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Chapter - Steam Distribution and Utilization
Chapter - Steam Distribution and Utilization
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Why do we use steam? ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 What is steam? .................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Steam quality...................................................................................................................... 8
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains what steam is, its properties and why we use steam.
This section is a summary of Module 1.1 Steam The Energy Fluid, In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 1,
Introduction.www.spiraxsarco.com
economically generated, to the point of use. Therefore as steam moves around a plant it can
equally be considered to be the transport and provision of energy.
For many reasons, steam is one of the most widely used commodities for conveying heat
energy. Its use is popular throughout industry for a broad range of tasks from mechanical
power production to space heating and process applications. Reasons for using steam
include:
Steam is efficient and economic to generate
Steam can easily and cost effectively be distributed to the point of use
Steam is easy to control
Energy is easily transferred to the process
The modern steam plant is easy to manage
Steam is flexible
The alternatives to steam include water and thermal fluids such as high temperature oil. Each
method has its advantages and disadvantages, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Comparison of heating media with steam1
Steam
High heat content
Latent heat approximately
2 100 kJ/kg
Inexpensive
Some water treatment costs
Good heat transfer
coefficients
High pressure required
for high temperatures
No circulating pumps required
Small pipes
Easy to control with
two way valves
Temperature breakdown is
easy through a reducing valve
Steam traps required
Condensate to be handled
Flash steam available
Boiler blowdown necessary
Water treatment required
to prevent corrosion
Reasonable pipework
required
No fire risk
System very flexible
Hot water
Moderate heat content
Specific heat
4.19 kJ/kgC
Inexpensive
Only occasional dosing
Moderate coefficients
Relatively poor
Coefficients
Low pressures only
to get high temperatures
Circulating pumps required
Even larger pipes
Searching medium,
Very searching medium,
welded or flanged joints usual welded or flanged joints usual
No fire risk
Fire risk
System less flexible
System inflexible
This section is taken fromModule 2.2 What is Steam?, In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 2, Steam Engineering
Principles and Heat Transfer. www.spiraxsarco.com
liquid phase. However, H2 O is an exception to this rule as its density increases upon melting,
which is why ice floats on water.
Water
In the liquid phase, the molecules are free to move, but are still less than one molecular diameter
apart due to mutual attraction, and collisions occur frequently. More heat increases molecular
agitation and collision, raising the temperature of the liquid up to its boiling temperature.
Steam
As the temperature increases and the water approaches its boiling condition, some molecules
attain enough kinetic energy to reach velocities that allow them to momentarily escape from the
liquid into the space above the surface, before falling back into the liquid. Further heating causes
greater excitation and the number of molecules with enough energy to leave the liquid increases.
As the water is heated to its boiling point, bubbles of steam form within it and rise to break
through the surface. Considering the molecular structure of liquids and vapours, it is logical that
the density of steam is much less than that of water, because the steam molecules are further
apart from one another. The space immediately above the water surface thus becomes filled with
less dense steam molecules.
When the number of molecules leaving the liquid surface is more than those re-entering, the water
freely evaporates. At this point it has reached boiling point or its saturation temperature, as it is
saturated with heat energy. If the pressure remains constant, adding more heat does not cause the
temperature to rise any further but causes the water to form saturated steam. The temperature of the
boiling water and saturated steam within the same system is the same, but the heat energy per unit
mass is much greater in the steam.
At atmospheric pressure the saturation temperature is 100C. However, if the pressure is increased,
this will allow the addition of more heat and an increase in temperature without a change of phase.
Therefore, increasing the pressure effectively increases both the enthalpy of water, and the
saturation temperature. The relationship between the saturation temperature and the pressure is
known as the steam saturation curve (Figure 1).
Water and steam can coexist at any pressure on this curve, both being at the saturation
temperature. Steam at a condition above the saturation curve is known as superheated steam:
Temperature above saturation temperature is called the degree of superheat of the steam
Water at a condition below the curve is called sub-saturated water.
If the steam is able to flow from the boiler at the same rate that it is produced, the addition
of further heat simply increases the rate of production. If the steam is restrained from
leaving the boiler, and the heat input rate is maintained, the energy flowing into the boiler
will be greater than the energy flowing out. This excess energy raises the pressure, in turn
allowing the saturation temperature to rise, as the temperature of saturated steam correlates
to its pressure.
1.2.2 Enthalpy
Enthalpy of water, liquid enthalpy or sensible heat (h f) of water
This is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of water from a datum point of 0C to its
current temperature. At this reference state of 0C, the enthalp y of water has been arbitrarily set to
zero. The enthalpy of all other states can then be identified, relative to this easily accessible
reference state. Sensible heat was the term once used, because the heat added to the water produced
a change in temperature. However, the accepted terms these days are liquid enthalpy or enthalpy of
water. At atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), water boils at 100C, and 419 kJ of energy are required to
heat 1 kg of water from 0C to its boiling temperature of 100C. It is from these figures that the
value for the specific heat capacity of water (CP ) of 4.19 kJ/kg C is derived for most calculations
between 0C and 100C.
Enthalpy of evaporation or latent heat (hfg)
This is the amount of heat required to change the state of water at its boiling temperature,
into steam. It involves no change in the temperature of the steam/water mixture, and all the
energy is used to change the state from liquid (water) to vapour (saturated steam). The old
term latent heat is based on the fact that although heat was added, there was no change in
temperature. However, the accepted term is now enthalpy of evaporation. Like the phase
change from ice to water, the process of evaporation is also reversible. The same amount of
heat that produced the steam is released back to its surroundings during condensation,
when steam meets any surface at a lower temperature. This may be considered as the useful
portion of heat in the steam for heating purposes, as it is that portion of the total heat in the
steam that is extracted when the steam condenses back to water.
Enthalpy of saturated steam, or total heat of saturated steam
This is the total energy in saturated steam, and is simply the sum of the enthalpy of water
and the enthalpy of evaporation.
hg = hf + hf g
Where:
hg = Total enthalpy of saturated steam (Total heat) (kJ/kg)
+ hfg x
Because the specific volume of water is several orders of magnitude lower than that of steam, the
droplets of water in wet steam will occupy negligible space. Therefore the specific volume of
wet steam will be less than dry steam:
vg x
(Spirax Sarco)
As water is heated from 0C to its saturation temperature, its condition follows the saturated
liquid line until it has received all of its liquid enthalpy, hf, (A - B).If further heat continues to
be added, it then changes phase to saturated steam and continues to increase in enthalpy while
remaining at saturation temperature, hfg, (B - C). As the steam/water mixture increases in
dryness, its condition moves from the saturated liquid line to the saturated vapour line.
Therefore at a point exactly halfway between these two states, the dryness fraction (x) is 0.5.
Similarly, on the saturated vapour line the steam is 100 percent dry. Once it has received all of
its enthalpy of evaporation, it reaches the saturated vapour line. If it continues to be heated
after this point, the temperature of the steam will begin to rise as superheat is imparted (C - D).
The saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines enclose a region in which a steam /water
mixture exists - wet steam. In the region to the left of the saturated liquid line only water
exists, and in the region to the right of the saturated vapour line only superheated steam exists.
The point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines meet is known as the critical
point. As the pressure increases towards the critical point the enthalpy of evaporation
decreases, until it becomes zero at the critical point. This suggests that water changes directly
into saturated steam at the critical point.
Above the critical point only gas may exist. The gaseous state is the most diffuse state in which
the molecules have an almost unrestricted motion, and the volume increases without limit as the
pressure is reduced. The critical point is the highest temperature at which a liquid can exist. Any
compression at constant temperature above the critical point will not produce a phase change.
Compression at co nstant temperature below the critical point however, will result in liquefaction
of the vapour as it passes from the superheated region to the wet steam region. The critical point
occurs at 374.15 o C and 221.2 bara for steam. Above this pressure the steam is termed
supercritical and no well-defined boiling point applies.
More details on steam quality criteria can be found in Module 2.4 Steam Quality, In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 2,
Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer. www.spiraxsarco.com
4
Section 2.1 is a summary of Module 10.1 Introduction to Steam Distribution, In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10,
Steam Distribution. www.spiraxsarco.com
Steam on contact with the cooler pipes will begin to condense immediately. On start-up of the
system, the condensing rate will be at its maximum, as this is the time where there is maximum
temperature difference between the steam and the pipework. This condensing rate is commonly
called the starting load. Once the pipework has warmed up, the temperature difference between
the steam and pipework is minimal, but some condensation will occur as the pipework still
continues to transfer heat to the surrounding air. This condensing rate is commonly called the
running load.
The resulting condensation (condensate) falls to the bottom of the pipe and is carried along by the
steam flow and assisted by gravity, due to the gradient in the steam main that should be arranged to
fall in the direction of steam flow. The condensate will then have to be drained from various strategic
points in the steam main.
When the valve on the steam pipe serving an item of steam using plant is opened, steam flowing
from the distribution system enters the plant and again comes in contact with cooler surfaces. The
steam then transfers its energy in warming up an equipment and product (starting load), and, when up
to temperature, continues to transfer heat to the process (running load).
There is now a continuous supply of steam from the boiler to satisfy the connected load and to
maintain this supply more steam must be generated. In order to do this, more water (and fuel to heat
this water) is supplied to the boiler to make up for the water which has previously been evaporated
into steam. The condensate formed in both the steam distribution pipework and in the process
equipment is a convenient supply of useable hot boiler feedwater. Although it is important to
remove this condensate from the steam space, it is a valuable commodity and should not be allowed
to run to waste. Returning all condensate to the boiler feedtank closes the steam energy loop, and
should be practiced wherever practical.
The distribution pressure of steam is influenced by a number of factors, but is limited by:
The maximum safe working pressure of the boiler
The minimum pressure required at the plant
As steam passes through the distribution pipework, it will inevitably lose pressure due to:
Frictional resistance within the pipework
Condensation within the pipework as heat is transferred to the environment.
Therefore allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon the initial
distribution pressure.
A kilogram of steam at a higher pressure occupies less volume than at a lower pressure. It
follows that, if steam is generated in the boiler at high pressure and also distributed at a high
pressure, then the size of the distribution mains will be smaller than that for the same heat load.
Generating and distributing steam at higher pressure offers three important advantages:
The thermal storage capacit y of the boiler is increased, helping it to cope more efficiently
with fluctuating loads, minimizing the risk of producing wet and dirty steam.
Smaller bore steam mains are required, resulting in lower capital cost, for materials such as
pipes, flanges, supports, insulation and labour.
Smaller bore steam mains cost less to insulate.
Having distributed at a high pressure, it will be necessary to reduce the steam pressure to each
zone or point of use in the system in order to correspond with the maximum pressure required by
the application. Local pressure reduction to suit individual plant will also result in drier steam at
the point of use.
The most important components of a steam distribution system are described in the next sections:
Pipes (2.2)
Drain points (2.3)
Branch lines (2.4)
Strainers (2.5)
Filters (2.6)
Separators (2.7)
Steam traps (2.8)
Air vents (2.9)
2.2 Pipes
This section describes the pipework of a steam system. 5
2.2.1 Pipe material
Pipes for steam systems are commonly manufactured from carbon steel to ANSI B 16.9 Al06.
The same material may be used for condensate lines, although copper tubing is preferred in some
industries. For high temperature superheated steam mains, additional alloying elements, such as
5
Section 2.2 is a summary of information in Module 10.2 Pipes and Pipe Sizing, and Module 10.3 Steam Mains and
Drainage. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10, Steam Distribution
. www.spiraxsarco.com
chromium and molybdenum, are included to improve tensile strength and creep resistance at high
temperatures. Typically, pipes are supplied in 6- meter lengths.
2.2.2 Pipeline sizing
The objective of the steam distribution system is to supply steam at the correct pressure to the
point of use. Pipeline sizing is an important factor.
Oversized pipework means:
Pipes, valves, fittings, etc. will be more expensive than necessary.
Higher installation costs will be incurred, including support work, insulation, etc.
For steam pipes a greater vo lume of condensate will be formed due to the greater heat
loss. This in turn means that either more steam trapping is required or wet steam is
delivered to the point of use.
Undersized pipework means:
A lower pressure may only be available at the point of use. This may hinder equipment
performance due to only lower pressure steam being available.
There is a risk of steam starvation.
There is a greater risk of erosion, water hammer and noise due to the inherent increase in
steam velocity.
The require pipeline size can be calculated based on pressure drop and velocity described below.
a) Pipeline sizing based on pressure drop
Pressure drop through the distribution system is an important feature. In practice whether for
water pipes or steam pipes, a balance is drawn between pipe size and pressure loss. Pressure
drop as a general rule, should not exceed 0.1 bar/50 m. Pipe sizing can be computed using
the chart in Figure 4. Those who prefer tables instead of graphs can use Table 2 to determine
the pipeline size.
An example calculation is as follows:
Given:
Inlet pressure P1 = 7 bar g
Steam flowrate = 286 kg/h
Minimum allowable P2 = 6.6 bar g
Length of pipeline = 165 m
Calculate the maximum pressure drop per 100 m
Maximum pressure drop per 100 m = P1 P2 x 100
L
= (7.0 6.6) x 100
165
= 0.24 bar
Determine the pipeline size based on the pressure drop using the nomogram in Figure 4:
Select the point on the saturated steam line at 7 bar g, and mark Point A.
From point A, draw a horizontal line to the steam flowrate of 286 kg/h, and mark Point B.
From point B, draw a vertical line towards the top of the nomogram (Point C).
Draw a horizontal line from 0.24 bar/100 m on the pressure loss scale (Line DE).
The point at which lines DE and BC cross will indicate the pipe size required. In this case, a
40 mm pipe is too small, and a 50 mm pipe would be used.
Figure 4. Steam Pipeline Sizing Chart pressure drop approach (Spirax Sarco)
Table 2. Saturated Steam Pipeline Capacities in kg/h for Different Velocities, schedule 40
pipe (Spirax Sarco)
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Although the 15 mm pipe has sufficient capacity, it is unlikely to capture much of the condensate
moving along the main at high speed. This arrangement will be ineffective. A more reliable
solution for the removal of condensate is shown in Figure 8. The trap line should be at least 25 to
30 mm from the bottom of the pocket for steam mains up to 100 mm, and at least 50 mm for
larger mains. This allows a space below for any dirt and scale to settle. Such dirt and scale can
easily be removed if the bottom of the pocket is fitted with a removable flange or blowdown
valve.
Section 2.3 is taken fromModule 10.3 Steam Mains and Drainage. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10, Steam
Distribution. www.spiraxsarco.com
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Section 2.4 is taken fromModule 10.3 Steam Mains and Drainage. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10, Steam
Distribution. www.spiraxsarco.com
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2.5 Strainers
This section provides an overview of strainers. 8
As the marketplace becomes increasingly competitive, more emphasis has been placed on reducing
plant downtime and maintenance. In steam and condensate systems, damage to plant is frequently
caused by pipeline debris such as scale, rust, jointing compound, weld metal and other solids,
which may find their way into the pipeline system. Strainers are devices which arrest these solids
in flowing liquids or gases, and protect equipment from their harmful effects, thus reducing
downtime and maintenance. A strainer should be fitted upstream of every steam trap, flow meter
and control valve.
Strainers can be classified into two main types according to their body configuration; namely the
Y-type and the basket type. Typical examples of these types of strainers can be seen in Figure 14.
Section 2.5 is taken fromModule 12.4 Strainers. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 12, Pipeline Ancillaries.
www.spiraxsarco.com
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A
Figure 14a. Y-Type Strainer
(Spirax Sarco)
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(b) Flow
vertically
downwards
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2.6 Filters
Filters are used to remove smaller particles.9 Whilst strainers remove all visible particles in
the steam, it is sometimes necessary to remove smaller particles, for example, in the
following applications:
When there is direct injection of steam into a process, which may cause contamination of
the product. Example: In the food industry, and for the sterilization of process equipment
in the pharmaceutical industry.
Where dirty steam may cause rejection of a product or process batch due to staining or
visible particle retention. Example: Sterilizers and paper/board machines.
Where minimal particle emission is required from steam humidifiers. Example:
Humidifiers used in a cleanenvironment.
9
Section 2.6 is taken fromModule 12.4 Strainers. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 12, Pipeline Ancillaries.
www.spiraxsarco.com
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For the reduction of the steam water content, ensuring a dry, saturated supply.
In such 'clean steam' applications, strainers are not suitable and filters must be used. A filter
used in a steam system typically consists of a sintered stainless steel filter element. The
sintering process produces a fine porous structure in the stainless steel, which removes any
particles from fluid passing through it. Filters capable of removing particles as small as 1
/gym are available, conforming to the good practice needs of culinary steam.
The fine porous nature of the filter element will create a large pressure drop across the filter
than that associated with the same size strainer; this must be given careful consideration
when sizing such filters. In addition filters are easily damaged by excessive flow rates, and
the manufacturerslimits should not be exceeded.
When the filter is used in steam applications, a separator should be fitted upstream of the
filter to remove any droplets of condensate held in suspension. In addition to improving the
quality of the steam, this will prolong the life of the filter. A Y-type strainer should also be
fitted upstream of the filter to remove all larger particles which would otherwise rapidly
block the filter, increase the amount of cleaning required and reduce the life of the filter
element. By installing pressure gauges either side of the filter, the pressure drop across the
filter can be measured, which can then be used to identify when the filter requires cleaning.
An alternative to this is to install a pressure switch on the downstream side of the filter.
When the downstream pressure decreases below a set level, an alarm light can be switched
on in a control room alerting an operator who can then clean the filter.
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2.7 Separators
Separators 10 are used to remove suspended water droplets from steam. Wet steam is steam
containing a degree of water, and is one of the main concerns in any steam system. It can
reduce plant productivity and product quality, and can cause damage to most items of plant
and equipment. Whilst careful drainage and trapping can remove most of the water, it will
not deal with the water droplets suspended in the steam. To remove these suspended water
droplets, separators are installed in steam pipe lines.
The steam produced in a boiler designed to generate saturated steam is inherently wet.
Although the dryness fraction will vary according to the type of boiler, most shell type steam
boilers will produce steam with a dryness fraction of between 95 and 98 percent.
The water content of the steam produced by the boiler is further increased if priming and
carryover occur. There is always a certain degree of heat loss from the distribution pipe,
which causes steam to condense. The condensed water molecules will eventually gravitate
towards the bottom of the pipe forming a film of water. Steam flowing over this water can
raise ripples that can build up into waves. The tips of the waves tend to break off, throwing
droplets of condensate into the steam flow.
The presence of water in steam can cause a number of problems:
As water is an extremely effective barrier to heat transfer, its presence can reduce plant
productivity and product quality.
Water droplets traveling at high steam velocities will erode valve seats and fittings, a
condition known as wiredrawing. The water droplets will also increase the amount of
corrosion.
Increased scaling of pipework and heating surfaces from the impurities carried in the
water droplets.
Erratic operation of control valves and flow meters.
Failure of valves and flow meters due to rapid wear or water hammer.
Although there are a number of different designs of separator, they all attempt to remove the
moisture that remains suspended in the steam flow, which cannot be removed by drainage
and steam trapping.
There are three types of separator in common use in steam systems:
2.7.1 Baffle type separators
A baffle or vane type separator consists of a number of baffle plates, which cause the flow to
change direction a number of times as it passes through the separator body. The suspended
water droplets have a greater mass and a greater inertia than the steam; thus, when there is a
change in flow direction, the dry steam flows around the baffles and the water droplets collect
on the baffles.
10
Section 2.7 is taken fromModule 12.5 Separators. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 12, Pipeline Ancillaries.
www.spiraxsarco.com
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Section 2.8.1 is a summary of Module 11.1 Introduction Why steam traps? In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 11,
Steam Traps and Steam Trapping. www.spiraxsarco.com
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The pressures at which steam traps can operate may be anywhere from vacuum to well over a
hundred bar. To suit these varied conditions there are many different types, each having their
own advantages and disadvantages. One type of steam trap cannot possibly be the correct choice
for all applications. Considerations for steam trap selection include the ability of the steam trap
to:
Vent air at 'start- up', i.e. the beginning of the process when the heater space is filled with air,
which unless displaced, will reduce heat transfer and increase the warm- up time
Remove condensate but not the steam
Maximize plant performance. Simply put, unless specifically designed to waterlog, for a heat
exchanger to operate at its best performance, the steam space must be filled with clean dry
steam. The type of steam trap will influence this.
There are three basic types of steam trap into which all variations fall. All three are classified by
International Standard ISO 6704:1982. These are shown in Figure 22 and include:
Thermostatic (operated by changes in fluid temperature). The temperature of saturated
steam is determined by its pressure. In the steam space, steam gives up its enthalpy of
evaporation (heat), producing condensate at steam temperature. As a result of any further
heat loss, the temperature of the condensate will fall. A thermostatic trap will pass
condensate when this lower temperature is sensed. As steam reaches the trap, the temperature
increases and the trap closes.
Mechanical (operated by changes in fluid density). This range of steam traps operates by
sensing the difference in density between steam and condensate. These steam traps include
'ball float traps' and 'inverted bucket traps'. In the 'ball float trap', the ball rises in the presence
of condensate, opening a valve, which passes the denser condensate. With the 'inverted
bucket trap', the inverted bucket floats when steam reaches the trap and rises to shut the
valve. Both are essentially 'mechanical' in their method of operation.
Thermodynamic (operated by changes in fluid dynamics). Thermodynamic steam traps rely
partly on the formation of flash steam from condensate. This group includes
'thermodynamic', 'disc', 'impulse' and 'labyrinth' steam traps.
Steam Traps
Thermostatic
1.
2.
3.
Liquid expansion
Balance pressure
Bimetallic
Mechanical
1.
2.
Ball floating
Inverted bucket
Thermodynamic
1.
2.
3.
Impulse
Labyrinth
Fixed orifice
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The automatic air vent uses the same balanced pressure capsule element as a thermostatic steam
trap, and is located in the steam space above the condensate level. After releasing the initial air, it
remains closed until air or other non-condensable gases accumulate during normal running and
cause it to open by reducing the temperature of the air/steam mixture. The thermostatic air vent
offers the added benefit of significantly increasing condensate capacity on cold start- up.
12
Section 2.8.2 is taken from Module 11.3 Mechanical Steam Traps. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 11, Steam
Traps and Steam Trapping. www.spiraxsarco.com
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and sinks, allowing live steam to pass through the trap orifice. Only if sufficient condensate
reaches the trap will the water seal form again, and prevent steam wastage.
If an inverted bucket trap is used on an application where pressure fluctuation of the plant
can be expected, a check valve should be fitted on the inlet line in front of the trap. Steam
and water are free to flow in the direction indicated, while reverse flow is impossible, as the
check valve would be forced onto its seat.
The higher temperature of superheated steam is likely to cause an inverted bucket trap to lose
its water seal. A check valve in front of the trap should be regarded as essential under such
conditions. Some inverted bucket traps are manufactured with an integral check valve as
standard.
The inverted bucket trap is likely to suffer damage from freezing if installed in an exposed
position with sub-zero ambient conditions. As with other types of mechanical traps, suitable
lagging can overcome this problem if conditions are not too severe. If ambient conditions
well below zero are to be expected, then it may be prudent to consider a more robust type of
trap to do the job. In the case of mains drainage, a thermodynamic trap would be the first
choice.
Equipment
Reboiler
Heater
Dryer
Heat exchanger etc.
Tracer line
Instrumentation
Feature
Open to atmosphere, small
capacity
Frequent change in pressure
Low pressure - high pressure
Large capacity
Variation in pressure and
temperature is undesirable
Efficiency of the equipment is a
problem
Reliability with no over heating
Suitable trap
Thermodynamic,
Mechanical:
Float
Mechanical:
Float
Bucket
Inverted bucket
Thermodynamic,
Thermostatic: Bimetallic
When selecting and installing a steam trap, the following sho uld be considered:13
a) Waterhammer
Waterhammer is condensate in the steam system that is picked up by moving steam and can
cause damage to pipelines, fittings and steam traps. Symptoms of waterhammer are often
attributed to malfunction of the steam trap. A more likely explanation is that a faulty steam trap
has been damaged by waterhammer. Waterhammer can be caused in a number of ways,
including:
Failure to remove condensate from the path of high velocity steam in the pipework.
13
Section 2.8.3 is a summary of (a) Module 11.5 Considerations for Selecting Steam Traps. In: Spirax Sarco Learning
Centre, Block 11, Steam Traps and Steam Trapping. www.spiraxsarco.com, and (b) Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities.
Book 2, by the India Bureau of Energy Efficiency, 2004
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From an application, which is temperature controlled and where condensate has to lift to a
return line, or return to a pressurized system.
The inability of condensate to properly enter or travel along an undersized return line, due to
either (a) flooding, or (b) overpressurisation with the throttling effects of flash steam.
The problem of waterhammer can be eliminated by positioning the pipes so that there is a
continuous slope in the direction of flow. A slope of at least 12 mm in every 3 metres is
necessary, as also an adequate number of drain points every 30 to 50 metres.
For more information on waterhammer see item 8 in section 4.
b) Dirt
Dirt is another major factor which must be considered when selecting traps. Although steam
condenses to distilled water, it can sometimes contain trace products of boiler feed treatment
compound and natural minerals found in water. Pipe dirt created during installation and the
products of corrosion also need to be considered.
c) Strainers
These devices are frequently forgotten about in steam systems, often, it seems, in an effort to
reduce installation costs. Pipe scale and dirt can affect control valves and steam traps, and reduce
heat transfer rates. It is extremely easy and inexpensive to fit a strainer in a pipe, and the low cost
of doing so will pay dividends throughout the life of the installation. Scale and dirt are arrested,
and maintenance is usually reduced as a result.
Selection is simple. The strainer material is selected to match the type of installation and the
system pressure up to which it is expected to operate. Different filter screen sizes may be
considered for differing degrees of protection. The finer the filter, the more often it may need
cleaning. One thing is certain, strainers are far easier and cheaper to buy and maintain than
control valves or steam traps.
d) Steam locking
The possibility of steam locking can sometimes be a deciding factor in the selection of steam
traps. It can occur whenever a steam trap is fitted remotely from the plant being drained. It can
become acute when condensate is removed through a syphon or dip pipe. To relieve this problem
a trap is needed with a 'steam lock release' valve. This is an internal needle valve which allows
the steam locked in the syphon pipe to be bled away past the main valve. The float trap is the
only type of trap with this facility and is the correct choice on rotating machinery such as drying
cylinders.
e) Group trapping
Group trapping describes the use of one trap serving more than one application (Figure 25). The
original reason for group trapping was that there used to be only one kind of steam trap. It was
the forerunner of the present day bucket trap, and was very large and expensive. Steam traps
today are considerably smaller and cost effective, allowing individual heat exchangers to be
properly drained. It is always better for steam using equipment to be trapped on an individual
basis rather than on a group basis.
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The only satisfactory arrangement is to drain each steam space with own trap and then connect
the outlets of the various traps to the common condensate return main (Figure 25).
f) Diffusers
With steam traps draining to atmosphere from open ended pipes, it is possible to see the
discharge of hot condensate. A certain amount of flash steam will also be present relative to the
condensate pressure before the trap. This can present a hazard to passers by, but the risks can be
minimized by reducing the severity of the discharge. This may be achieved by fitting a simple
diffuser (Figure 25) to the end of the pipe which reduces the ferocity of discharge and sound.
Typically, sound levels can be reduced by up to 80%.
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h) Pipe sizing
The pipes leading to and from steam traps should be of adequate size. This is particularly
important in the case of thermodynamic traps, because their correct operation can be disturbed
by excessive resistance to flow in the condensate pipework. Pipe fittings such as valves, bends
and tees close to the trap could also cause excessive back pressures and should be avoided.
i) Air venting
When air is carried into the trap space by the steam, the trap function can be affected unless
adequate provision is made for removing air either through the steam trap or a separate air vent.
If air is not vented properly, the plant can take a long time to warm up and may operate below its
potential output.
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14
Section 2.9 is a summary of Module 11.12 Air Venting Theory. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 11, Steam Traps
and Steam Trapping.www.spiraxsarco.com
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When an air vent is fitted to bypass a steam trap (Figure 29), it will act as a steam trap after the
air is vented, and may from time to time discharge condensate. In such cases it is necessary to
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Figure 30. Air Vent at the opposite end of the Steam Inlet (Spirax Sarco)
However, in the case of two steam spaces of the same size and shape but with different steam
inlet positions, the location of the air vent could be different. In Figure 31 and Figure 32,
condensate drains from the bottom of the vessel but with the bottom steam inlet, at start-up, air
would tend to be pushed to the remote point which is at the top. It may be best to locate an air
vent at the top whilst a float-thermostatic steam trap will handle any residual air which has
collected at the bottom of the vessel.
With top steam entry, the air will tend to be pushed to the bottom at start- up, and provision
should be made for venting it at low level. Usually, a trap with a high air venting capability such
as a float-thermostatic trap will do the job. However, in practice, to ensure complete removal of
air during running conditions, a separate air vent fitted at the top of the vessel (as shown in
Figure 32) may again often prove beneficial, especially on irregularly shaped vessels .
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Figure 33. After giving up its latent heat to heat the process, steam turns
to water containing only sensible heat (Spirax Sarco)
As well as having heat content, the condensate is basically distilled water, which is ideal for use
as boiler feedwater. An efficient steam system will collect this condensate and either return it to
a deaerator, a boiler feedtank, or use it in another process. Only when there is a real risk of
contamination should condensate not be returned to the boiler. Even then, it may be possible to
collect the condensate and use it as hot process water or pass it through a heat exchanger where
its heat content can be recovered before discharging the water mass to drain.
Condensate is discharged from steam plant and equipment through steam traps from a higher to a
lower pressure. As a result of this drop in pressure, some of the condensate will re-evaporate into
flash steam. The proportion of steam that will flash offin this way is determined by the
amount of heat that can be held in the steam and condensate. A flash steam amount of 10% to
15% by mass is typical. However, the percentage volumetric change can be considerably more.
Condensate at 7 bar g will lose about 13% of its mass when flashing to atmospheric pressure, but
the steam produced will require a space some 200 times larger than the condensate from which it
was formed. This can have the effect of choking undersized trap discharge lines, and must be
taken into account when sizing these lines.
15
Section 2.10 is taken from Module 14.1 Introduction to Condensate Recovery. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 14,
Condensate Recovery. www.spiraxsarco.com
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16
Section 2.10.4 is a summary of Module 14.2 Layout of Condensate Return Lines and of Module 14.3 Sizing of Condensate
Return Lines. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 14, Condensate Recovery
. www.spiraxsarco.com. More detailed
explanations can be found in these modules.
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Section 2.11 is an edited version of Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities. Book 2, by the India Bureau of Energy
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In addition, staff working conditions are improved because insulation protects them from
exposure to hot surfaces and radiant heat and because insulation reduces noise levels.
2.11.2 Types of insulation
Insulators can be classified based on the three temperature ranges for which they are used:
Low Temperature Insulators (up to 90o C), which are used for refrigerators, cold and hot
water systems, storage tanks, etc. The most commonly used materials are cork, wood, 85
percent magnesia, mineral fibres, polyurethane and expanded polystyrene
Medium Temperature Insulators (90 325 o C), which are used in low-temperature heating
and steam generating equipment, steam lines, flue ducts, etc. The most commonly used
materials include 85 percent magnesia, asbestos, calcium silicate and mineral fibres
High Temperature Insulators (325oC and above), which are typically used for boilers,
super-heated steam systems, oven, driers and furnaces. The most commonly used materials
are asbestos, calcium silicate, mineral fibre, mica, vermiculite, fireclay, silica and ceramic
fibre.
The table below describes the applications, advantages and disadvantages of various insulating
materials. Insulation materials can also be obtained in bulk in the form of moulded sections, for
example, semi-cylindrical for pipes and slabs for vessels, flanges, valves etc. The main advantage
of moulded sections is the ease of installation of new insulation and replacement or repair of
existing insulation.
2.11.3 Selecting insula ting materials
Important factors that should be considered when choosing insulating materials are:
Operating temperature of the system
Type of fuel being fired
Resistance of the materials to heat, weather and adverse conditions
Thermal conductivity of the material
Thermal diffusivity of the material
Ability of the material to withstand the various conditions, such as thermal shock, vibration
and chemical attack
Resistance of the material to flames/fire
Permeability of the material
Total cost, including material purchase, installing and maintenance
Table 6. Insulating Materials for Different Applications
TYPE OF INSULATION
APPLICATION
Polystyrene
An organic insulator made by
polymerizing styrene
Polyurethane
ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES
Advantages: rigid and lightweight
Disadvantages: combustible, has a
low melting point, is UV
degradable, and susceptible to
attacks by solvents
Advantages: closed cell structure,
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APPLICATION
Ce ramic fibre
Made from high purity alumina
and silica grains, melted in an
electric furnace and blasted by
high velocity gases into light
fluffy fibres. Made in various
forms, including cloth, felt, tape,
coating cements and variform
castable (fire brick)
ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES
low density and high mechanical
strength
Disadvantages: combustible,
produces toxic vapors and has a
tendency to smolder
Advantages: has a wide density
range and is available in many
forms. It is chemically inert, noncorrosive and maintains mechanical
strength during handling
Advantages: will not settle or
disintegrate with ageing.
Disadvantages: Fibreglass products
are slightly alkaline pH9 (neutral
is pH7). It should be protected
against external contamination to
avoid acceleration of steel corrosion
Advantages: small air cell structure,
a low thermal conductivity, and will
retain its size and shape in its
useable temperature range. It is
lightweight, but has good structural
strength so it can withstand
mechanical abrasion. It will not
burn or rot, is moisture resistant and
non-corrosive
Advantages: suitable for many
applications because of the variety
of forms
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Figure 37. Heat loss from a 1-metre un-insulated pipe at various pipe
diameters (SEAV, 2005)
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Figure
18
Section 3.1 is an edited version of Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities. Book 2, by the India Bureau of Energy
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For testing a steam trap, there should be an isolating valve provided downstream of the trap and a
test valve in the trap discharge. When the test valve is in the open position, the following should
be observed:
Condensate discharge. Inverted bucket and thermodynamic disc traps should have intermittent
condensate discharge. Float and thermostatic traps should have a continuous condensate
discharge. Thermostatic traps can have either continuous or intermittent discharge depending
upon the load. If inverted bucket traps are used for extremely small load, it will have a
continuous condensate discharge.
Flash steam. This should not be mistaken for a steam leak in the trap. It is difficult to visually
identify whether a trap is blowing flash steam or live steam but, generally, if steam blows out
continuously in a blue stream, it is leaking live steam. If steam floats out intermittently in a
white cloud, it is flash steam.
Continuous steam blow and no flow indicate that there is a problem in the trap. Whenever a
trap fails to operate and the reasons are not immediately obvious, check for any lack of
discharge from the trap, steam loss, continuous flow, sluggish heating, to find out whether it is
a system problem or the mechanical problem in the steam trap.
3.1.2 Sound testing
Sound testing makes use of ultrasonic leak detectors (see Monitoring Equipment chapter),
mechanics stethoscopes, screwdriver or a metal listening rod. These methods use the sound
created by flow to determine if the trap is functioning properly. This method works well with
traps that have an on/off cycle or low flows, but not so well with traps with varying and/or high
flows. Similar to visual checking, trap leaks can be detected by diverting the flow before it reaches
the trap
3.1.3 Temperature testing
Temperature testing makes use of infrared guns (see Monitoring Equip ment chapter), surface
pyrometers, temperature tapes, and temperature crayons. These equipment measure the discharge
temperature on the outlet side of the trap, with high temperatures indicating leaks and low
temperatures indicating blocked, undersized, or faulty traps. Temperature tapes or crayons are set
at a chosen temperature level and if the temperature on the trap outlet exceeds this level. Infrared
guns and surface pyrometer can detect temperatures on both sides of the trap. To obtain reliable
readings, the pipe must be bare, clean and without scale, as all of these reduce heat transfer and
thus lower the recorded temperature. Some of the more expensive infrared guns can compensate
for wall thickness and material differences.
3.1.4 Integrated testing
Spirax Sarco mentions the development of an integrated steam trap testing device due to the
limitations of the above methods. 19 This consists of a sensor, fitted inside the steam trap, which is
capable of detecting the physical state of the medium at tha t point by conductivity. This device has
the following benefits:
It is not affected by flash steam disturbance.
The result is finite and not subject to interpretation.
19
Module 11.14 Testing and Maintenance of Steam Traps. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 11, Steam Traps and Steam
Trapping. www.spiraxsarco.com
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Monitoring can be done locally, remotely, manually or automatically, and can detect
immediate failure, thus minimizing waste and maximizing investment.
I+H
Cost
Insulation Thickness
I : Cost of Insulation
I + H : Total Cost
Figure 40. Determination of the Economic Thickness of Insulation Material (BEE, 2004)
20
Section 3.2 is an edited version of Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities. Book 2, by the India Bureau of Energy
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Where:
S
A
Ts
Ta
Note: This equation can be used for surface temperatures up to 2000C. Factors like wind
velocities, and conductivity of insulating material have not been considered.
The additional energy costs associated with heat loss can be calculated with the following
equations:
Where:
GCV = Gross Calorific Value of fuel kCal/kg
?b
= Boiler efficiency in percent
3.2.3 Calculating heat loss - example
Question: A 100 m steam pipe line with a 100 mm diameter is not insulated and supplies steam at
10 kg/cm2 to the equipment. Calculate the fuel savings if the steam pipeline would be insulated
with 65 mm glass wool with aluminum cladding.
Assumptions:
Boiler efficiency = 80 percent
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Step 3: calculate the yearly fuel savings and cost savings (Hf and US$)
Total reduction in heat loss Hs = Hs1 Hs2
= 78860 34656 = 44194 kCal/hr
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Figure 41. Calculations of Energy and Cost Savings from Condensate Recovery
(UNEP, 2004)
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Item 1 is a summary of Module 11.14 Testing and Maintenance of Steam Traps. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 11,
Steam Traps and Steam Trapping. www.spiraxsarco.com
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22
Item 6 is taken from Module 2.5 Heat Transfer. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 2, Steam Engineering Principles and
Heat Transfer. www.spiraxsarco.com
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.
Figure 44. Temperature Gradients across Heat Transfer Barriers
(Spirax Sarco)
7. Proper air venting 23
When steam is first admitted to a pipe after a period of shutdown, the pipe is full of air. Further
amounts of air and other non-condensable gases will enter with the steam, although the
proportions of these gases are normally very small compared with the steam. When the steam
condenses, these gases will accumulate in pipes and heat exchangers. Precautions should be
taken to discharge them. The consequence of not removing air is a lengthy warming up period,
and a reduction in plant efficiency and process performance.
Air in a steam system will also affect the system temperature. Air will exert its own pressure
within the system, and will be added to the pressure of the steam to give a total pressure.
Therefore, the actual steam pressure and temperature of the steam/air mixture will be lower than
that suggested by a pressure gauge.
Of more importance is the effect air has upon heat transfer. A layer of air only 1 mm thick can
offer the same resistance to heat as a layer of water 25 m thick, a layer of iron 2 mm thick or a
layer of copper 15 mm thick. It is very important therefore to remove air from any steam system.
Automatic air vents for steam systems (which operate on the same principle as thermostatic
steam traps) should be fitted above the condensate level so that only air or steam/air mixtures can
reach them. The best location for them is at the end of the steam mains. The discharge from an
air vent must be piped to a safe place. In practice, a condensate line falling towards a vented
receiver can accept the discharge from an air vent. In addition to air venting at the end of a main,
air vents should also be fitted:
In parallel with an inverted bucket trap or, in some instances, a thermodynamic trap. These
traps are sometimes slow to vent air on start-up.
In awkward steam spaces (such as at the opposite side to where steam enters a jacketed pan).
23
Item 7 is taken from Module 10.5 Air Venting, Heat Losses and Summary of Various Pipe Related Standards. In: Spirax Sarco
Learning Centre, Block 10, Steam Distribution. www.spiraxsarco.com
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Where there is a large steam space (such as an autoclave), and a steam/air mixture could
affect the process quality.
8. Minimize waterhammer24
Waterhammer is the noise caused by slugs of condensate colliding at high velocity into pipework
fittings, plant, and equipment. This has a number of implications:
Because the condensate velocity is higher than normal, the dissipation of kinetic energy is
higher than would normally be expected.
Water is dense and incompressible, so the
cushioning effect experienced when gases
encounter obstructions is absent.
The energy in the water is dissipated against the obstructions in the piping system such as
valves and fittings.
24
Item 8 is taken from Module 10.4 Steam Mains and Drainage. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10, Steam
Distribution. www.spiraxsarco.com
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25
Item 10 is taken from Module 14.1 Introduction to Condensate Recovery. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 14,
Condensate Recovery. www.spiraxsarco.com
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S1 S2
X 100%
L2
Where: S1 = the sensible heat of higher pressure condensate
S2 = the sensible heat of the steam at lower pressure (at which it has been flashed)
L2 = the latent heat of flash steam (at lower pressure).
26
Item 11 is a summary of part of Module 14.6 Flash Steam. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 14, Condensate
Recovery. www.spiraxsarco.com
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MOTIVE
STEAM
H.P.
SUCTION STEAM
L.P.
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5. OPTION CHECKLIST
This section includes most important energy efficiency options
Fix steam leaks and condensate leaks (a 3 mm diameter hole on a pipe line carrying 7 kg/cm 2
steam would waste 33 kilolitres of fuel oil per year)
Accumulate work orders for repair of steam leaks that cannot be fixed unless the plant is shut
down. Provide each leak with tag.
Use back pressure steam turbines to produce lower steam pressures
Use more efficient steam desuperheating methods
Ensure process temperatures are correctly controlled
Maintain lowest acceptable process steam pressures
Reduce hot water wastage to drain
Remove or isolate all redundant steam piping
Ensure condensate is properly removed from process and heating equipment
Ensure condensate is returned or re- used in the process. (60 C raise in feed water temperature
by economizer/condensate recovery corresponds to a 1 percent saving in fuel consumption,
in boiler)
Preheat boiler feed-water with condensate and flash steam wherever possible. Where not
possible, heat with live steam from the boiler by steam injection method.
Recover the heat from continuous (TDS) boiler blowdown
Check operation of steam traps
Minimize waterhammer
Remove air from indirect steam using equipment (a 0.25 mm thick air film offers the same
resistance to heat transfer as a 330 mm thick copper wall)
Inspect steam traps regularly and repair malfunctioning traps promptly
Consider recovery of vent steam (e.g. on large flash vessels
Use waste steam for water heating
Use an absorption chiller to condense exhaust steam before returning the condensate to the
boiler
Establish a steam efficiency- maintenance programme. Start with an energy audit and follow
up, then make a steam efficiency-maintenance programme a part of your continuous energy
management programme
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6. WORKSHEETS
This section includes following worksheets:
Technical Specifications of Steam Traps
Steam Trap Audit
Insulation Losses
Trap size
Trap type
Trap ref.
(No)
Section. No
Type of discharge
(continuous/
semi continuous/
intermittent)
Trap capacity
(kg
Condensate/hr)
Outer
diameter
Surface
temperature
Remarks
Diagnosis of situation
Functional
status of trap
Application of trap
Trap
location
Trap pressure
kg/cm2
Trap size
Trap type
Section no.
Insulation
thickness (if
any)
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7. REFERENCES
Bureau of Energy Efficiency. Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities. Book 2, 2004
US Department of Energy (DOE), Fedral Energy Management Programme. Steam Trap
Performance Assessment, Doe/Ee -0193, Page 8. 1999. www.eren.doe.gov/femp
Spirax Sarco. Learning Centre. www.spiraxsarco.com/learn
Sustainable Energy Authority of Victoria (SEAV). Fact sheet: Boiler Optimisation. 2005.
www.seav.sustainability.vic.gov.au/manufacturing/sustainable%5Fmanufacturing/
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Cleaner Production Energy Efficiency
Manual Guidelines for the integration of Cleaner Production and Energy Efficiency. 2004.
www.uneptie.org
Many sections of this chapter were taken from, based on or are a summary of modules featured
in Spirax Sarco
s web-based Learning Centre with the kind permission of Spirax Sarco. For
more detailed information please refer to www.spiraxsarco.com/learn for the following
modules:
1. Introduction
2. Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer
3. The Boiler House
4. Flow metering
5. Basic Control Theory
6. Control Hardware: Electric/Pneumatic Actuation
7. Control Hardware: Self-acting Actuation
8. Control Applications
9. Safety Valves
10. Steam Distribution
11. Steam Traps and Steam Trapping
12. Pipelines Ancillaries
13. Condensate Removal
14. Condensate Recovery
15. Desuperheating
16. Equations
Copyright:
Copyright United Nations Environment Programme (year 2006)
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special
permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a
copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other
commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission from the United Nations Environment Programme.
Disclaimer:
This energy equipment module was prepared as part of the project Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from Industry in Asia
and the Pacific (GERIAP) by the National Productivity Council, India. While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that
the contents of this publication are factually correct and properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility for the
accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or
indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication.
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