-:

:
-
-
-
-

:
) (
.

.



.
) ( solvent
) . ( solute

.





) (18 :

co 2 , o 2


) ( N 2
o 2

)
(

) (

. )
. ( True Solutions



.


) (
) . ( suspensions
) (
) (
10 1000 A o

10 A o
. 1000 A o


.

:
- Electrolyte :
- - electrolytes Non :
-


strong electrolytes

.
HClO 4
HNO 3 :

HClO 4 H 2O H 3O ClO 4
H 2O H 3O NO 3

HNO 3

H 2O H 3O Cl

HCl

) ( NaOH
Ca (OH ) 2 ) ( K OH

H 2O Naaq . OH aq .

NaOH

Ca (OH ) 2 H 2O Caaq. 2OH aq .

OH aq .

H 2O K aq .

K OH

NaCl
NaCl H 2O Naaq . Cl aq .

NH 4 Cl
NH 4 Cl H 2O NH 4aq . Cl aq .

CH 3 COO Na
CH 3 COO Na H 2O Naaq . CH 3 COO

NH 4 2 CO 3

CO aq .

NH 4 2 CO 3 H 2O 2 NH 4

) (weak electrolytes

.
: . CH 3 COOH

CH 3 COO H

CH 3 COOH

NH 4 OH

NH 4 OH




.
- ) ( Non - electrolytes

.

C 6 H 12 O 6 H 2O C 6 H 12 O 6 aq .

) ( Saturated Solution

) Unsaturated

)
( Solution
( Super saturated
.


.

-:
: ) ( M ) ( Molarity


:
=

) (3

/ /
3



) (
.
): (
20
500 3
:

=

=

500
1000

20

40

0.5
1.0
0.5

=

): (

) (VI 49
100 3
:
=

0.5

0.1

Molality :

49
98
100
=
1000

5.0 M

) ( m
.
:
) ( B ) ( A
:
=

) ( nB
) ( WA

0.5

nB
/ WA

WB

= WB

= nB
MB
= MB

( ) =m

1000

WB

WA

MB

1000

: 98 )H 2 SO 4 (VI
) ( 1000
.
.
): (1
40
2
:

40

40

1.0

=
= 1000 1 3 / 1000 = 3

1.0 / 3
:
=

1.0
= m
=
/

= /

 :
=

): (2

1000


1000 40
= /
40
2000

0.288 15.2 C 6 H 6
0, 221

WB

1000
W

MB

1000
15.2

=m

0.288

MB
=

=
MB

: ) ( Mole Fraction
. x x

.
n A A n B B
nC C
:
= =
= =
= =

nA
n A n B nC
nB
n A n B nC
nC
n A n B nC

x A x B xC 1
:

): (1
20
500 3

20
NaOH
40
500

27.8
18
0.5
0.0176
NaOH
0.5 27.8
0.5

0.983 1 0.0176
27.8

0.5 27.8

0.983

): (2
14
8
.
:

14

28

0.5

8

32

0.25

1

2

0.5

+ +

0.5

0.5 0.25 0.5

0.4

H2

: : :
- ) ( weight percentage

 w w
) 100 (
.
B A :

wB
100
w

w
A
B

w t % of B

30% w w
100 30 70
.
:
10 100
.
:
110 10 100

10
100
110

9.1 %

- ( Volume Percentage) :
v v
) 100 ( 3
. B :

VB
100
V Total

V olume % of B

.
40% v v 100 3
40 3 60 3 .

- :

100

 w v
100 3 .

. 10% w v 10
100 3 .

: ) ( Normality
N
.

49 ) (VI
0.5 M 1.0 N 49
:

49

98
1

0.5
0.5 M

98

2

49

1 49 / 49
1.0 N

1
1
:
=
=
: )( The Ionic Strength

:

0.5 c i z i2

c i ) ( i
z i .

.

:

 0.5 c1z 12 c 2 z 22 c 3 z 32 ...

0.5 C z 2 C z 2

C
z
C
z
:
:
- KCl 0.1 m

- K 2SO 4 0.2 m
- 0.1 m
m

0.2

- BaCl 2 m

0.2

:
- KCl

0.1 m

C 0.1

C 0.1

z 1

z 1

0.5 0.1 1 0.11 0.5 0.2 0.1 m

2

:
- K 2SO 4

K S O 4
C 2 0.2 0.4 , C 0.2

z 2

C 1

0.5 0.4 1 0.2 2 0.6

2

 - 0.1 m 0.2 m

C 0.4 0.1 0.5

z 1

C
Cl

C 0.1
z 1

S O 4
C 0.2
z 2

2
2
2

0.5 0.5 1 0.1 1 0.2 1

0.7
123
123
1 23
CL
SO 4
K

:
-

0.2

BaCl 2

C 2 0.2 0.4
z 1

C 0.2 ,
,

z 2

0.5 0.2 22 0.4 12 0.6 m

2 : 1 K 2SO 4 1 : 2
. BaCl 2
:

10 104 / .
pH
:

pH log H

H / p
pH potenz .

HCl

0.1 M

:
HCl
:

1
H 0.1 M 10 M

pH log H
log 101 1

pX log x

C m

pC m log C m

K b , K a :

pK a log K a
pK b log K b
:
pK a :

K a 1.8 105
pK a log K a
log1.8 105
4.75