant general manager roles for on average
three years. They tended to work in a very narrow stream of roles, such as, food and
beverage, front office and housekeeping. These three departments were the most
significant to a general managers career. Hotel grade was not significant in explaining
variation, however age differences were significant. Younger general managers were
more likely to work in operational departments and accumulated limited experience in
generalist roles such as sales, marketing, finance and human resources. Thus we
hypothesise:
H2a. Education level at graduation is positively associated with the three measures
of manager career advancement.
H2b. Investment in education since graduation is positively associated with the
three measures of manager career advancement.
H2c. Participation in training is positively associated with the three measures of
manager career advancement.
H2d. Managers self-report of competencies is positively associated with the three
measures of manager career advancement.
H2e. The breadth and depth of general and functional experience is positively
associated with the three measures of manager career advancement.
Mentors, networking and commitment to development. The influence of mentors and
the acquisition of social capital are significant. Mentor presence and mentor career
support is positively related to managers promotion in early career (Whitely et al.,
1991; Yuen, 1995). Mentoring processes are more significant in the early career
however there is little research highlighting their value in the later career (Raabe and
Beehr, 2003; Scandura, 1992). Scandura (1998) found that some mentoring relationships
could be dysfunctional from a career advancement perspective. Managers who
advance are likely to have personal contacts in diverse groups within and beyond the
organisation (Gould and Penley, 1984; Ruddy, 1998). Meyerson (1994) found that
managers who have strong external ties had better advancement. Ruddy (1998) found
that successful hotel managers were interpersonal networkers. Gould and Penley
(1984) found that the use of interpersonal career strategies resulted in senior manages
thinking more positively about the manager. Gender effects exist. Ragins and
Sundstrom (1989) found that male managers had more favourable social networks and
personal contacts than females. They provided more information, support and access
to jobs. Thus we hypothesise.
H3a. Mentor support and networking activities are positively associated with the
three measures of managerial advancement.
Commitment to career, development and career orientations. Career commitment and
commitment to development are relevant individual-level variables. Jones and
Whitmore (1995) found that career commitment predicted advancement to
division-level management. Howard and Bray (1990) and Ruddy (1998) found
support for the proposition that commitment to career predicts advancement.
A related career concept is the career orientation of the manager. Schein (1996)
postulated that managers who possess career anchors that match their occupational
role are more likely to experience progression. There is modest support for this
proposition in the literature. Research (Cooper et al., 1996; Whitely et al., 1991)
highlights the variability of career orientations and the influence of organisational
experiences in modifying a managers self-concept. Whitely et al. (1991) found that the
career orientation will be manifest in attitudes to short and medium-term career
prospects. It appears that managerial and interpersonal orientations are more
predictive of advancement (Sharf, 2002).
The commitment of the manager to development is related to the level of managerial
advancement (Noe and Steffy, 1987; Facteau et al., 1995). Specific elements of
commitment to development include continually taking courses to improve skills,
availing of organisational training opportunities, moving jobs to gain knowledge and
skill, utilising a mentor and emulating a role model (Noe, 1996; Mathieu et al., 1992).
Several studies highlight a positive relationship between commitment to development,
task performance, and advancement (Chew et al., 2002; Quinones, 1995). Noe (1996)
highlights the importance of career development strategies. He postulated that the use
of a career strategy by managers is likely to encourage developmental behaviour. Thus
we hypothesise:
H4a. Strong career commitment is positively associated with the three measures of
manager career advancement.
H4b. Managerial and interpersonal career anchors are positively associated with
the three measures of manager career advancement.
H4c. Strong commitment to development is positively associated with the three
measures of manager career advancement.
Satisfaction with the psychological contract. The psychological contract is considered a
relevant variable in explaining career advancement (Turnley and Feldman, 1999;
Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler, 2000; Rousseau, 1996). There is limited empirical
investigation concerning the influence of the psychological contract on career
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advancement. Sullivan (1999) provides a strong argument that the content of the
psychological contract is important in explaining attitudes and commitment to career
management. There is however, no universal agreement amongst researchers on how
the psychological contract should be measured. Some commentators (Rousseau, 1996;
Schalk and Freese, 1993) contend that it can be measured by focusing on the
employees perceptions of both the obligations of the employee to the organisation and
the employer to employees. This second more unilateral view is prominent in the
literature on managerial advancement. Blumenfeld et al. (1987) studied the
expectations of potential hospitality managers and found that work and
advancement opportunities were key elements of their psychological contract. In the
career context, both Kram (1996) and Allred et al. (1996) highlight a number of elements
that characterise the modern psychological contract from the employees perspective.
Kram (1996) argues for a relational approach to careers. This consists of managers
proactively diagnosing career issues and engaging in coaching activities in
collaborative learning environments. Allred et al. (1996) focused on the increased
emphasis on self-managed careers, ownership of career development, continuous
learning and change.
Anakwe et al. (2000) found that managers expectations concerning development,
career management, self-knowledge and utilisation of skills are associated with
personal learning, goal setting, the selection of career strategies and career decision
making. Thus we hypothesise:
H5a. Satisfaction with the psychological contract is positively associated with the
three measures of manager career advancement.
Organisation-level variables
Organisation size, growth and hotel grade. The general finding is that organisation size
(numbers employed) is not directly significant in explaining managerial advancement.
There may be indirect effects due to characteristics of the internal labour market. If we
take growth as a measure of organisation size, the evidence is significantly less clear.
Periods of high growth have inconsistent links with promotion rates for all managers
(Hurley and Sonnenfeld, 1994), however there is doubt concerning whether
organisation growth is significant for managerial career advancement. There is little
evidence demonstrating a link between the grade of the hotel and managerial
progression in a hospitality context. Ruddy (1998), for example, found no association.
Baum (1999) found that managers in top graded hotels had more opportunities for
career development and more and better quality training and development
opportunities. There is some tentative evidence concerning the extent of
advancement in differently graded hotels. Thus we hypothesise:
H6a. The size of the hotel is not associated with the three measures of manager
career advancement.
H6b. The hotel grade is positively associated with the three measures of manager
career advancement
Organisational career systems and support for development. Organisations differ in the
way they develop career systems and the levels of support for career development.
Gunz (1988) postulated that organisations have different career logics. Gilbert and
Guerrier (1997) hypothesised that the hospitality sector is likely to have a

command-centred career logic in which managers develop by taking on an
additional level of command. Managers are likely to reinforce the same narrow set
of skills but may utilise them in different settings. Ladkin and Riley (1996) found that
hotel managers careers develop through a sequence of moves between functions and
units usually in the same hotel. They are less likely to work in other business sectors.
Sonnenfeld and Peiperl (1988) suggest organisations vary in the types of career
systems they implement. They define career systems as the collections of policies,
priorities and actions that organisations use to manage people. They argue that hotels
typically have a fortress system. This system is characterised by limited investment in
training and development and there is an expectation that managers will be flexible to
handle multiple tasks, survive under stress and be willing to change.
Career encouragement by superiors and peers is related to promotions. It does not,
however, explain the managerial level achieved. Tharenou and Conroy (1994) found
that career encouragement increased womens training and development much more so
than men and the increase in training and development opportunities in turn led to
career advancement. Thus we hypothesise:
H7a. The level of perceived support for career development is positively associated
with the three measures of manager career advancement.
Research methodology
Sample
Data were obtained from graduates of two major hotel and hospitality management
schools in the Republic of Ireland and Switzerland. Both schools provided detailed
alumni lists. We sent a questionnaire to a sample of 1,400 managers stratified by
country of birth (375, Irish; 425, European; and 600, Asian). We achieved the following
response rates: Irish 28 per cent; European 25 per cent and Asian 21 per cent.
These are statistically significant samples for each group of respondents. We are
conscious that our response rates are somewhat lower than those reported in the
literature for this type of research (Baruch, 1999). Cultural issues likely influenced the
response rates in addition to the length of the questionnaire and the use of a postal
survey.
The mean age of managers was 34; the range was 22-48 and the modal age 37. Fifty
two percent were male and 48 per cent female; 33 per cent were married; 47 per cent
single with the remaining 19 per cent not categorised. Thirty two percent of managers
reported that their socio-economic background as professional with 36 per cent
indicating that it was employer or manager. Forty percent of managers had no family
connections with the hotel industry. Of those mangers who had connections with the
hotel industry 57 per cent indicated that their family owned a hotel, bed and breakfast,
restaurant or bar and 9 per cent indicated that their parents or siblings worked within
the hospitality or hotel industry.
Sixteen percent of managers had achieved Certificate-level qualifications, 60 per
cent Diploma-level, 17 per cent Degree-level at graduation. Seven percent of
respondents reported a post-graduate third-level qualification. Fifty eight percent of
managers had acquired additional qualifications since graduation. Of those who
achieved a qualification post graduation, 17 per cent of managers reported a Diploma
qualification, 22 per cent a Degree qualification and 24 per cent a Postgraduate
Career
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qualification. Managers had acquired significant levels of managerial experience since

graduation. Sixty one percent of managers reported six or more years experience in
hotel management.
Differences were revealed across our sub-samples. The majority of Asian
respondents had family connections within the industry. The data for the Irish sample
indicates that the family is likely to own a hotel. This pattern of ownership is also the
case for the European sample. Asian respondents were relatively more qualified at
graduation than Irish respondents, however the Irish sample were more likely to have
invested in education since graduation. European respondents were more likely to
undertake Masters-level qualifications.
Measures
The study variables were measured using multi-item scales. The response and sample
items are presented in Table I. We derived the measures from two main sources of
literature. The career commitment, career anchors, psychological contract, and the
managerial competencies variables were measured using existing published scales by
Carson and Bedeian (1994), Schalk and Freese (1993), Schein (1996), and Tallieu and
Franchimont (1991). For the hotel management specific measures we use the work of
Ladkin and Riley (1996). In addition we created a number of new scales to measure
mentoring and networking activities, commitment to development, organisational
support for development, and breadth of hotel work experience.
Limitations of the study
The study relied on self-reports. We relied on the honesty of respondents to report
accurately the number of job moves and salary increases. This is a significant
limitation. It exposes the data to common method variance. Several other
characteristics of the sample may reduce the generalisability of the study results.
The response rate was modest and fell slightly below the response rates that were
reported for organisation behaviour and management surveys. We derived our sample
from two highly reputable hotel management schools. This possibly introduced bias
into our study because graduates from these schools would expect to have significant
Results
Descriptives, correlations and coefficient alpha reliability estimates are presented for
all variables in Table II. Reliabilities for all scales except career anchors are well above
the generally accepted level of 0.70.
The majority of respondents were in the early- or mid-career stages. Sixty two
percent of respondents had graduated within the past ten years. Eighty five percent of
respondents had graduated between 1-15 years. Analysis indicated that over 60 per
cent of respondents had worked as international hotel managers for between 1-10
years. Almost 20 per cent of Asian respondents had worked 10 years within the
industry. On average, respondents became managers within 3.65 years of graduation.
European respondents were promoted to the position of manager significantly quicker
than other respondents. Asian respondents were promoted to the position of manager
at a significantly slower pace. The means for each sub-group were: European, 2.65
years; Asian, 4.35 years; Irish, 3.95 years. We isolated the upper quartile to identify
Variable
Scale development
Sample item/alpha reliability
Career commitment
A 7-item abbreviated version of

Carson and Bedeians (1994) scale
I have created a plan for my

development in this line of
work/career (Cronbach Alpha 0.72)
To what extent do you have
expectations concerning your job in
respect of career development?
(Cronbach Alpha 0.76)
Satisfaction with
psychological contract
A 22-item scale measuring

transactional and relational
dimensions of the psychological
contract developed by Schalk and
Freese (1993)
A 20-item scale measuring
Perception of
managers perceptions of the
management
possession of competency relevant to
competencies
hotel work developed by Tallieu and
Franchimont (1991) and authors
Mentoring and
An 11-item scale measuring
networking activities
managers networking activities
developed by the authors
Career
An 18-item scale measuring career
anchors/orientations
anchors/self-concepts developed by
Schein (1996)
Depth of manager role An 8-item scale measuring the
importance of different strategic and
operational aspects of hotel
management developed by Ladkin
and Riley (1996)
Commitment to
A 7-item scale measuring the
development
commitment of the manager to
development developed by authors
A 7-item scale measuring the extent
Organisational career
systems and support for to which the hotel implements
various career management policies
development
and practices developed by authors
Breadth of work
A 20-item scale measuring extent of
experience
work experience developed by
authors
Career
advancement of
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261
I am confident to deal with

situations that involve multiple work
demands (Cronbach Alpha 0.75)
I regularly play internal politics to
get noticed (Cronbach Alpha 0.74)
I want to build a career to enable me
to manage across functions
I have responsibility for dealing
with human resource issues
I am continually taking courses to
improve my skills (Cronbach Alpha
0.71)
In my organisation there is an
opportunity to formulate structured
career development plans
I have worked at a strategic level in
food and beverage (Cronbach Alpha
0.77)
how quickly that group of respondents achieved a managerial position. The mean was
1.85 years. This indicates that a significant proportion of respondents operated on a
fast-track mode. This finding was relatively consistent for the three sub-samples.
Respondents had significant levels of organisational and job tenure. The average
organisational tenure for respondents was 5.5 years. Respondents demonstrated
significant levels of loyalty to the organisation. The mean scores (Irish, 4.25 years;
European, 5.65 years; Asian, 6.75 years) indicated statistically significant differences in
tenure for the three sub-samples. Asian respondents had significantly longer tenure
than Irish respondents. Sixty-six percent of respondents were in their current positions
for less than two years. Asian respondents had relatively longer job tenure than Irish
or European respondents. Respondents were likely to hold a number of different job
positions during their careers. The mean number of positions for respondents in this
study was 3.85 years. Asian managers tended to change jobs more frequently
Table I.
Description of the
measures used and
reliabilities
3.67
3.85
4.25
3.71
3.41
3.67
0.21 *
0.09
0.11
0.46 * *
0.07
0.16
0.31 *
0.08
0.17
0.11
0.02
0.15
0.49 * * (0.71)
0.07
0.08 (0.67)
0.11
0.26 * 0.58 * * (0.77)
Notes: n 327, * p , 0:05; * * p , 0:01 (two-tailed) coefficient alpha; reliability estimates are presented in the diagonal; all of the scales included in this
study have a five-point response
0.31 *
0.11 *
0.18
0.45 (0.72)
1.05
0.62 * * (0.76)
1.01
0.31 *
0.34 * (0.75)
0.67
0.10
0.16
0.25 * (0.74)
0.78
0.57 * * 0.36 *
0.10
0.11 (0.64)
0.37 * 0.27 *
0.59 * * 0.47 * * 0.21 * 0.10 (0.71)
SD
311 3.25 1.21

312 3.46 0.78
321 3.86 0.77
325
330
320
310
325
318
1. Career commitment
2. Satisfaction with psychological contract
3. Perception of managerial competency
4. Mentoring and networking activities
5. Career anchors/orientations
6. Commitment to development
7. Organisational career systems and support for
development
8. Depth of managerial role
9. Breadth of work experience
Table II.
Means, standard
deviations, correlations
and reliabilities
N
262
Variable
PR
35,3
(mean 4:75) whereas Irish respondents had significantly fewer positions

(mean 3:15).
The extent of organisational mobility was significant. It should however be pointed
out that this was likely to be within the same hotel group. The average organisation
tenure for the respondents was 4.5 years. Asian respondents had significantly longer
organisational tenure (mean 4:85) when compared with European (mean 4:45)
and Irish (mean 4:25).
Respondents had a significant number of salary increases since graduation. The
overall mean for respondents was 7.21 salary increases. Irish respondents received
significantly more salary increases than Asian and European respondents (Irish, 8.25;
Asian, 6.25; European, 7.15). Forty five percent of respondents received an annual
salary of over e33,000. Asian respondents were paid a significantly lower salary when
compared to Irish and European respondents (Asian mean salary, e27,000; European
mean salary, e33,000; Irish mean salary, e44,000).
The findings revealed that respondents job and organisational tenure patterns and
levels of salary progression correspond to some characteristics of the contemporary
career model, in particular frequent job moves, numerous salary increases, increased
responsibilities, and enhanced competencies. However the results also indicated that
many respondents worked within a bounded career and reported significant levels of
organisational tenure.
Certain functions within the hotel were more important than others in the careers of
hotel managers (Table III). Food and beverage, front office and housekeeping were the
three functional areas that the majority of respondents gained experience in at some
point in their career. This pattern was relatively consistent for the three sub-samples.
Respondents spent on average 4.30 years in front office, 3.75 years in food and
beverage and 3.3 years in housekeeping. Respondents from Ireland were more likely to
work in housekeeping, Asian respondents in food and beverage and European
respondents in front office.
Respondents gained significant experience in general management positions.
European and Asian respondents were more likely to work in general management
positions (Asian, 3.75; European, 3.25; Irish, 2.75 years). Respondents were
significantly less likely to work in specialist functional areas. These specialist
functional areas were non-core activities. Where respondents had specialist experience
they were more likely to work in sales and marketing, and less likely to work in human
resources and accounting and finance positions. European respondents were more
likely to work in human resources. Irish respondents were significantly more likely to
acquire experience outside of the hotel sector.
The grade of the hotel was important in explaining the type of experience that
managers acquired. The majority of respondents worked in mid-range or luxury
graded hotels. Respondents were more likely to acquire front office experience in
budget-graded hotels. Irish respondents were significantly more likely to work in
budget hotels at some point in their careers. Respondents who worked in
luxury-graded hotels were more likely to work in specialist functional areas and
general management positions. There were significant differences for the three
sub-samples. Respondents from Asia were significantly more likely to work in general
management positions most likely in luxury hotels, whereas Irish and European
Career
advancement of
hotel managers
263
3.25
4.62
3.75
1.61
1.21
1.45
2.95
3.25
4.26
2.16
3.85
1.21
1.01
1.62
3.25
1.45
Notes: B Budget (not rated), M Mid range (1-3 star); L Luxury (4-5 star)
53 61 57 79 63
39 52 49 60 48
60 67 63 90 72
32 49 46 30 24
14 14 13 10 8
21 18 17 10 8
82 101 94 118 94
40 31 29 47 38
5.41
3.25
4.25
1.31
1.06
1.41
3.75
1.21
26
9
3
9
0
0
4
52
64
77
34
33
23
66
22
27
20
57
67
77
30
14
16
18
5
12
16
24
61
67
48
49
41
40
67
25
17
44
46
47
44
9
12
6
6
14
14
10
36
56
37
84
77
77
52
52
38
57
2
9
13
48
56
41
63
34
15
22
86
42
Front office
Housekeeping
Food and beverage
Sales and marketing
Accounting and finance
Human resources
General management
Non-hotel management experience
Table III.
Patterns of job
experience: type, duration
and hotel grade
differences
Area of experience
264
No./% of respondents with
Duration of
experience by sub-sample
experience
Experience by hotel classification
Irish
Eur
Asian Irish Eur
Asian
Irish
Eur
Asian
No. % No. % No. % Mean Mean Mean B % M % L % B % M % L % B % M % L %
PR
35,3
respondents were likely to work in specialist functional areas, such as accounting and
finance, human resources and sales and marketing.
Respondents reported particular job experience sequences that were relatively
consistent for the three sub-samples. Food and beverage, front office and housekeeping
made up early career job experiences. These positions were more likely to be the first,
second or third job. Respondents were, however, likely to work in food and beverage at
various points during their career. Respondents were more likely to work in specialist
functional areas as the fourth, or fifth job move. The most frequently reported first
specialist functional position was sales and marketing. A small percentage of
respondents achieved general managerial positions early in their career, however such
a position was likely to be a fifth or sixth job move. Asian respondents achieved
general management positions as a third or fourth job move. They were less likely to
work in specialist functional areas at any point in their career.
We used hierarchical regression to test hypotheses 1-7. Demographic variables have
been demonstrated to affect the three measures of the dependent variable utilised in
this study, so these were entered in the first steps in all subsequent analyses, to serve
as control variables. Table IV presents the results in the prediction of the three
measures of the dependent variable. Due to sample size characteristics and the
relatively small independent variable to sample size ratio, we used the adjusted
multiple correlation. It provides a better indication of the amount of variance explained
by the variable.
The analysis suggests that age is positively associated with the three measures of
managerial advancement: number of job moves (b 0:16; p # 0:05), the level of
management reached (b 0:21; p # 0:05) and the number of salary increases
(b 0:18; p # 0:05). H1a was supported.
Gender is positively associated with one measure of managerial advancement:
number of managerial job moves (b 0:26; p # 0:01) and negatively associated with
two measures: level of management reached (b 0:41; p # 0:01) and number of salary
increases (b 0:39; p # 0:01). Therefore, H1b was only partially supported.
The country of origin of the hotel in which the manager worked was very
significant. It had a strong positive influence on the three measures of managerial
advancement: number of managerial job moves (b 0:37; p # 0:01); the level of
management reached (b 0:41; p # 0:01) and the number of salary increases
(b 0:48; p # 0:01). H1c was supported.
Education level at graduation is positively associated with two measures of
managerial advancement: the level of management reached (b 0:21; p # 0:05) and
the number of salary increases (b 0:28; p # 0:01). H2a was only partially supported.
Investment in education since graduation is positively associated with the level of
management reached (b 0:27; p # 0:05). H2b was only partially supported.
Participation in training did not reveal any significant relationships with the three
measures of advancement. Therefore H2c was not supported. Respondents self-report
of competencies is positively related to the three measures of managerial advancement:
number of managerial job moves (b 0:17; p # 0:05); the level of management
reached (b 0:21; p # 0:05); and the number of salary increases (b 0:24; p # 0:05).
H2d was supported.
The breadth and depth of the managers work responsibilities and experience is
positively associated with three measures of managerial advancement. Breadth of
Career
advancement of
hotel managers
265
PR
35,3
266
Table IV.
Hierarchical regression
models
Number of
managerial
job moves b
Level
management
reached b
Number of
salary
increases b
0.16 *
2 0.26 * *
0.37 * *
0.44
0.19
0.12
3.71 *
0.21 *
2 0.41 * *
0.41 * *
0.42
0.18
0.11
3.12 *
0.18
2 0.39 * *
0.48 * *
0.45
0.20
0.14
3.45 *
Block 2. Human capital variables

Education level at graduation
Investment in education since graduation
Investment in training
Mentoring and networking activities
Managerial competencies
Depth manager role
Breadth of work experience
R
R2
DR 2
R 2 (adjusted)
F change
F overall
0.11
0.21 *
0.14
0.24 * *
0.17 *
0.17 *
0.24 *
0.63
0.40
0.21
0.22
3.97 *
2.61 *
0.21 *
0.27 *
0.16
0.29 * *
0.21 *
0.17 *
0.17 *
0.67
0.45
0.27
0.17
2.97 *
2.43 *
0.28 * *
0.17
0.11
0.11
0.24 *
0.18 *
0.29 * *
0.62
0.38
0.18
0.12
2.81 *
2.71 *
Block 3. Manager psychological variables

Career orientations/anchors
Satisfaction with psychological contract
Commitment to development
Career commitment
R
R2
DR 2
R 2 (adjusted)
F change
F overall
0.24 *
0.17 *
0.23 *
0.27 * *
0.78
0.61
0.21
0.39
6.71 *
4.17 *
0.17 *
0.23 *
0.17 *
0.23 *
0.81
0.66
0.21
0.48
9.62 *
7.58 *
0.15 *
0.15 *
0.08
0.26 * *
0.61
0.39
0.01
0.26
8.61 *
5.36 *
Block 1. Demographic variables

Age
Gender
Country of work
R
R2
R 2 (adjusted)
F
Block 4. Organisational level variables

Size of hotel
Grade of hotel
Organisational support for career development
R
R2
DR 2
R 2 (adjusted)
F change
F overall
n
Notes: * p , 0:05; * * p , 0:01
0.27 *
0.22 *
0.16 *
0.87
0.75
0.14
0.64
3.57 *
5.82 *
325
0.24 *
0.15
0.20 *
0.86
0.74
0.08
0.63
4.36 *
5.21 *
330
0.18 *
0.27 *
0.11
0.67
0.44
0.07
0.36
3.29 *
4.46 *
308
work experience is positively associated with the number of managerial job moves
(b 0:24; p # 0:05), the level of management reached (b 0:17; p # 0:05) and the
number of salary increases (b 0:29; p # 0:01). The depth of the managers role is
positively associated with the number of managerial job moves (b 0:17; p # 0:05),
the level of management reached (b 0:17; p # 0:05) and the number of salary
increases (b 0:18; p # 0:05). Therefore, H2e was supported.
The extent of networking and mentoring activities is positively associated with two
measures of managerial advancement; the number of managerial job moves (b 0:24;
p # 0:01) and the level of management reached (b 0:29; p # 0:01). H3a was
particularly supported.
The managers perceived level of career commitment is positively associated with
the three measures of advancement; number of managerial job moves (b 0:27;
p # 0:01), the level of management reached (b 0:23; p # 0:05) and the number of
salary increases (b 0:26; p # 0:01). H4a was supported.
The strength of the managers managerial and interpersonal career anchor is
positively associated with the three measures of career advancement; the number of
managerial job moves (b 0:24; P # 0:05), level of management reached (b 0:17;
p # 0:05) and the number of salary increases (b 0:15; p # 0:05). H4b was supported.
The commitment of the manager to development is positively associated with two
measures of managerial advancement; the number of managerial job moves (b 0:23;
p # 0:05) and the level of management reached (b 0:17; p # 0.05). H4c was
particularly supported. Satisfaction with the psychological contract is positively
associated with the three measures of managerial advancement; number of managerial
job moves (b 0.17; p # 0.05), the level of management reached (b 0.23; p # 0.05)
and the number of salary increases (b 0:15; p # 0:05). H5a was supported.
Three organisational-level variables are positively associated with some of the
advancement measures included in the study. The size of the hotel is positively
associated with the three measures of the advancement; the number of managerial job
moves (b 0:27; p # 0:05), the level of management reached (b 0:24; p # 0:05) and
the number of salary increases (b 0:18; p # 0:05). H6a was supported. The grade of
the hotel is positively associated with the number of managerial job moves (b 0:22;
p # 0:05) and the number of salary increases (b 0:27; p # 0:01). H6b was partially
supported. Perceptions of organisational support for career development is positively
associated with the number of managerial job moves (b 0:16; p # 0:05) and the level
of management reached (b 0:20; p # 0:05). H7a was partially supported.
The complete regression model accounted for significant variance in the three
dependent variables; number of managerial job moves (adjusted R 2 0:36; p # 0:05),
the level of management reached (adjusted R 2 0:32; p # 0:05) and the number of
salary increases (adjusted R 2 0:16; p # 0:05). Each block of variables explained
significant variance in the three measures of the dependent variable. The analysis
indicated that demographic, human capital and manager psychological variables
explained the most significant variance. Organisational-level variables explained some
variance, however they did not add significantly to the power of our model to explain
the career advancement of hotel managers.
Career
advancement of
hotel managers
267
PR
35,3
268
Discussion
The overall question that runs through this study is as follows: What factors explained
the career advancement of hotel managers? The answer to this question is important
given that hotels frequently experience difficulties in retaining managers, in providing
opportunities for participation in training and development and in implementing
sophisticated career management policies and practices. Hotels are service-type
organisations. It follows that the motivation and quality of management is important
in determining the level of service quality provided to customers. The research design
utilised was unique; it incorporated a combination of individual- and organisation-level
variables and a cross-cultural dimension, a feature absent from many previous studies.
The sample is significant and we achieved a sufficient response rate for our three
sub-samples. The study included measures of individual- and organisational-level
variables.
The data revealed a picture of the hotel manager who was relatively young, well
educated and male. Hotel managers invested in significant levels of post-graduate
education. The data on investment in training and development by managers revealed
an interesting picture. Managers tended to rely on short-term, organisationally
provided training and development. They also relied on more traditional training
strategies such as short management courses. There was significantly less evidence of
the use of more innovative and work-based learning activities such as special projects,
hardship assignments and mentoring processes. The analysis indicated significant
cross-cultural differences in the use of training development and education activities.
Irish respondents reported greater use of short-course based activities; European
respondents reported greater use of mentoring activities, special projects and
assignments. European respondents also participated in more short courses than Irish
and Asian respondents. Asian respondents were less likely to participate in training
and development relative to Irish and European respondents. The analysis revealed
cross-cultural differences in respect of attitudes to development. European respondents
were more committed to career development than Irish and Asian respondents. Asian
respondents were committed to utilising their college education and to learning a
foreign language. They were significantly less committed to utilising a mentor or
continually investing in skill enhancement activities. European respondents placed
more emphasis on social learning activities, such as the emulation of role models, and
mentoring. They were more committed to enhancing their foreign language
capabilities. Irish respondents were less committed to learning a foreign language
but were strongly committed to utilising their college education in the job. Such
respondents were more focused on availing of training opportunities within the hotel.
The data indicated that managers working in different cultural settings placed
different emphasis on the value of learning and have preferences for particular ways of
learning.
Hotel managers placed emphasis on particular dimensions of career, work
expectations and perceptions of their managerial strengths. Respondents had two
pronounced career anchors or orientations; a desire to manage people and an emphasis
on service and dedication. Cross-cultural differences in career anchors were revealed.
European respondents placed more emphasis on the technical/functional dimensions of
the managerial career and in life style issues. Irish respondents placed more emphasis
on entrepreneurship, on autonomy in the form of opportunities to do things in a
particular way and a concern to have freedom to act. Asian respondents, in contrast,
placed significantly more emphasis on service and dedication to others and on job
security. They placed significantly less emphasis on life-style, entrepreneurship and
autonomy dimensions.
The content of hotel managers psychological contracts is interesting and it in many
ways the findings from this study reflect the emerging contract as advanced by
Rousseau (1996) and others. Respondents placed strong emphasis on pay and
promotion, career development opportunities and the quality of job assignments. They
prioritised clear managerial growth possibilities, hands-on leadership, a strong
commitment by the hotel to service, emphasis on collaboration and teamwork and a
superior salary as important issues. Irish and European respondents reported similar
priorities. Asian respondents were more concerned about issues related to pay and
promotion and the reputation of the hotel. They were less concerned with the
characteristics of the job and the culture of the hotel.
Managers overall reported high levels of career commitment. European respondents
were more committed to their careers than Asian and Irish respondents. They had a
longer-term goal focus. Asian respondents were more prepared to make personal
sacrifices to learn and to relocate if necessary. They reported less clarity in respect of
career goals. Managers differed significantly in their willingness to network. Irish
respondents made greater use of networking. They were more likely to circulate CVs,
search job adverts, and to continually look for a higher salary. Asian respondents make
greater use of family contacts within the industry; they kept a record of contacts and
were less likely to wait to be told about promotion opportunities. They were less likely
to actively circulate CV or to search job adverts. European respondents were more
likely to utilise external networking. They made greater use of contacts within the
industry and actively searched for external labour market opportunities.
Looking at our hypotheses, the study provided moderate or partial support for the
majority of them:
.
Age and gender are associated with hotel manager advancement.
We found strong support for both age and gender impacting managerial advancement.
Gender is associated with all three measures of managerial advancement; number of
managerial job moves, level of management reached and the number of salary
increases. The relationship is however negative for the level of management reached
and the number of salary increases. This suggests that male respondents have more
opportunities on both of these measures of advancement. Age is similarly associated
with the three measures of managerial advancement. The relationships identified in
this study are stronger than indicated in the managerial advancement literature. It does
reinforce the general finding that there are significant gender differences in managerial
advancement:
.
Investment in education, post-graduation education, training are positively
associated with managerial advancement.
There is partial support for this group of hypotheses. Education level at graduation is
positively associated with the number of salary increases and the level of management
reached. Investment in education since graduation is positively associated with the
level of management reached. There is no support for the investment in training
Career
advancement of
hotel managers
269
PR
35,3
270
hypothesis. The study provided solid support for the view that investment in education
enhances career prospects. The more surprising result concerns the role of training and
development. The finding would suggest that formal qualifications have more value
for advancement than short-term training and development initiatives carried out
in-house. It is perhaps the case that training and development is of more value for
short-term performance rather than the long-term career advancement of a manager:
.
Enhancement of competencies and breadth/depth of experience are positively
assessed with managerial advancement.
There is good support for the hypothesis that the accumulation of managerial
competencies and the breadth and depth of managerial experience is positively
associated with managerial advancement. Managers who rated their managerial
competency set to be higher and who reported a broader and deeper set of functional
experiences within the hotel, were more likely to achieve advancement. This finding
provides support of the value of the outcomes of training and development and
planned job and functional experience early in a managers career:
.
Mentor support and networking are positively associated with managerial
advancement.
There is good support for the hypothesis that managers who engaged in networking
activities and utilised the support of a mentor, achieved better managerial
advancement. Higher levels of networking and mentoring support were positively
related with the number of managerial job moves, and the level of management
reached. This finding provides support for the importance of social capital and
relationship or network building in a managers career. It also provides some support
for the new career concept, which advocates a self-managed career and the use of
external and internal resources:
.
Commitment to career, commitment to a managerial career and commitment to
development is positively associated with managerial advancement.
There is strong support of this group of hypotheses. Commitment to career is
positively associated with the three measures of advancement included in this study.
Career anchors in the form of a managerial and an interpersonal career orientation are
positively associated with the three measures of career advancement utilised in this
study. Commitment to development is positively associated with the number of job
moves. This finding provides support for the new career in particular the concept of the
protean career concept (Hall and Moss, 1998). A protean model emphasises the need
for self-management, the idea that development is continuous, self-directed, relational
and founded on the work experiences that the manager encounters:
.
Satisfaction with the psychological contract is positively associated with
There is strong support for the hypothesis that where the manager is satisfied with
his/her psychological contract, the greater the managerial advancement. Satisfaction
with the psychological contract is positively associated with the three measures of
managerial advancement included in this study. This finding provides support for a
psychological contract model, which is based on the notion of discrepancy between the
manager and the organisation. It is likely that where the discrepancy is perceived to be
low, then the manager will engage in innovative behaviours and be more willing to
pursue a career within the hotel. The quality of the psychological contract can shape
various aspects of the career and improve career commitment, the availability of
development opportunities and commitment to development:
.
Size and grade of the hotel are positively associated with managerial
advancement.
There is partial support for the hypothesis that the size and grade of the hotel are
positively associated with hotel manager career advancement. The size of the hotel is
positively associated with the number of managerial job moves and the level of
management reached. The grade of the hotel is associated wit the number of
managerial job moves and the number of salary increases. These findings are not
surprising in the context of hotels and hospitality. There is evidence to indicate that
managers in higher graded hotels have more varied work experience and are likely to
be better paid (Watson et al., 2002):
.
The organisations career management system and scope of managerial roles are
positively associated with managerial advancement.
There is partial support for the hypothesis that the level of organisational support for
career development is positively associated with managerial advancement. It is
positively associated with one measure of advancement the level of management
reached. There is, to date, limited empirical evidence that organisational support for
careers, without a similar level of individual manager career commitment, will be
important in predicting managerial advancement. It is more likely that organisational
support for careers will be reflected in the provision of training and development
opportunities, the availability of formal mentoring support and the opportunity for
regular lateral job moves to broaden and deepen managerial experience. There is no
support for the hypothesis that the breadth and depth of the organisations managerial
role definitions is positively associated with managerial advancement:
.
The cultural background of the manager is positively associated with
A particular feature of our study was the inclusion of respondents who worked in
different countries. We had a good representation of Irish, European and Asian
respondents. There is very strong support of the hypothesis that the managers
country of origin (in terms of where he/she is currently working) is positively
associated with managerial advancement. We should point out that there was a strong
relationship between the current work location of the respondent and his/her country
of birth. For example, respondents born in Asia tended to work in Asian countries.
Cultural background strongly associated with the three measures of advancement
included in the study. This finding provides support for the view that national cultural
differences in values influence how individuals think about the task of management,
the employment relationship and career. The results suggest scope to investigate
cross-cultural influence in more detail.
Career
advancement of
hotel managers
271
PR
35,3
272
Implications for individuals and organisations

The findings highlight a number of important implications for individuals. There are
advantages to be gained from investment in education, training and development.
Education since graduation proved to be a useful predictor of managerial
advancement. Commitment to development and career are important. Career
commitment appeared to be particularly important. It makes sense that graduates
should be encouraged to pursue careers in which they have a greater interest. It is also
important that managers are concerned to diagnose their skill and talents in a
systematic fashion and to match them to appropriate career opportunities.
The study highlights the role of networking activities. Networking has particular
significance to the level of management reached as well as the number of job moves.
The study revealed cross-cultural differences, however it is pertinent to point out that
managers who spend time developing their networking competencies are more likely to
advance faster. Spending time in social networks is beneficial to the managers
adaptability, flexibility and visibility. We did not investigate whether networking led
to greater social recognition by key decision makers in the hotel.
Organisations also have a role to play in managing the career commitment,
motivation and development of managers. By empowering managers and encouraging
self-development, organisations can help mangers grow professionally within the
organisation. Organisationally provided career development activities can help
managers achieve greater career maturity and commitment. It makes sense for
organisations to design mentoring and coaching programmes to build commitment to
work and organisation and to use training and development interventions to reduce
turnover and prepare the manager to avail of advancement opportunities that are likely
to arise.
The study results reveal that a number of organisation-level variables are relevant
in explaining managerial career advancement. Three particular dimensions require the
attention of organisations. The nature of the organisations career system is important.
This concerns the extent to which the organisation has in place a comprehensive career
management system and provides career planning interventions.
Two elements of the job role are also important. The first concerns the extent to
which managerial job roles are defined. Are they sufficiently broad in task and skill
terms? The second dimension concerns the extent to which job roles provide a
sufficient level of responsibility to the manager in order to acquire the necessary
experience before promotion.
Conclusions
We found that managerial advancement within hotels is predicted by a combination of
demographic, human capital, psychological-variables and to a lesser extent
organisation-level variables. Demographic variables were significant in explaining
the extent of managerial advancement on the three measures included in this study.
The country in which the graduate works was particularly significant in explaining
advancement. Human capital variables explained significant variance in the three
advancement measures. Investment in education since graduation, mentoring and
networking activities, managers perceptions of competencies and the breadth and
depth of managerial experience were positively associated with managerial
advancement. Psychological characteristics of the manager including commitment to
career and development, satisfaction with the psychological contract and particular
career anchors were also important. Organisation-level variables did not consistently
explain variance in the three measures of advancement. The size of the hotel was
positively related to the three measures of advancement whereas the grade of the hotel
was significantly related to the number of job moves and the number of salary
increases. Perceptions of the organisations career system and support for development
were positively related to the number of and level of job moves but not to salary. The
findings suggest that managerial advancement is complex and multidimensional,
however in this study there is strong support for the total model presented.
A weakness of our study is that as far as both independent and dependent variables
are concerned, we relied on self-report measures. While managers strove to achieve
consistency in their self-reported response patterns, it could be that the variables
pertaining to a number of career advancement predictors are clustered because they
may have overstated the level of advancement achieved. It would be interesting to have
the organizations perspective on the significance of the predictor variables.
Our findings provide some support for the protean career model. It is interesting to
observe that managers demonstrated strong loyalty to the hotel. There was less
evidence of turnover than might have been anticipated. The findings indicated that for
many hotel managers there is a significant amount of stability in their careers. It is also
clear that hotel managers careers were bounded rather than boundaryless. Particular
elements of the protean model practised include investment in training and
development, self-managed career activities, enhancement of competencies and
networking. Critics have advocated that the protean model is a convenient ideology for
employers who wish to place ownership for careers with employees and use it as an
excuse for less job security, fewer training opportunities and promotion prospects. The
traditional career has not ceased to the extent suggested in the literature. Instead we
detect in the context of hotels an evolution towards new ways of thinking about career
and career management but not a fundamental shift in the nature of career.
Evolution towards a new career model does suggest implications for management
development, education and career development activities for both individuals and
organisations. It is likely that managers will increasingly focus on general transferable
knowledge and skills to meet both individual and employer demands. However, given
that managers are a competitive resource it is incumbent on hotels to facilitate the
development of managers and move towards a model of learning that focuses on the
creation of a continuous learning culture. In order to create this culture, hotels need to
formulate clear policies that emphasise the importance of continuous learning for
managerial effectiveness and provide rewards in the form of advancement to those
who utilise their skills and competencies.
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About the authors

Thomas Garavan is an academic working with the Department of Personnel and Employment
Relations, Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick. He is considered the leading
academic and researcher in the field of training and development in Ireland. He has acquired a
significant world wide reputation as an author of over 60 academic articles, as Editor of the
Journal of European Industrial Training and Associate Editor of Human Resource Development
International. He is co-author of the leading academic text Training and Development in Ireland:
Context, Policy and Practice, which is widely used by students in Irish universities and institutes
of technology. Thomas Garavan is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
thomas.garavan@ul.ie
Fergal OBrien is a Lecturer in Finance and Course Director for the MSc in Financial Services
at the Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, Republic of Ireland. He is currently
studying for a PhD at Lancaster University. His research interests include the empirical
investigation of financial option returns, sentiment analysis in equity markets and testing asset
pricing models. He is also interested in multi-disciplinary research on the employability, careers
and job progression of University graduates.
Deborah OHanlon has vast experience in the hotel industry and is the Head of Hotel
Operations at the Shannon College of Hotel Management, where she has been involved in
lecturing and the development of student placements in over 15 countries. Deborah graduated
from the Dublin Institute of Technology with a Diploma in Hotel Management and a MSC in
Hospitality Management; she then went on to forge a career with many Irish hotel companies.
Her particular area of expertise has been in the linking of theory and practice and the holistic
approach to the development of the students.
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Career Advancement of Hotel Managers Since Graduation A Comparative Study

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Career advancement of hotel

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Department of Accounting and Finance, Kemmy Business School,

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Theoretical background and hypotheses development

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cross-cultural differences in career expectations, the extent to which managers are

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competencies enhanced managerial career advancement. These include language,

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Guerrier (1997) hypothesised that the hospitality sector is likely to have a

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qualification. Managers had acquired significant levels of managerial experience since

Sample item/alpha reliability

A 7-item abbreviated version of

I have created a plan for my

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A 22-item scale measuring

I am confident to deal with

311 3.25 1.21

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(mean 4:75) whereas Irish respondents had significantly fewer positions

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Block 2. Human capital variables

Block 3. Manager psychological variables

Block 1. Demographic variables

Block 4. Organisational level variables

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Implications for individuals and organisations

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Miner, J.B. (1993), Role Motivation Theories, Routledge, London.

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About the authors

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