EXAMINATION SOLUTIONS 2004/2005 Session Title of Paper: Cold-formed steel design Paper Set By: Dr L Gardner Please write on this side only, legibly and neatly, between the margins ‘Question Number: 1) (a) () The two principal methods of cold-forming are press-braking and roll-forming Press-braking may be used to produce simple shapes in lengths of up to about 6m. The flat material is pressed between shaped dies to form the desired shape, and a series of operations is generally needed to create sections with several folds. Press-braking is commonly used for prototyping new sections, before investment in a roll-forming setup is made. A simple 2- stage press-braking operation is shown below: —r Thin plate | | = Roll-forming is used for large volume production. The final profile is formed by continuously feeding the flat material through successive pairs of rolls. Each pair of rolls brings the section progressively closer to its final shape. The number of stages of rolls depends on the thickness of material and the complexity of the final product. (A) (a) (ii) For Z-sections, the principal axes of bending are not coincident with the horizontal and vertical orientations of the elements. Therefore, when loaded through the web, we get bending about the major and minor axes, resulting in Marks Allocated:lateral (as well as vertical) displacement. There is no twisting, because loading is stil through the shear centre. As a result sections on sloped roofs, with the roof slope such that the principal axis is approximately vertical. Lateral bracing may also be provided to control the lateral deflections. For C-sections, the shear centre and the centroid do not coincide, and the shear centre can lie considerably outside the bounds of the cross-section. Thus, load applied through the web causes the section to twist (as well as bend). To avoid twisting, can use two C-sections back-to-back, or can provide bracing to the flanges. ‘Shear contre ena Conteia (4) (b) (i) The internal comer radii are less than both St and 0.10 bp. Idealised geometry may therefore be adopted without incurring significant errors (EN 1993-1-3).Idealised cross-section dimensions: 248.0 mm o 0 98.0 mm. Idealised section for 250%100x2 RHS Calculation of effective widths: Compression flange: k= 4.0 foran internal element in pure compression from Table 4.1 of EN 1993-1-5 (Table 4.3 of the notes) /235/f, = 235/955 = 0.814 98/2.0 = Se ae 1106) > 28.4«0.814% V4.0 as 0553+) _ 975 1.067 bey = b= 0.75% 98.0 = 73.3mm (compression flange) (ber = be = 73.32 = 36.65)Calculation of position of neutral axis to determine stress distribution in web: Area of section with effective compression flange = (733+ 98+ 248+248)x2 = 1334.6mm* Vertical position of neutral axis from centreline of compression flange. : Y = [(248%2%124)x2 + (98x2*248)] / 1334.6 = 128.6 mm 128.6 mm 1194 mm « eS s: Therefore, “1_ - —S2 S2 = -093 (= eer ome ae qiole | ae Ce) Webs: For an intemal element, where y = -0.93, the buckling factor may be determined with reference to Table 4.1 of EN 1993-1-5 (Table 4.3 of the notes), ke = 7.81-6.20y + 9.78y? = 21.9 bit 248/: 284 Jk, — 28.4x0.814x 21.9 = 1457, -0.055 (3+ 5 S eaue: = Btw) _ 145-0.055(3-1.15) _ 0.79 es 1157 ber = pb, = 0.79% 128.6 = 101.9mm Therefore from Table 4.3 of notes: ber = O04 ba = 40.8mm and bee = 0.6 ben = 61.1 mm Calculation of effective section properties: 665mm 2685 mm oe fe lp sie 194m Effective section (having considered compression flange and compressed portion of web) Effective area, Acr= [73.3 + 2x(40.8+61.1) + (2x119.4) + 98] x 2 = 1227.8 mm? ‘Vertical position of neutral axis from centreline of compression flange, Vey : Ven = [2x(40.8%240.8/2) + 2(180.5x2x(67.5+180.5/2) + (98%2«248] / 1227.8 135.1 mmCalculation of ler! leq = (73.3%2°/42) + (2x(2%40.8°/12)) + (2x(2x180.59/12)) + (98x2/12) + (73.3x2x135.1%) + 2x(2x40.8%114.77) + 2x(2x180.5x22.657) + (98%2%112.9") 1.98%10° + 7.69x10° = 9.710% mm* Therefore, Wer = los/Yenme = 9.7*109135.1 = 71.6x10* mm* Therefore Mera = Wen fyo = 71.6%10°* 355 = 25.4«10° Nmm 25.4kNm. From applied loads, maximum moment Mes: Maximum moment at midspan, Meg = (18%1.8) ~(7.2x0.6) ~ (7.21.2) 19.4KNm < 25.4kNm OK (1) (b) (ii) Shear buckling of web Resistance of web to localised transverse loading (web crushing, crippling, buckling) Deflections Vibrations Question 2 (2) (a) Disadvantages: Cost (4 times carbon steel for typical grades) Less product availability No standard section sizes Less familiar to structural engineersAdvantages: Corrosion resistance Fire resistance Duotilty Re-use and recycling Low maintenance Lower life-cycle costs (2) (a) (il) Local buckling a cross-sectional instability phenomenon that occurs when the slender constituent plate elements reach a critical stress level. Upon buckling, a non-uniform distribution of stresses is set up across the plate, which the higher stresses occurring at the point of higher stiffness (e.g. the edges of a simply-supported plate). In design (including Eurocode 3), this non-linear distribution of stress is represented by the effective width concept. Here, a uniform stress is considered over an effective portion of plate, and zero stress. is considered over an ineffective portion. The effective width relates to the slenderness of the plate. Reduction factors are determined from the Winter formula, which is a modification of the Von Karman effective width formulation, to account for imperfections, residual stresses etc. Distortional buckling occurs where edge or intermediate stiffeners fail to prevent local displacements of the nodal points (i.e. either at the flange-to-lip, junction or at the location of the intermediate stiffeners themselves), The Eurocode 3 method for designing against distortional buckling is based on the assumption that the stiffener behaves as a compression member with continuous partial restraint, represented by a linear spring (of stiffness K). The spring acts at the centroid of the effective stiffener section. Cross-sectons Under pure compression Local buckling Distortional buckling‘The first step in calculating the effects of distortional buckling is to calculate the effective section due to local buckling. The stiffener region, with an associated effective area of plate is then considered in isolation as a compression member with continuous partial restraint. A reduction factor is then caloulated based on the slendemess of this compression member. The reduction factor is implemented as a reduction in thickness of the material in the stiffener region. (2) (b) (i) Beams: Lateral torsional buckling Columns: minor axis flexural, major axis flexural, torsional, torsional-flexural Lateral torsional buckling Lateral torsional buckling is characterised by twisting and lateral deflection of ‘a beam that is subjected to bending about its major axis. The most severe loading is that of pure bending, with susceptibility largely controlled the disparity between major and minor axis flexural properties. Minor axis flexural buckling Minor axis flexural buckling is characterised by large out-of-plane lateral deflections about the weaker bending axis. Flexural buckling is the predominant buckling mode for compression members in typical building structures using conventional hot-rolled sections, but also governs for many cases of cold-formed member buckling too. Major axis flexural buckling Major axis flexural buckling is characterised by large out-of-plane lateral deflections about the stronger bending axis. Major axis buckling can occur if there is restraint against minor axis buckling or differences in boundary conditions about each axis (e.g. fixed in minor axis, pinned in major axis). Torsional buckling Torsional buckling is pure twisting of a cross-section and only occurs in centrally loaded struts which are point symmetric and have low torsional stiffness (e.g. a cruciform section).Torsional-flexural buckling Torsional-flexural buckling is a more general response that occurs for centrally loaded struts with cross-sections that are singly symmetric and where the centroid and the shear centre do not coincide (e.g. a channel section). (2) (b) (ii) First Gleutate ential tudding loadsi Flecumk bet Major oncia’ o< Tes a, Nery = — Ee eaeied Plenunl tucldins about mtno Canis! Nae ieee = To knMinor axis flevuml ts ca'head’ = i.e Ae eee eee Nee ie a 701 005 Ure tucking carve ©) > & =2.4. QD = os( italy ~o.2) + i") OS( i +o 41(1% 1-02) 7 hei?) = 218 a0 FH CS7o x 275 _ 510-4) hoQuestion 3 (3) @ Stick build In this method of construction, discrete members are assembled on site to form columns, walls, rafters, beams and bracing to which cladding, internal lining and other elements are attached. The elements are generally delivered pre-cut, and pre-punched for holes, but connections are made in-situ using self-driling, self-tapping screws, bolts or other appropriate site techniques Stick-build construction is generally labour intensive on site but can be useful in complex construction where pre-fabrication is not feasible. Stick construction is widely used in North America and Australia, where there is an infra-structure of contractors skilled in these techniques. Panel build Wall sub-frames and panels, floor cassettes and roof trusses may be prefabricated in a factory and assembled on site. For accuracy, sub-frames are manufactured in purpose-made jigs. Some of the finishing materials may also be applied in the factory to save on-site construction times. ‘Sub-frames’ comprise the steel elements alone, whereas panels also comprise the facing materials. The sub-frames are connected on site using conventional techniques (bolts or self-driling screws. Because panels are prefabricated in a factory environment, the geometrical accuracy and reliability of the panels and other components is good. Setting- out and rapid assembly of the panels on-site is critical to the efficiency of the process. Bracing elements are often included in the pre-fabricated sub- frames. The size and weight of the panels is determined by transportability, and ease of lifing and assembly on site Modular construction ln modular construction, ‘volumetric’ units are completely fabricated in the factory, and may be delivered to site with all internal finishes, fixtures and fittings in place. Units may be stacked side by side, and / or one above the other to form the finished building. As an alternative, fully self-contained modules, such as for bathrooms or lift shafts, may be installed within the structure of a commercial building or hospital or similar highly serviced building. Modular construction is gaining popularity when large production runs are feasible, because of the economies in scale, quality control and speed of construction that can be achieved on site.Advantages of each type: Stick build: Construction tolerances and modifications can be accommodated on site ‘Connection techniques are relatively simple Contractors do not require the workshop facilities associated with panel or modular construction. Large quantities of structural members can be densely packed and transported in single loads. Panel Construction: ‘Speed of erection of the panels or sub-frame Quality contro! in production Minimisation of site labour costs ‘Scope for automation in the factory process Modular Construction: Potential for reduced costs Reduced construction times Increased productivity Greater predictability and certainty of completion on time and in budget Improved efficiency of materials and labour Improved quality Reduced wastage Reduced disruption on site Factory construction Safe construction Suitable for confined sites Low weight (3) (a) (ii) Modules will be used to provide the highly serviced areas of the building, such as kitchens and bathrooms, panels will be used to form all of the other rooms, A disadvantage of modular construction is that it can involve the transportation of large volumes that are essentially just fresh air. Consider the bedrooms, and living areas in a house, there is little in the way of services in these rooms to justify transporting them as complete rooms. ‘The quality of the highly serviced areas and special finishes can be controlled in the factory. In a house this involves the kitchen, utility, cloaks and bathroom areas being built as modules with all other rooms’ panellised. With careful planning the modules can be positioned above each other and the remaining structure can be panel buill around them, with the module walls providing ‘support to floor cassettes for adjacent rooms. Sometimes in modular construction double walls are used where a single wall is generally all that isTequired. In hybrid construction the number of double thickness walls is kept to a minimum. The biggest advantage overall is the effect on transport. A house built using modular construction will generally requite at least 4 loads for transportation. In hybrid construction, the same house can be delivered as a single load. (3) (b) Robustness is the ability of a structure to localise the effect of accidental damage and hence avoid disproportionate collapse. Slide 3 of handout from lecture 6.3. Lecture 6.3 in general and lecture 3.2. All buildings should be effectively tied together at each principal floor level. Each load-bearing stud wall should be effectively held in position at each floor and at roof level by means of horizontal ties in two directions effectively at fight angles. This can be achieved in light steel construction by using the individual floor joists and wall studs as a system of distributed ties. The minimum tie forces specified in BS5950-1 do not apply. Page 25 of handout from lecture 3. (3)(e) Reasons to over-roof: To create additional habitable space To overcome leakage problems in fiat roofs To reduce heating costs To improve the appearance of the building To avoid disruption caused by replacing an existing roof To reduce maintenance costs Design considerations: Design new structure to support new roofing materials Check adequacy of existing structure to sustain new loading Support and attachment of new structure to existing Choice of cladding materials- insulation, weather-tightness Modifications to the rainwater disposal and other services 2(3) (@) Bracing (usually cross-bracing to act in tension) Diaphragm action (from plasterboard etc) (3) () Four serviceability checks: Deflection < span / 450 for imposed Deflection < span / 350 or 15mm for dead + imposed Frequency <8 Hz for (dead + 0.3) kN/m2 Limit floor deflection under a 1kN point load (Virginia Polytechnic Criterion) (Note for this criterion allowable deflection reduces as span increases) Lecture 6.1 Slide 12 + tutorials and worked examples, a. Will dictate at spans to 5.25m with high imposed load b. Will dictate at spans over 5.25m with high imposed loads c. Will dictate for all spans if dead load is high d_ Will dictate for most span conditions with domestic imposed loadsFinal draft Page 15 19 September 2003 prEN 1993-1-5 : 2003 4.4 Plate elements without longitudinal stiffeners (1) The effective” areas of flat compression elements should be obtained using Table 4.1. for internal clements and Table 4.2 for outstand elements, The effective? area of the compression zone of a plate with the gross cross-sectional area A. should be obtained from: ‘Act pe 4) where p is the reduction factor for plate buckling. (2) The reduction factor p may be taken as follows: internal compression elements: 0,055 (3+) Yep 10 42) ~ outstand compression elements: X, — 0188 10 3) Wis the stress ratio determined in accordance with 4.4(3) and 4.4(4) 1b is the appropriate width as follows (for definitions, see Table 5.2 of EN 1993-1-1) by. — forwebs; > for internal flange elements (except RHS); b-3t for flanges of RHS; © for outstand flanges; h for equal-leg angles; h for unequal-leg angles; kis the buckling factor corresponding to the stress ratio y and boundary conditions. For long plates ka is xiven in Table 4.1 or Table 4.2 as appropriate; t isthe thickness; is the elastic critical plate buckling stress see Annex A.1(2). NOTE A more accurate effective cross section for outstand compression elements may be taken from Annex C of EN 1993-1-3. 3) _ For flange elements of Isections and box girders the strecs ratio y used in Table 4.1 or Table 4.2 should be based on the properties of the gross cross-sectional area, due allowance being made for shear lag in the flanges if relevant. For web elements the stress ratio y used in Table 4.1 should be obtained using a stress distribution obtained with the effective area of the compression flange and the gross area ofthe web, NOTE Ifthe stress distribution comes from different stages of construction (as eg. in a composite bridge) the stresses from the various stages may first be calculated with a cross section consisting of cffective flanges and gross web and added. This stress distribution determines an effective web section that can be used for all stages to calculate the final stress distribution.Page 17 Final draft 19 Seprember 2003, 2003 Table 4.1: Internal compression elements Stress ditbution (compression positive) Eifcouve? width bey “M1 ll bs he oi} bo 0.5 ber ofl five yo be ee a Ber berber aa “Ut go, ber=pb.=p B/(I-W) a ba=O4bee —_ba=06 ber va are 1 T=y>0_] 0 > y>-1 I] _-I>y>3 Buckling atorig| 40 2 /(h05+y) | 780 | 781-G29y r97ey7 | 239 | 98h wF Table 4.2: Outstand compression elements Stress distribution (compression positive) Effeouve? width bar l>y @ bape b.=pe/ (Lew) * », aa v=oI, T 0 ef Ty Tickling factor i os 057 O85 O57 0DIy + OpTy tia sn @ L™. bam pe peewee y, o - ve aye, bar= pb.=pe/ (I-y) | v=o, H T>y>0 o Oyrd a Buckling factorke | 043 | _os78/(y +034 | 170 | 1,7-sy+ihiy’ | 238