A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity Sir Edmund Whittaker rs. my FT lr Coie The Modern Theories 1900-1926 ‘Thomas Nelson and Sons Lid AETHERFORCEsnot RS oa ee ren ‘ea gem eg og ‘To pape of his okie isto debe the revlon in eri ply which took place inthe it quarter o the twentieth ERENT | | ‘entury, and which included the discoverer of Special Relativity, Preface be older Quantum ‘Theory, General Reativiy, Matix ae “Mechanics and Wave Mechanics Pepa (My orignal intention wat to ve an account ofthe history from 19000 1950 nang volume ; But the wealth of materia rade this undesirable ; and the period fom 1926 10 1950 must | be reserved fra third book ‘eo umeraciarn 1 am grea indebted ta De ET, Copeon, Regios Profesor of Mathematics in the Universey of St Andrews, and. Dr J.-M. Whiter, Viee Chancellor ofthe Univesity of Shel, Tr reading the prof BT, Warman PiSere Spm amar, Apel asa - ” ATHERFORCEATHERFORCEKi 1 et eo mre ee Net Sar et pine $ [a F iecetrenpeene te tal Set a Eman, jek | wie 7 BERS er ed Sec rein z Tie mace Ne Lo es Pectin ayaa 2 uvrun metros oF Qoaerun TON Reins poten riche tien 3 ‘Pane covery of he Forma Sr Puretemperstine Raat | a | aan ae 7 s en sorjouneres fiearaecsae : ne ecole Crm Snecsgae - inatcnineduce Photons “Easininthandoes the Sealae Prieto s maneccty i ea z Roc Rouges" : s BSE Se ue etm seca time = soem mete \ a a6 oat Seo i ae : SNe Snag ni Pe a Eitan mm yw pt tba | ‘Sterna on Gen iy Dog See aan ne ay atten EN ance Dog scene crsia macs fg atc Reaggniee 2D: s cae eee Qaunm Thy si Hanh To Beceem ta : ia eel ue fount i "varornoscos 18 mi oADER QUMTUM THEORY me ny eng oo Soa er he Bl Recon hye coh ny z ‘rs ok on Moar pes YERADIATION AND ATOMS IN THE OLDER QUANTUM THEORY fen tas teow bead Reena lags They of the Exchanges of Euengy between Radon and te edo Spe fe ee an ot om Cp ne Digi at ‘Beira Gir Qi ‘Shon and Ui Theory the Sank Bs Sem ins te Vat i e Sep Dee ee Sececrmieee | Eee 3 AETHERFORCE ‘mmc un eine Quan Ty Zana ‘Sas Chance br Samer Het Sesicyeie : Tir ere Nee 3‘Vu SAGNETIH sD HLACTRONAGNETIN, epee _ os = Memorandum on Notation aa 3 a eihensiaiese ee EET cen 2 | Epistar ct 3 i —_—— : 8 wrath ce aig a av oe foes OS | isn one niet Eo vin Tim brscoveny OF soxTRrx atc p Resta desea Tian fam ners Oh “Toe tay i Dro setae 2 Bah Ea tt SE wingeiom mein EE tne ho pote cereere a Gree vcr paopene of marae een TS ate eeeproromaratet nae tees 2 Core env cnr Feats an ened by Wrenn : 3 1 CR -B -B) cron ore. ‘lmnop of Vr a ‘The stot i wed fo dete the er operate wa ame OR | ae See eee ‘etme sna ety Weecha “eon Tay ttc ‘Toate tae ten ty Woremechan Eaeedaget ‘Deon of he Kemer Fait te whet te Gp et merce Soer ec Pari suger more oe S498 CESSES AETHERFORCEChapter I ‘THE AGE OF RUTHERFORD Worn Ronigen announced his dicovery of the Xerays* it was fatural to sispec some connection berween these. aye snd the Reon [ho ys general eed at tt ie, phere fscence) of the’ part of the vacuum tube ftom which they "were Emited “Accordingly a number of workers td to find hetiee Phosphoresent bodies in general mtd tadstions which ‘could Pas through opaque bodes and Shen cher alee photogespie Pits or excite plusphoracence i other bodies Tn particular, Hen Beenuerl of Pari (1852-10908) relved to exami the radiations which are emuted, ar exposure wo: the Sy dbl lite fri and psy 2 bance hatin en showy ne Bano Begure (ia0-3) Imugleated feck ea igri February 1096" ae & photographie pte” he said, “Be wrapped in two shetr of ¥ Ayer e ise a ced Sy esponre 1 the son fr'a day. Oude the paper piace a quanto the Phosphorescent substance and. expe de whole (the aan for eral hours When the pate & developed, display tslhouette of pspirszent bane, So he lar mu ni diane ‘phic re capable of pasing tough. paper opaque to onaary Tigh ad of lectng sat of vec PP ‘Ach ume Besqucrel supposed the radiation to have been cited by de espvore ofthe Plesporescent substance the an but werk late be anaounelst® that in one expetinent tae sud i became chard tion a wa expr was bean, at shout war as ben he oes ces? aad money, fea found thatthe radatlon persed for an indent me lc the substance ad een remove rom the sunlghy and afer the Iiminesity which. propetyeonattuesphosphoresceace had died ‘aya he wth ed to conlade hat the ct was pone [eben permanent. Te war som found that Get ail of ‘funium which donot phosphoresco—that is the uranrus sees fsa and the metal fuel all emit he raja} and it became rat Se ws enced ad ener ne ately oe Broperty, ‘poured lement uraniam tn al de ehemlcal Ecmpoal EMEA acta ne AETHERFORCE‘Very soon he found that the ev ray ike dhe Rentgen and spr impart conductsty 10 gases” The conducavity due SAR eae A that ome bf ivestgated_ tthe Caveneh Extorttry, Gunbeidge, by J-. Thomson, who haa been joined i Te Sore of 1995 fy & yong research sdent from New Zealand Mol Brest Rumherord, [l6ici93?). ‘hey Tound. that the Eealseviy iy duc to or partes carrying electric charge, ffactiqntions «the value found wag 225.*. Meanie another French physi, Andre: Debierne (1878), dscnered inthe sani rendu yet further raioctve denen! which he ‘ve the name athe “Atetion wan now dieced to dhe o- and foray of Rutherford, A fr ont iter their dicowery twas thon by Gish Becuete fd they hat port of the raion (he fra) wan deected by Seeds ier Ona Ss att SE RU Gs oe ea inset el Hit 6 RES RIES Ghee Catia! erinciengesecreg tit amcicam tae fe Ae Monier no, Gee oo SE eee nora Sea eee Siena ea Sekai GMa ne acitaa | yin ainhrtien a meets eran SEE rien Rott at yp ec ee Saft ear ncaae a aed ae spe nd, but she Lea Cre Sant fy abused; whe Be te’ rato mb wea! at the Ges fonts Henan Ewes cia Peacarrekamac iors «|, rustle Siete cag ada Stake Ingenta d oe a ys ete AP ag ye ale “The e-ays were at this ime suppored to be not deviated magnetic fed "the deviation set smal Even wen the ed EB powerfl = but in Februsy 1903 Rutherord* announced that held succeded in dewatng them by both magnet aad elect. ule ils. ‘The devin was inthe oppeste sense fo ta of the Ely ie HE to. ew workers entered the eld. | Marya suusienlast horn in Warsaw in 1907 (2 1981), had statied phys Sr et and in 1495 had maria young French pyscsty Ree ‘Gare {ledo"1Go0). she now reslved to earch for oxher substances frving the properties thar Beoguerel fad found in uranium, and i Apa 1098 that these properties were possi By cot vid of rium the element whic, of the cements known at thode rays, 9 the wadialions mie conaat of pontvely charged Bix ine, stood nce to ramiam inthe one of atomic weigh Particles projected with great velocity and the lines ofthe de fhe sume’ dseovery wat made smaltancouly by G» C. Schmidt on suggested thatthe expe patices were massive compared to Be Ger aay. Middame Curie went on wo show that, since the Bedeeon. A mead of oberg them was dacovred in 1503 by {raion af faye by wrung and thorium is unaected By chemical Sir W. Grookss" and independently by J. Elser and W: Geil, sn a ae ed gt Gow he nea Sergi ie ana etree wa und fo hs om i li coal ee ena eto ea aga Merde a rn ans she and her sland Ty Fito remain Near terse | sa ere oe cere "San ee, Sn Sek ed Bet cai ope ee in, ut dling pe teat ei seay Cena ne Ge ay a 1 ne Fea Sy ens Cle thea als dency an lcnmanam Sed a ete oe el ad eA cat ae EN ke Raed Peay as, EA Nera spartan ep ay TSE, Rial ys dar as ocean wo nd tn en kote ee ay bm ear Stren of Sides hesagonal lene (sine mip) ghee dior were observed de to te cuvage of the blend unde the Fembsrdment Rother sggctel at i property might be ‘Sei for counting he suber Peper in thé rege ‘Meanwhile ithad tren cover by Visa etn don to he alpha and etary tum ena atid pe af oat Peat a2 : an 2h BEEZ con. Saas et nc REPS PRT yun 0, ae Rat citer Eng inks tce THON ET ex (0D, yo. 25 a FESS = nero es | Pee gr mt Seen in ET " * ETHEREORCEVia aon was cle, Vil ond tht they-eaiaon Tike te Xray not devable by magnet bree In'1858 Keheord was Spied to 4 chair ip MoGil Us pei Manel od See A em the poe tthe thor compounds. "The conductity produced by Me Si a e's eva aaa ad Ee yang or hati 2 ds. “Eventually Rather cop ‘uged the thor emitted very small amounts of some mater france which was lel radioactive, and which could be cared Ieay n'a aircorrent = this to hich he gave the name Hori ee sou te boning he ae hem canwien Canbige Cr Re Wien had boo developing « tis laud-chambey, which wae to provide the most powers 9 all ‘td eniguton hom pe. Te owe ag fa cena {grec at tpenatartion exceed (dss can be vecared by asuden Se codon tks pace om nema we ‘nya present: ifby peiinary operons condensation i ie’take place on the Susenucle, and the reullng droplet are lowed fo seid te iri te chamber ir thereby fred om da It now X-rays radiations lm a radp-actve substance are passed into the chamber, and ifthe degre of superaturation i uficen, ‘Sndenation again takes place thin ue fo the production of {enn by the radiation “Ths the waka ef tnising radiations can be tine’ vile by the den expan of so atch on Fatoring de eee of a viibt gabule of water, Mion showed that theione produced by sranitm eudition were denial wth tse produced’ by ‘Seraye J fe Thomson in Joly 1809 wrote poinlg ou te advantages of tie Wilton chamber t Retheroed, Sto henceforth profited smmenseiy by te tse. Tn ths way the SaGhaP sage? Some ple or elecwon cold be rendered "As important property, dacovered forthe Sst ime in connection with thot emanation am thatthe radio-acity conned wih IRrspidy decremed. ‘This behaviour was found Late o be characer+ Inde of al sadivacive substances: but fm the aries known eas, Ech eel Soiree the time reglred for ie [civiy tobe redaced by one-half the order af muons of year {the property had not hither been moticed, ‘Rutherford eund hae te Intensity of the induced Tadiation* of thorium fl off Aiea hac. a, 9 = 4 cexponeatily with the ime + 4 that is the intensity at anytime SnU'Ty the inet fer the lp of ie then ” Tele when 8 opt : TWA OSE croaes: showed that was posible rt te te Hn ay dnt of the onghal iteance’ "He ound, qorave atthe SONY gr citi ee, de eae Se Ra chy OF thera any raul ened, eat 2 Sse oes was oe we opts Hoek ek Biprarohate se fo Cathe oe ae ie Sis ped ht he pre aria, redial ter peer it rice: Bur E Sey 1872) cong Be Seiten hoe ic Ble nue spans cay ad the coeon ras den Tana pore eqrem emie Saf ofall Universy fs 1900 i Bemonsaor in Chen. Sil ote berate nk herbed m reed en ndoseiay Pied SpeBehen cea cinder moked cones pee lo dare Qe is cela Seb see by ccc Enc which aried "uno the character of Cons area SU a ates ha inne a 2hiy Ice cao curation of chee deme SH ed hd Sad oy ona an ra scare tii es peel heey a kota, Si areal in Spc Tt May ode “te gen Seg arundinacea be ly Seek ein fb epg coe Sn coi a cereles sndet coco ba ‘outpouedt tad noone could ice where Ic came fom. "Si long secede tpn ce see Und fatal EuihbertsnctShneane caidas beloved Rees eg SOO Scot Sloe yan sae wa (ite be dca dence ade Se od Sum, shel cts rosin one Mino a ats wich ot Sood mace iy Whe ete chang ora toe thee ae no ial Saybia i 5 ae wat ATHERFORCEtancous, but suceive; thus thoriam produces thorium X, the ROE a ecaces the thor emanation andthe Iter produces ented te _ “AGI Tac phchomenon of raoacsvity consis in th, that» cerdn propofon of he stom undergo spontanous trandormation Se oa ltcrent nature ese changes ate, difere in em any changes that ave, been dealt with bere In Cera ake emery comes fom inte-tomi sources, a ee Ooms tha deierat in wa dimes 2 dese ppt othe ts hare pen and ew, ot Jet SSRTEO ctl ara Te oes ae eda Ar Seeeay withthe me thus i yi the ital mu SFY ae ar umber atime Faery then el wnre is the faction of the total number which disintegrates in Han the average eo an arom 1 pees (iti acy cna pontely charged parle who rao oe eee er ob timer as gest a for the econ in cs Stee ie amumed tat the value of the charge + the St in cnn ee ry pars mi a 8 ma TE Mame onder nash he yg aU. ST eed oy epee os a Sty no mercy a the po oar ee some vr as but tat ths expulsion actualy he change eaten te Fp evi 0 a8 tay occ hnve cen tng place ovr very fons period, acti hang ore pole tht she limate products might have aed wera ooibent quanity to be deleted.” A helm jt aera nuh nea, twas sogeated eat helium igh onal fu Joc” Several years posse lore this was ally aha prea G sm Ray a ier Ki Mont an and Rusherford, who was in England in the Caley tae year called on Ray ad Soy, and with hes Fae ys Sperm) the presence of elm ln the emanation ae Teaetned cera, therefore, th beim ooo Juche gues finer decent which being wih rade «nthe quauenes Papectauon wat that it WOU PONE 0 and esdgc.™ Ruther, however, entertaned tee that ae ere a oP fata aren or htt sere Ae Sipnres in fey might be psiovely charged se bo 29 fg 10,99 é atoms of ham and for some year thi sapoiton was debated Without a definite conckion bong reathed.”"in 1906 Rutherford SOORLAIRE GEN eso oe wares Seeman Ghia wee setcen Oe oetad PIO See Laie lt St Bethe hyo nom, Tice, SH Wendel wiles the pees Hyg sll (mote eh) cryin en rb ety ate eh ayo hee ine liam ic ic 062 11) a ht ne ote in de Caney Alte Sou Aunt sheds att fail nant sya Sl oa EEE Sista Shee poeta tbh ute Sed alin ele ‘Peohinte in Bre dein, ‘gutualy Tay eg wl fi the eparicie_ He nd in he cae of radio | dee range ‘ilo emanstnt sade sed adm G7 the partic eh Ey pueblo id fain na) hoo wih Be ca 301 Wty a fe Spe encom sou wh Eres Pea Htc esg te “Spacey ee oer eng reeaiyeletd om h” pth by ello Mihail, Sea oa (0 Wibod er eS Sey aesttel ype ont ar aren fal ‘Setined beam, ne Suv = Ta Rohe was tama othe chr of phy in he Unity of Manche, Hee he found Q'aoand Pade of se fin Gagan mn Re tea 2S ta Eso he epee ely gc has et wae sec eld ‘0 strong ae be nae ‘breakdows valve at ERS a al When # ge oartc sad and Piper asl nc, he newer aeevated by te cece Sis hit na pled y aon al sd Cece nate abl Betpacae ofa most ceca SEG cd Degtitea tong atoms acy oe Ss TigeeC teeter tne that ie nb at pes ESRC Tp or alin on eon Toe ae “Sana wines Pic charge thund ihe ‘el pape camel ha pre coe Soles ap lagen nn he qurdon' she poe conection of eras wt tom war Belted at Pe yen” Rate cel ee a Te Ns ee FRA ae " ATHERFORCEcyst Sapgenhsen hg cep dgteannparage ata mat GEO eaten eb rare seh Sicutat ate areas ha Ropers ison of rays was obtained somewhat later, when he and gusrer is eer ener Sapa tee tate rely cre "ys iaeea tis ne ag oe Tre enat.tasiy anspor TRS EMOTES "tetord and Gees 1910 were he tia’experimentally.« Yet a further completion of the work om Ema sitter dae Sheen Row tained wit hat of the counting experiment was clea es deuce gy mee aa cee ma oo of Wye etcemnaton of ths constant had been te abet of weer age pt ei Gee ies aimee at et Vee teat heath baie hain cela oar ial ih Puy papers each of which atracted ach aera paper aow to be considered was realy a vequel «9 two earlier reas tea gry heli which, Rowers BiRtn Red oiy obtained independently cert reults which hed BS ly sos cr te a" —CLUr— revit malncks antes ara cum 'moletale but i wan asnumed that 0 rel of ellison ith the Soe eae 2 Sal ae i Pic Bete nye pride even ny the eve of parle lage enugh tobe sera with Se a ee SEESSES ON ca le ede Sica ea ath ec mca Bochco neh han ad Reet FOUTS IEA UGG ae SING ere ee Hegel rie SRS TEE POTD Seni hl a fas 2 fa san ——rt—~—S—OS ‘umber, and ye the ccfcent of vsconty. Thun by the leno TATE, SST a mere, Sah ak ray ee cena 2 Set Pea se aa ben herve as early a 128 by Robert Brown (1778-1030) 3 bans, ECE Ur Soccaea t SINGS ti ld Scena lt oct SUVS Eon Bt tas haha heory ofthe Browsian motion war fawesteted limast at abe iat 6 AE A el Tt SAAT whol Sater ae Sa Sa SF -—L™Ur————— tema es made in 19002 by IoaneDapine Bern (180-151) SDS ees le ee are) St panicle at a deinte tempersture, and thie nated en See te Cheet Sa Ata en ne See el yee Se Si ‘otable former opponent suc as Wilican Ontalé snd Benet Mach ie cn hen ea ott ae aly ina de gn ones Sed PRSLLAPINAGS anal! b My ea ag Manton He a i? Se CHD ts RSET He gs Se RET ate ea BaP EE on SY Gifs 18 p50 ea, vi (1neruen asm munerncrry ced wth small seated sodium to pas hough oo aphragms pero wih ed si Te abe she bono a he solar bra ele aa ihe proicuons ofthe Kinet theory ne = ee Bgl loi te win i ei. re a oe wot hates bowen Focamn rice oor mee gece ye i Sadat ay ete Soc Se Sega a ar Moje aa seer acapaia atl ate” mee epi cme ged ene ene ny oa eet hi BLE, F were discovered in the next (wo YI tt oo ‘Brat ‘one of these. later products was identical with the. poloniary meio = TEfepinan rrr ln fr stb ras a a a and acmpanyng i ranaermion in pps ool an arden eae a ar ern ee eo fern aie kon rs eed, eee et SES ane bere intra tema te at da Sie co disinebe rt ee S dta we te ae elt rr Bei den ect amen aes 4 SiS een edt errno ae Tey aon ea eee Sere a pricy ton sn Beech th ot i cn ro Epes as et hea ve Uns ae ei ta yam de, ee ee carey ee Haine : TBR eh irtirns Sar ae ROO FF eeae mn e 2 new radioactive element which fe named ioium, and which i futfgcendd oe aren ne wk rea numberof diferent radioactive atoms that had now been dhtoverel suse questions concerning ther stome weighty Dacticularly ith regard to thee postion fa what was know repute leo te chemical clenents Tn 2 paper published it 1a6f fob A. Newiands* had pointed out that rhen the cereal lemints ae arranged according to the namerial vals ofthat ‘omic wags te cis cement ering fom any even on iy fn regard toi properties, cosy akin tothe fs ike te sgh ole fa ott noose ‘Tie be develope ler pape ‘ling the relaonstip the ‘Law of Ocsaves’2” He read & pa fo the aabjct before the Chemie! Socery on F Muse 166! bur ‘wa eletedon te ground thatthe Sot had made fe 4 rle otto pablak papers S's purely teoreea nature anos it was ‘iy lad to esrenpondence ofa controversial hafacter"* wanes idean were adopiod ad developed few year ater Dante Ivanoieh Mendecr (1694-19071 who acanged the enema ins pri tie Erom apsin thse inferred the exec Sd apposite stoic wcghtl tre hitherto unknown cement {2 lich be gave the nants chacboren, sta umn snd es fiance wee ebony diced hey ate sow own au scandal and geraniom), the importance of pera ae belie tively vecopie athe inet fe cm ey when they weve dicovred sl er, were fund BE imo piety. "As new ember ofthe radioactive sequence were discovered, sys Fad ine ats a oo ore fe pos I seclerhad exactly the same chemical properties that they belo te the mine plice in Newlands and Mendtiev's pede table, For tntance "1505, O: Hahn, working with Sir Wiiam Ram a1 Universe Calege, London, daeovered "the peat of thera ‘which he ead reir” This was fot be noe separa hemicaly ftom thorium and Bolowood fund that hs brim ao war pot tcparale chemically fom thonum, ft was shown By A'S" RumelPand K Ront* working in Rather's sbortery, at ihe optical speci of ion 1 indsngunhable hn er 24 0k num iO 9 EI I oy — Bats lm, ya (De 2), p21 AETHERFORCE * Bishi oa oysrum of thorium. The radioactive, properties of the three RESUS however, totaly fren since he alfevalue period banc tre ro 18 years, tat of ontum io the order eee that a raiosthorom #19 years and the atomic al rg eet Sa heey hey le ms of Ra seek, the posit of such a station had been ace Pata iad by Sr Wiliam Crookes” conte, eee cath thar when we say the atomic weight fo ere nie 40, we really express the ft that While the iran cP alcum alot hve am actual atomic sight f 10, palit oe which ar represented by 39 or 4, less mumber by Stor 82, and oon Bes clin of the radio-atve atoms progres sil arta eer examples bresme Known of arm hich are Aa mY eral ets bot have diferent radioactive weer ond clfeent atomic weg” enon wa, 1 rope #0 {005 by. the Swede cheats D. Stomboim and Te webseegt and in 1010 by Soddy? and muck experimental work eto was done by Alecande Fleck sie sme problem now came fom an unexpected quartet eet ig ei en ed Tia tok up work cept Thome tat roy ae he pow called them, and devised Sl of peer asf dng the bes fle Bini’ ee ctege partes wich consute the rays the ee ee Pea hoot therethrough a narrow tube, 9 a (9 cbiain {mal oc on 2 ent neem or 2 photographic pats 1 abject then between the tbe andthe free fo an elect Bas tame eld a0 sb to deflect the bear of pate, fel oe deficign andthe magnetic deecton being perp ESky each shes He showed tha al paris having the seme fale mlb ead yh a le a re Pe em crabblas, Parablas were found corresponding Te ee aed mblecls of various gases in the dachargetube fe ne mi won eri all bao ta eargrsof te parabola, On applying tig ethod of postive Eyam he gr aan band adi 5 arabola anal mie weight 20, another cortesponding 0 atomic wel to be, bos of them, sms of eon, Bat ae ast PFcmson fad in fact dcovered two ordinary oe ee atoms hnvng te same. chemiral behaviour but Bile pysel characterise. ‘This resul which was samedi BEAR G3 cl ac,» PRE GE ORNS Met ee ee eee ee Sop en ‘MrwalnieAdenaice ce being See fia rat, Heenan nae Ht Aint ota te tcl outa tes arc rpeha A ea ec Fea ate re ge te ried aes ag rego rs See Se ieee eee eee Sire sii ee wa ee ciara ene lc ae fol ean ey eae Fe trowel be comes and lose wa tne be as the Boal Biiriehoremioien acta ened Irae ace ae tt pone oie eas See ok Se reed ome er ere ety See setae et ae RE ce one a arse anus RSW en EF wns vn te ie of espetimental aater the’ mane fall the botpes camped grenaety etada ite ort (ce tu irs eae te aes Sh by Fk Lindemann and E We'Aston® bul Be long no able iar A ee spina cn abd saat Neto Ses Seca etn ogee peer eS "2! Che, Sc 91, 2595. CN vi (28 Fb spa ane BUMS SR Rees Te ee + Nate, Gr {18 Dee, 1910), 908; ‘a Ma 120» Pt gm ot ea i LW Waitara, Ee seh ant Sf Paes Monsey Seals 9 hake cures eoyenet ETHERFORCE 3‘ne henmenon in aoa man gna in 108 by ait te ay Bn ap ater er maar iam aso stun C thru Can scum) Smee A ated Sf pute pdm ta om eA Sige aad omen eo the wandormations, emiting fest a Ppartcle and afterwards an eae RT come «Detaled teal ape cape ba the ay ram Tok ese en ay the i ai cert are be ero gone ntible advances Som cerned wiih Scraye, Choir Clover Barla (1877-1944), when a Seer AT it fins Caae, fd bene re alte sw ere Lite eth ibe Seon at the yt ay be a at pm ah ges ma seat pt earl pay beam of Sry ed ee cea aldo eam theory sodas: poling alton hea, ta he saeco ae fasta aspen ma Fae ts nmin of eray vais esha alte deena propane sel Gee te he Sty ya are ond east atc, ee fe pa ese an af ary dam Soe or Sel anton cat ce fered ae meaty he tee EA aris wn Pome Sa cy a a ta linn ey wee aon teacher wich showed tht thesecondary radiation wa planed ‘This result told decidedly in favour of the hypothesis that X-rays Ce i on Xp, Duar a mage sion of ff Thonon's thatthe numberof lectons in. an stoma sont amt hy seg hun ofthe seeing het Ban Hepat a Sei hen er an, coming Myst lig pled eg yk ange cc Yq 1905 ‘Thomson bad alresdy given, in the frat edigon of bi Easley Baten ule ool ace, ued Se detract pe oe Se bia toa om which nce Ee Be Rhea tae co. om oe a ones Boe SVGSE A oon wil ons atomic physic the secondary ays comited mainly of 2 radiation stich di ‘lteter in hardaes" or penetra the pry ‘adlon seat iecoid no ag ay 8» 8 that he. oem red by the con i ali Sins the Sind Oheise ehlige sie reamed Sr decrosngees ania) ‘Ths ip assumed that the clectons, im the chemical clement et fe gry i seer npn the val he br ee 3 i where x isthe number of electrons per cm and pis the den tog of electrons per cm’, and p isthe density, N-number of molecules n one gram-mlecu aber of Bee Sectons peson Alien wate Te NZ pun of deco in ne gin see att he mst eet een 5 Aare” and exeimently fhe meeting oes of ‘the lighter elements (except for hydrogen) a value about O°, whi woul Accbre pe Sadat! sa ‘teat Tae vte cepd the time i the gut o th ight han Tepircamstui ts cians it i there were between 100 anc electrons per molecule of ai doe each by Hera in Till + by sch ter desermnadon SOLIDS RY Sl br vied aed Gages Erslid RMfetbaviubele'®. gic oprsinicy Zk the umber of seteringeactrnt per atom, fr the lighter ‘emencs sovt tll te See weet of te’ clement, eee ze fete che oftyroge, fr whch ZI Thee ree si Re dscovra in getarable way pie “The sccondary Surays were dened fo farith other conteibue "1905 Bara * found hati some anes ‘power, fom the pra regarded ase esl of" seterng 5 Po wy Hp. 8. JA Com, Pa Ma ae Pa age one 1905, 812 ” ATHERFORCEfe pared ths matter farther, with, the hep of nef, ht permed ag dh ey? Bund ea he con SE by ml Senet exp 0 = pny Be rie of two dinict pe oo ‘scattered radiation, not of great amount, of the same ste pamary beam, GWG B railuon charters of the expedient, Fee ne, eorcver emits eaormly sal, ierons sae eaters radaion. Ths characteris radiation Wat te ae pany sae comand a coms Progam tharacerise raguaton that was tobe excited. (On Fare a ak cluraceaie Xray ere en spoken of a he ae ota) Harland ao hat te bards of he a ee sion increased athe stmic weight the em ‘heigl element inceedy _ a el lan Cement of st Boeke only when the vlosty of the parent cathode rays excord Tan am ely of the ptmany aye eas dan Te em ly Toate” redation W emited, eemblng te Pee dary canons may a found that te chagacteric vsondary te die moral gem iran nen ee pent reser in other wo cack chemical clement emit sim rent yy cach ine mots fo he more pene sn he atomic weg of the ment incense spit i ae I sated Be non and Car Toity and an Megroup was found a itd laters” The 5 Fae Ets mat petsng, ws found ogee wih Ue FES deme fos sreonam foie wn 909) tp ser ase a TORBEN or element eer tan lr, the Res (Goa oat nce very ren vei oul eg WE SIRIRE cine aye’ and forcement lighter hap son, Fee arth ai olueee bene war cn aunbod Teun by GWG. Raye that te radiation characteristic fa hemeal Gedo can be exit not only By exposing ta 1a ag a lO 0 EE ERTACHIB A ae a oa i Oa ee ise ‘ephemera ore Se beam of primary X-zayy, at a by Kaho ate bombard by ate ye ae fathode raja Te wae ied that's might Be a cree te odaced by he Aluproved by HLT. Beste. who proved beyond donb tha the chs Seite Craps ate ed dey bythe mpc eatode ye in the following Year Beaty ® weed Sxpertnetaly «reat wicgh tnd en rice hore Phone’ in 1, namely four power ofthe velo of the excing eect he ‘The question ss 19 "whether ‘Seraye ere compiles or waves ret en 10, a ear We pb Paper * in wich, inuerpreting hiv experiment by he Eight of fSrpuscalas hypothe, be arived at toncsons Which wee fy fet trot and of great sgaiicance. "We have aren? that when Scrayt Spates oh au they nde Wey Condcn a ey, iat this propery e due Yo ion of fon ithe gee ‘Bragg now antridd thatthe Xcrye do ot lon the gas dices they act by ejecting fom a ell proportion of the Sao of th 2% elec (photclecton) af ph speed, each of which act ES sparc tnd ios he pry detabing eos nace Son of clsions with molecules along ite path. The speed of the "jected electron depends only onthe hardness ce pentienng powe? the Xray hich was ater shown obey inlets egy, psa on hr icy one nat fie om fm hich the lecton is expelled. What Brag emptied as special Femarlable was that te energy ofthe elton was ay pest as thst ‘la elegvon in the beam of eluhode rays by witch the Sapa fad tren excited orginally" the Xsay pulse seemed to have the pope ny of Keeping ta energy together {n'a stall bundle withset ay ‘ofthe spreading that might have been expected on the wave theory, Sand to be able to anaer the whole of tener toasingle devine HE candied the general pines sat oe radiant ey (ore Xo eather atom Oe a ony ot tty Emerges, creping with ithe energy of the entering ey” (ne Xray provider the enray fet one fay, ad lay in Keay bal, be ray tS Sab Ne rey ein te interchange of forms, f to Xray and back again’ and the speed ‘kthe secondary By independent ofthe tance that the Sesay fag travelled "the Xray cannot dite enemy a i gory that isto sy, it 3 corpuscles Te was im fact now et blhed at the raha in te waye® em wave an in ote ways at a ee xa Na EE ieee " ATHERFORCErag’ conclons ere aly ond in 131-12 by CT wine See teed of Sowd-shamber photograph The Mian une i, eveacd by the pemary Xuray eam was see wih oF Saf inate sais and patches of cloud exam the pa ae Shorey is eg men Be gh reat ial ie prc, which weve oe steal eectve epg fh evn cnt, ma em a sad 2a pe en He is a 90d Hage chai eg orGronngen glnened a broadening of he image apd CH atiaped slic and’ infeed that de waverength of the of wetter yas athe order af ome Angrtrom. “Howeve, paar Sane cr and Poul * repeated the experimen ae hae aieren nes of exposure gave iferent rl E tte that tbe eect was ot co rp in alk Se cee oP rie pn, ching» cS nd Ro mages cee th mean Ua Pier he iy Scr intel ie 1 Seog oe Face cca el Ge wo re me wa Fieto pa rat ei ePh waging could yt ome Soa ns rc toe ie proce Hou? A aren wha Rootes of par tn dt ai sahil oh tar evapo (Staph rrtataameg am! tentacle ar Heda bas ea eu a ce Ieee ron cheat kp je ae eS See Fee She Galh ss oa ee i Skee aca ena tate te e win phed in Jone 112 in ch wa ag a eat ee a ore Pileiigse Nagoya’ a PES, Sree eee Shel Bs aes esa See me MFR Ate hc ate ce eR DLSS * Seah lena te Senet oft a Se pa Suet Mises ety Beh pae Sar supp thatthe inedent rays ae parallel none ofthe ane ifthe falas el Sk San Sep Seta si algeirea esate Fee ae ne hth aa’ an indeed te aaa ey cdi ‘efhsigic hd' slne aelagy bsp thet Peel et Se ts ee pala cae na SiS es sme er sn Se Le mperace, fr 2 ol sp ic rile es ne Tear, SOREN A crema rs in crystals ; and its merit was fitly recognis ‘he award fo Lave Sp IBHTar ne SARI ia "He ety Si whey HY aie Noel ee por he a eh cay ha vat pe a eg Seabees cel et a ea oven two theories f Xray, But to find one theory which poster Et fer iy Sa tawpne Bas 1090) 0 sel ie Saas Ree re soe ear el ore tibia aNd. ein La. Mine Be, 88 an 6 Sa eet te ar ” cng aS Fr Mes 0 t= LMS E eR gel ie eee Re SIRS ere Oe ee Bk No Fo en,» a "ATHERFORCEis leading iden (which replaced Lae’sasrmpton of satering Hs leading ee eos grating) wap that parallel plane i he ‘Mahi lohtch re sich in atoms can be regarded ‘aber together, coma rhc a ee oe Keays and expenments ya ap of Sec tore tick oo nace was clewage Plane Be beat te ls of recon were Sbeyed when he toe orc ney acing snglsechccuom takes place ony Mere tee oat Aa the ray ihe datamee d between the eee Catal andthe angle of medence $ave Betmetel by the elation ma2d cod vere i smal whole mumber.. Ts known as the Brag le, TREE “intng the work wie himy! devned an, Xa see: aren oie of which io allow momsaromatic Xray t0 fall etry Riecton ons expt, ich i made to ar so that each in ate eSexamined i deta and wih thi instrament the Blane can atoms in many ferent rts was determine ths po heady feces an Spe from ths Rarer succes over am oumense range >the Nobel Prize Biycs warawarded to them in 1913, Hys wat a egaeing Soray ed to a beter understanding of ee en radiative sulmapee. J. A. Gray exablshed SERN eats of yerays and Seige by showing that the Sem RAE. excite the characterise. N-radiatons (series) Gel een on very peig Sae ey ak ately im pega toseatering, In 1914 Rothesord and EMU Radeades by methods sed on the sme principle Fe eG the Bragal and by Mosley and Darwin, mearured date et els of the prays om radu and C. "The wave inerrant show a Bl eee Bekiecs O01 and 1 Anagrams Tehe woek af Rushetiord ac Geiger on counting e-partiles by tee te ton carned out 1008" some of the diene ‘he fe method sme’ were due fo dhe geatering of eas I so ener Guger mae opel stay ofthe eater asi tu of delecton, sad in {508 Rutherford sggened {Wipe ohig roar sadn "Marden, an amiatin f e se eat heough large ang, As.a teu of 8b possi of watson were cared out by Geer and Marsden, ee ene eparicles fired st 2 thin plate of matter at Fane aed che ate to such an extent chat ome of them, De seatte ese of the piste at which they entered and ud RR ba U8 HD mA Ot Beth RE RESID Bah, Plog ide an, 9 ‘ileulation showed hat some of the epartiles must have been Sct aS nates teh Sle grester than 8 ght ‘Now at that dime the atom was generally peta in, the form soggste by Je} Thontson in is iia lees of 1908 Hewat INGE working dot the comers of aupposing thatthe negative ‘dectcne ocsupy sationtry potions ia the atu. n ord that fhe stom a. hale may be ectnally newtray there mast be len {ponte charge’ and he sae that hs could ot he concetrated he ge pci sce meaner pznve fn postive corned charge cold not bein eae usa. ‘He therefore neces tha she potveelecteaton was uniformly ‘Stated throughout a sphere of radon equal tothe radia of the Som as interred ven the Lice theny of eae (about 10-> em.) the negative secon he spore to be acute Inside this phere, Rese age ig al and ppt to hat of the pee Tn attempiing to picture the way in which dhe negative electrons wold dpe theme, “Fhomson was guided by some experiments th pagers wich fd bece made many yea earker by Aled Marshal Mayer ofthe Sevens Instte of Technslogy, Hoboken ‘Mayer magoctsed « number of svtng-nesdles with ir pains of the same olan, Say south. Esch eedle war Fon Sno eal fork of ich aur thar oat the noel in an upright pstdon, the tye end ofthe nelle jure coming throug the tp of the cork. Ite sf ae ene tape ails a sel 2 wt of tater, andthe north pole os Large magnet is brought down ver Them dhe usu repellent noodle at once approach each othe, InP nang Weg a he wey of ae ‘Ranges Wier needless pare & bie, i eer Fegular pentagon or [ales ble configuration myeare with one eadie 2s\cente, ands on, “The snderwatel pole of the Hosting needles and the upper pole of the large magnet, were Fegan’ arto fr away to Suen ny appreciable alcnee 9 the Dreblem was practaly oqavalent to that of a number of south Bolen preste of ng large norte pol Thodam exutined theoretically the problem of the con tions usted by a smal uni of negative lectrone ine Stereo poative cecneaton, and found that when the number Fein vassal ey aged teens Sea range: Sey lg the ane ance om the cen but when the Sumber of loctrone war inerewed, ey tended. arange tht nets hl and that He og inetd tmany ofthe known propery of atoms, pasculany the periodic BSR ica oP stone weight wbich ates ek he Pili a Heya Mate 1 (00), RE Ae : ATHERFORCEovert ale Wage fhe des wer ent iy fom its poston of equilbriam, it would be acted on by 8 Fetunaive force proportional fo the dupacement. ‘This was 2 mot sable propel” nce it war or’ what was requlzed for an ‘ecronc ory Bf opal dperdon and abmorpon snd, more- ‘vert would explain the monehromate characte of spectral ines Burin no way efuld Thomson's model be made to give an account ‘ot spectal es mea ida) by pp Lenard" 1(062-190) Re, who the sume Jet [190] by Philpp Lenard (1862-1947) of Riel, who ‘Boer hse Gee, catndee hy particle can penerate matter, toa of the atomic volume mnt oe no obstace to thet penetration, ed dead emo ocx propery. in there fer o clettns anno postive charge separate fm the decuons {Be stom war contted entirely of pate which Lepard called Seem ate whch a secre dae poseing mas the aynamides were ‘uppored to be identeah, anda atom ‘Pity ere dase drought the sles of the atone bt the Toute was so small (03 10" cm) compared wih the radius ‘tthe Ser dst mot of ce Stomse vlame was actually empty. Lema atin, however, never obtained much acceptance a2 ‘idence oid be fund fr dee custence ofthe dyads “Te dection of an sparse trough an angle greater than a sgh nee wah eel phe gumpton of ‘Thomann’ or Lenar’s stom and Rutherford in December 1910 cape te cont te th enor, cul a aly by suppouing that an eeparele occalonally (bye rary) Ped throughs ery rong eccrc i, due toa charged nucle [tery amull dimension a thecente of the atom. This was cone ftsned a year later by GT. Re Wilton’ photograph © of cloud Chamber tacksol = pales which showed olen sudden deletions St encounters with angle atom “Tes Rutheload Was led to what wae pechope the greatest of afar nti tel of koh Be count FS woe published in May 1OLL". He found that it ‘odel atom were intyined with central charge concentrated within [ipl oles tan bl ch adn sroonded y eect ‘posite sgn diribtedthroushout the ret of the volume tithe alee (about 10°" em. radi) then dus stom would sy the known laws of sesicing a or parle, sound by ‘Geiger and’ Marsden. The central charge necessary would be Ni, E,W 2 (98) 8 ‘eactate SS pe AE : {ee nee gear ie ane TLR orca ee a ‘the Act oF RemseRPOR® - ~=—s—srm_'—esmsmss arc cu Sam a arte ht ein em re, Pd i ey tern, Be rae Ee et a yee Be Soa, Gs teil denne ur ogg en a Siamese Sapir ocean eae Tine Ruteerd so te te ole nem, mal pe heat mn Se mee oe Peso Ree ee a Seceera a) Siete Pampa ath natant spate a ei ea he aren (a SES as Sy are oe oe ene Se Ser etal be tea eae a el econ cece eee et Serene ney eget maenaery CG Dera, Sor Peter Sd anne ant heed Ni dd te prince! te he psie caters mat Stam ares ae is enon ant Se Satie hE Se Ne Te Sea aa eS Cea, mei See cesta See Se ay al stg and acy, a ately Sona ‘particle is a doubly jonised atom of helium, was now reformulated enema ed aor tial ra ove ae SF Seemed nie re ae am Beobite ma, tne ese of Mae Seapets tenor cane stayin ke Sr Rcaecime sy ogate die ers aia ea ojoe ete fh an Lo ee CE ee ae a, ve he ene eee om a a erick ge SEQ REUSE res ei anh RE ee ae ee ~” ETHEREORCE Som iy‘Avan der Brock of ech, He eared that when eparicer ‘peated uty iw anon of evens Sa Eid y Whe gheeel fe tige te nate mon We eon ‘As Geige? and Marsden had shown, ths eondion is roughly sted PSRs Matec Shane bergen te some wrote bat tan de oe ne puedo att woeld be ta TREE peut dewey Pe ar Chae wee ama be Frperedal he tamer epteting pce ae sleet EoDe Retin Mone lane uN. idm there, tara ge ie en baw tate the tals toute ad 2 est sam oft she pete abi : : sents pestis Kutueions loro st Mancha by Beary Bayete ele eh edhe te Sunt yong {nde Dardanelle, 10 Augost 1615) in continuation of the worl ENE he'und Datwn fal'Son cag on her Mota Taped atte a cetens own io nck, a am Exe Ge Gt GB ART deh bombatinent sree tay an hc carat Surg ects ‘SSOQTTAAI? as evn es he Rand ig 87 ad Heavens es nes Seedacd byte ena EAE HSE ae nether an lowng bor clement aha he Ban a ste to te uence Beet Mins as lon wae made Ht sy cent B heme Lfleret eee depen abe woe hee fen Sic heen #5 wer kara able SenCN Sart Fae nanber® or pe te pee BeeNa hws et eh a dite wor or he Kad IPE" GS Sein rin te tm eat oer, otic ubicy an halng ptr tothe elt of Rother gs Mn tnd a er guy only be the vic Ths ean apd fo the ovina mabe 9 te ene the "Posner of Men's work on Xray mecca mst be menue tow beta cee Wetter a Ieee mb eet 2 Sysco Sng the opi, sey greed by hema cones, fiat cibalt should have'a lower place in the perodie table than Shae at tang mig ms ates, aceite li BN rs at eum. gl ren a ‘Guestbn of Re number a clemcnas ithe broey a he rane coe seer rie eee esate st eee i ro ee Se Se ree ee ren ee oe oe pect ter eke ad oy a wet abot th eos enn Nh See ane cama eens eas Sei gee eee qe Pecela Dh Cael i et ee eee Eee ore cone bn, renee y wham tuscan eehcreas te era leg ore a ee ee arm rr as Seperate Sees al oe a oe le 3 Tie next bombard dy ai, and mitogen, with parle snd again ound entation ng ge The ai beta oar afin partes obaacd fom Sivoo thon prevoy bend from ake hydrogen led nto spec hat they were ese, {hit ongatge pues saed by bombarding ator wh seperti War Sealy byarogen noe The perl Wek ‘pBcnted el tat wme Of he Hier atom ight be scaly Eonar by colon wha dit earl ung beyond the caller dehy hat an apace night be deed eagle Slee ante by coe cison wit ates he ow ene fo fhe cinch tht on sll mre sre occas fay one epuricle Shs in) ap bet up te me, The etme ‘at found o our marly th tage, but hot wil dey omen yeni ues eid Wits ceed fetes avclih Pestnor of Pr a Cambridge Conta SSpenment there he suceeded’ in proving enya the "gt ong sro ei. pet gs ie eta tt eh ee remanence Sue Bees SERS Ta a eo ‘a 90, 9 a8 ” ATHERFORCEsitroge atom can be disintegrated by bombarding with epaticen hrrge arate inandeed thet of pares Soukd Be seen in the Wilton coudrehamber. Since the nisoyen area charge cet uni caprrs the earl Ehtrge 2, and expels the proton, of charge 1 the particle bua ig taoon mus have che, moe the icles ofan totope of oxygen: Since the mirojen nueteus Tass Tf the caused. apattle bas mass %, and the expelled Drovon Hat mas1, flows tht the oxygen lotope mist have Emir Tal oat Ruthend and J. Chadwick (1091) fund’ that sine ospetins Sod be proce tp bron Hoong, , ‘uniauns tnd phosphor and other” erent ere inter aided to the la Tn cath case the e-particle was captured tedium eu ch we eu ss gm ee ‘Bees ahem “Team of the teansmutacon of matter was altar died at Cambridge om 19 October 1937, and wat ured Winter Any meat the graves of Newon 28d Rein [He'eueSoned by is ences Thomson, who bed in 1018 Mee) Maat a ke great fauadaton of whack etd been Shae gamer see 167. "low fortunate T have been shroughout my life") Thomson sm ar od) vg a od pet ad och legus fond pi eo lens ea opporant, (och sd eyed eine” eter ob ightytrae dying 2 tealy gt S35 Aga tt,tnd war bused on 4 Selener inthe BS geese Sale he er "Fas 10 Me 2) pA aA | Chapter U1 ‘THE RELATIVITY THEORY OF POINCARE i ‘AND LORENTZ ‘Ax the end of the nipeteenth century, one of the most perplesn “taled problems af aural plfowphy war that of detrncing the mative motion ofthe earth Sn the acer” Leta wy to pret AR ates pened he phy hee Reig to Neco ins Et Moon ay pare which is ee Som the scion ef mpreaed Sorcea noes iP ows a a, sondern ely soln But node at eae {bn tnd ufone sis Ee a parle ich aid to be moving | ESSSGROICTs ceisler seul go appear I ‘Be moving in aright ne toan cheever onthe an, ance Ré wold perpace ts maton compounded wath the tar’ dammal rotation nd he mpi sviton inet bi We can, twee, deine a'sraigh ln wth rst ston of x Ove a the genet figure defined bys pur of lice equatone between sp 6 and Soo a Reo pierces at ca nti {them Moreover we cam awert that there ext certain wa ! tt messing tine such tha the vlotyof fee paris along thor ‘etlinear paths is uniform, "A vet asxea in Spice id's Sysem Secrest ich pace Ge prope my be aed la Neon ci 8 an neil te of eens, IES iranodhersytem rach tha the ater O'ey of” have ay DE ee ere ere ees fe a One | of, and ifthe satan sf tanemearurement the same inthe too {auth te so ner sytem ference the Newtonian ws of toon ar valid with rtpect to S just at with text to Novem Wal yen ot es Gb “having 2 paleged sate, tn the sane that could propery be ed ied ene te sik ere moving, NeWiea elas Ul dietnct iets enon et the absiate katy of «point fe sce Tin laws of Newtonian dynamics ths presuppose the baoweige a creat tap of lr wh ec eas | rete have any edning In the nineteenth centary mony pss pled Na sae elinsems oes sl be dooe and defined When Car! Neumann (1882-1925) was appointed profewor | | OF mathemasa at Lapa ia 180, he dove ha terogura mi " ATHERFORCEsce te sn ep hf Se aise eee W: Thomson (els and gear ieee dceaale cacti Ssh c ate eetarmmanaed tera Bs uk Olbet wes propinel hat he Body Alps should Beh Seb atcn wate ae ee conan dine coda eer em se te aa win cote apace areal tote Carmenere el tata iene ea ieee ae" anes Ling «ah seria of experimental invesigaion The mst pee fake Manca cabs, bee eee ce th taeeer tanec es ‘euhibited by a charged electrical condenser, a it is carried through ei eas us Sr eae eae irimaraf gatas sae SRM dar magnet fed willbe up the space between i eS cera eiogtemgeee dep asec rita Eine or eae ie sertacget ee eae Sic energy there me be mechanical drag onthe condense ices tama aarbona oat if the mass of a body at the surface of the earth were suddenly to ERE ie recede ea se aa Mt ee ta ae es Tie aT ke RR a TA Fama eB. ch, Paw yy 01, “ce Ste wren 395 a 6 8 “rie RELATIEY TORY OF PONCARE AND LORE cxtnet oft sremmape pete per he shreds tommpst pas repre ae eres, regency eat Get siact perenne Se i i pel te eet liar asetioshatien sane eter Oot Synge nas eee hotel hencahunt dai Stimath (td Sarg aman we Sara ances es sey i conta fe Soe ed, Peed ee pega ma a ae a a ae SB Tea reac Gl Meee ee ee ere ee ceri See il ep al oe Sates pean erento pet as See Sa era ap nee Sees Sea cia heaeee Sakirtel oe ee moneaTo pr asus dey Medea rl EE apy us ean eel aes ea scope ered fp bse inosine diet datern Battal Beta tote fhe iro oe ge dae i ceeiy ine eee or ahaha Fare o— ion was rigly sirmiied by Pe Langevin * to bdong to the same Seah a Hes ta at ca a cane pane pec ars ounce bebe ESS ce aniace epeetreetnay, rrr nanan on a aera sehen aa ee ay arm ee oe See al aad iets att 1 tat this mapposson were perbormed by nd by D. Bebrace in Y904! but no double refraction compara swith the proportion (e/a the singe racion could be detected, ‘Fhe Fieaberid consedion af material body cannot therfore be tthe same nature the contraction which would be prodoced She By by press; ut uu be accompanied by such Concomitant a US WS tay GS Pl eae Pa, Me (1902, 618 Tamara ee ” ATHERFORCEchanges in the relations ofthe molecules to the aedher, that an ‘Siac autetanoe doer noe lose ts simply reacting character, ‘Blen belore the cid ofthe nineteenth century, te fre of 9 ima romana sets to ents the way of the ea Fela the aeher ad sugyeted tothe penetrating and original Tutor Patnearéa new poly. aus (eure atthe Sorbonne J Taba alter desrbang the experiment m0 Lar made, which ad ‘ekled no elces involving eter te stor the second powers of heretics a aber the a oe car ena ety fight), He went ont say" ins very prbable Ra'gpuel phenotena depend lyon the rater motions of the ‘Rate bodles, ominous sSuers, aad opal apparatus concerned, {End iat Wire ue not merely a far gy quantities of te order of Ihesqune ofthe sbecation, bat nga’ "Tn other words, Poincaré ‘ekigded in 1099 that ale moon sr eetble pric, whether By dymanes, opts or electrical means ‘ihe flowing yeas, at an Ternational Congres of Physics etd at Par he asrfed the atme doctrine” * Our tether head, ‘ber iereally seat I donot believe that more recta observations could ever reveal saything more than rater dapseements” Aer {elrving te cesta atthe Spline hen een x {Ee seh ral eur terms of theft odes nee fret fom the explanation regarding the second onder cer fee ient omit i nbcesary to ind the come explanation for the Aeglive seule, obuaned regarding terms of tee to. onere tet there‘ every eauon to suppor eat this explanation wil then Ppt) eualy Yo rms of higher Order and tha fe mal deste Bh of dhe teens wil be tgorost nd absolute’ A new principle Arould cus be mraduced fo physey whe would rexeble the Sie Ea of Hermon mach a eee ipoosily Wf dig ametng in thie case, the mposily, eerie fn ey Se arth reiave to te weber Tina entre wo 3 Congress of Aru and Scence st St Louis, U.S.A, on 21 September 190% Poineage gave toa penalised fort ofthis ail te ame The rac Rac? Acordig tote FPincple of Relate said, “due faws of physical phenomens rust be the same fora tned” observer an fo an bverver who ‘Rasa usidoom mason of ransiaton relative whim: o that we have fot nd cannot pouty have, any means of dscerning whether we ror te not, Cae along in auch a mason’ After examin Ue fords of servation im the Light of this principle, he declared, spin yt at py in BD re i i Oe SE ASR ure tum Be vin ei 2 cr Ae ten ae es lis Yk, a eS ee ee ‘° ‘ie RELATIVITY TaRORY OP FoW‘GARE AND Lonstr2 “From all hese sels there must arise an entirely new kind of ‘Ayman, se el charred bee al by tere at cl cae ely fe ‘Weave now fo ge how an analytical scheme was devised which ‘enabled the whole cence of ys fo be relormalatd in secordance ‘Foes Pic of Rely at People a a inted out, required that observers wn have ulm motions of fandaton fate Ta each bother shoal expres the laws ef nature i the same fms Let ‘Shnuder i parila Ue la of the cletromagnete fel Tearents/as we have sent had obtained te uations of mony cece stom by applying a teansormation fo the fundamental ‘cytosol the geuier” Tr te gia form of hs tasformation, Serves oe ces, hate it (el re nected fin 1900 Larmor extended the analy otto inte quantities fefthesecond order Lorene in 1903 went further stil and obtned the trananrmation inn form which ie exact wo all orders of the ‘mull quandty (o[2), "Tn tas form we shall now consider it. "Tne Randamental equations of the ae ia py space are am divd=0, ecu a divh-0, ccuth- Ie is desired to find transrmnation fom the viable 3, 4, to ew vasables Jy J dy Suh ta te equi ‘errs ofthese new variables Way take the same form a the orginal ‘squats, namely iy d.=0, a ear liv, y= cour = dissin, theo, Eidety oe ptr co sah anrmatin is at whieh Ecrespon fag oe Se of drs Sse Sa Spectacles Sorgen ‘rmndicant os af decreas ny wich nndeen te eecaon tee fhe fact had, however, sreay become Ear Rout Lene firework ha sh oF eens in 0 oy neff YO Bm 4 ao La, Pt At, Ak a, * Bee dead ghey 195), 808 * ATHERFORCE4. & but alo the variable «2 So (guided by the approximate Blake tes, Mtdned Meow Epced deen of Sambraing (cy re] iota Heels by te condition of taser fg the exiresion (2tytre—et) to tails andy as we shall tw show! he muceedet in proving that the ransormaions 9 ‘2hesinl Rave he property of ramdraing the diferent equations Pike eee in the mane required sa a ner «amano hy dm i wh the vaables aide ae unchanged "The equations ofthis ana: ‘Brann iy easy be dative by coming that The equation ‘tthe recanguse hyperbola Boel (in the plane ofthe variable se) is unaltered when any pair of tong dln abe yaad pe a cng {Te equation of ranrmaton ts Obtained are toch an soe Soe cont arch anh a 1» Ea o ee es ign stan urna Ts mit ar Thy sa wale ph oo ee Goin ha traay rare & teagan ae sie ep ead at aa memoir by bis nurdueson of bx me. ere ee etc mtr reco area ieee oh potent a, secs 990, a= sedtahe 9-0, 404 “Thus if we roar the sof 2) andthe acs of 3) a8 Pa es ead la a ei eke Brees the olonaiats [eed a, O, Oy that © t t {mie RRLaTIVerY THMORY OF RoneARE AND LomErZ sayy the origina the (xy 1 ster moves with a uniirm veloc ah SB he wat the (ey 9 sem. The ee {ave veloaly of he Ovo nna bate ™ on an(1-2)5, 204 Leen’ rarormaton betwen thr co-ordinates may be sinh e= (1) In this transformation the vaiable x plays 9 prvi 2” cepa We can cours Se Bieta transormation in wich y ot plays the privileged part and we {jo combine ay usb of Se tatrmations by peg ‘in ia nacemion Toe aggregate of all dhe translations ‘ete, corbin wih hc agen fal rotations in odinary Space, ovsuta a gap, to hie gp af ‘eat ‘natural cktesion of the equations formerly given by Loreata fr the electic and magnetic ores i i een that cht tuations tor tranorming there when (by 9 ) are Wanaormed equation (a dnd, few yay con ae inh @ emda cosh at sn a Poincaré gave te name the bean ob a—basinh a) ewe coh a dpc When the orginal variables ave by direct sbutton replaced ty the new varables dail by 1) and 2) he fondant Fen ogstons fe shoy elie take em iv, d=0, eouth dy iv, be0, eur hat fy fda! of te ahr nin hi frm tel wt naa") ae ee * Gots Je), ead be el a en ae geet gaye ry mo yay eT HEREORCEwin (1, on at these tne the elcric and magi intensities efi srbgeet Ws teamaier 2 _— Fee eee dni magnet iene undergo th rat ee sme ae apace cect ‘as in other connections. ‘That this is so may be seen as follows. vty 1868 licker and A. Cayley introduced into geometry ae et ee gene hneie (hh a aan ae gle the linear of SEE ht ate anermaion sents coh Sah 0 SRR ESS a pan and the same trans on he enone (a ad te ae BR is perfrned on the corinne we have Per colt sinh «) Us coh oe inh 6) reaAee LARS Geet 2 ak 9 teyosoemtion of the #4 ae precisely the Bat shee, ates oof nnsbmaton (2) of the Wiese and ictal arp ne wre Pode pani Pond pcan fe hye the popes of anni rere Be ay rae cts sel pee ene chen Ret fix quan whch te eeFisPenalin: yp Pah ra fom te te tnevorina ope when he cpa ae ‘lg torent aso orate ae she wy tone aero ey ele SOR an wate ee Preteen ee PODS oer cen erm pa een i ere 2 ag en ton SUS jes hat aba ait Se aerate emery, eno at eye Se i ae etc spam a re om gael rer meen cli ck a elo ec See ns ag eri eae den at ie Ried deny be Mel ca a Soi at cnn a ane etn ae Paty gk ii ton fay if ont ole of ce ie fm ars Dar es om Tea ieleaca” fis Gam kar iy at Bias iter ie tana ca ca cb oo 060h—hlLh™—™—™- i imet wi ee ae erie ser abel Baty Sr SR aay erat ee ety at Hee Tage ee aaa a, Se a Seria! : a on sh a ee er ace 2 en Sal yt te Sramapasrmuretetanems 2.3) Bmtones Man ac a a ae ne oma es Soe rare a (Sa) Wan) alten), the cnr of th phe ocypying fo al oben ine an ‘Mnaanged psiton in the o-ondinate rate sre This ame: for peter he epreenacn of ftnomens wih Ergon on the far whining won here mcaray ao whe del Boy Mach Sa wth nee ee (ere 5, would prefer to we the later stem and hom the hint af thé vere at ange ether of thee year as Beg a ether The decinmaticie cjadone ae te sane ‘wih etspect fo both set of coordinate and there neiter ch ammo tt a Nak 18, 9 3 ” ATHERFORCEvi tops cy ty ich en cone AIS chi pe ol eae ict Prag ee dy em en pase Bc Be ttn ae adh, Seria aoe Pa pene te rem ieee nian oe a Sree sarin ere were ecadox ia explained when it is remembered that a waves ore etn tine i GRD al tnt hfe ei a uth peace ee of et, a Rea fay hr sa eg dl Boy ree pe cele, cl See ae Seana keene ee ge Big a Beal Fen al ten at A oes es re Se ea Tp hk easier eee Sh Sa eae yoo sehen ote So 1 er a eck mappa lacie nee er at Per ee ana ra Oats Bee ae ues Pc sare tn eh Tap at et we plo Seca in hve eo a a aes trical ged Rie teh eet Lo may 2 oc Pi eer at Sebi re on, Rout gad Lat irra heater! Seog at ee a, hrs Vane sec ces sere ae iy le uc ng men da ie wae # ig gah ce te nao ee ache (ae Gite besten? st uy wh vite Loreto Holland shorty een Ng at he opinion on thi question were oa Sa ein a position to show the conection between the LDR ik ills se aes Souler hve » mee pen On ‘rim RELATITTY THRORY oF PomKeARE AND LORENTZ Lorent transformation and FitzGeral’ hypothe of contraction ¢ 1S Soanucln was ft etanlihed by Lars ors spprocmate {Sin ate vets slain, che aceurae ly to te ete ioe ba th eon a a arent “Suppor tata rod is moving along the axe of with anim veilPES SS Bose or oa ela be Inlay ‘Tlac's yucom of aus Oye which move with the rod, ey Ga elena ih ans Ot sO Sind 'e eing ent parallel tthe seas Oy ad Ox espace, Si gc he ag ot the sed wl Seca eer ours Panda do ne wary wil Oe te ‘The Laren tans ‘Seman gives where tanh «= (we). Subtracting, we have eee —_ wD ate nV. “his uation shows tat the diane eawec thee of the BDAC niay Peeters added by The origi sey oh Teta whic the foi morng wih veo, bea he ogee wit dace doef Beane, ‘emia yh rare aeons ference which the fod ares ad rt rece Fira ypaesh oon. JE Typoites af HoGeral ay eden) be expresed by the ent Ha eeu fs of vl er oe ota, ay topes ne Einfach atone patos of Taint tat i Loren ramon ‘wfc bck ino helhene's snack hat the, Prine of Rein equ crt new mechani 1a Whi 0 ‘ily Yan eel the sey o igh “Spe Galan ened Sue Wis beng wanted slave 0 a Rta sts Ah eo wag the aes ft ‘pale Binvin slong he ax of Nave he cordate 0,0) been Kame 200,8 neoem be Des ieee OAs lrhalonge atone TE dt oh) rahe "et ate 0) 9.178 tap ” THERFORCENov te being the velocity of P relative 1 A, ws the velociy OCP Riatvesto Bi, “and ae the velocty of Breative to Ay in Sern Keats Wena ence Hh dem, eeu in thereat ort exprener de flerenee betwee encima they’ and relay theory 99 far as concerts the compotion ef vba Wee ta Prag then ees dat Sy iy lay compounded ith ¢ give ar dle ean ae ‘erctre that no weloty cat exere the veloety of Faas result enables so wlve a problem which had perplexed szany Reman of py Te Had een ope at he ance heory of igh a he compinclar theory, en the corpses ses Weaving sat shoud havea eoey which i compounded (Fie vel of the star andthe veloc of ight relative ts source Sige hob ow yn caring om an roc) ative tothe eafage wih the yeloty of te ein (ihe Tele oy lef covet hoy oe ste ry, ls velit ote ight cited by the ser sould be a Micka bythe velocty of he star, fasta the waves created by rowing stone into pond move oatrards fom the pint where Shenont ented he water witout beng afeetd by the vey Af fe sone, The new ean they Te 10 the, eign sonst the vloiy of light would Be unaiectd by the velocity fit source em th par oy ‘An atenpt to expen the Michtbon Morley experiment, and she othr eine wlll ha ie. at eo oa (tvoming that te vlocty of Eghts independent of the vloly of sour, yas made 1068 by W. Rie wo postulated tat Oe ‘isclty ighe andthe veloly of the tour are atv, s in Theol pst, however ve known certainly tat the oct ight dependeti ofthe motion ofthe source. The sstronomcal Bee Or tha statement has ben Marialled by several weiter? Sin further confiaaton har bee arsed by Msjrana by diret ‘Rpertment) It shuld be remarked tha since in purely terest xjertmerts the it rye aaa dexerbe cl pathy dhe eau {Olbe epected fom *alliticandnon-balite theories ean der ‘nly by anni ofthe ssond orden but the petformance of te sey pO ps A a reise uy & samme Mea (ai “elgg ta ne, Po. SS Bal of te Aan af (aed), pe. (3, 103 Monk Red atria fos os WG Pum ad aa ete aa GE OP on 9a. Sears pata be OE eet aur ta an a * ay F: He weane wx toners Micheion-Moviey experiment with fight fom astronomical surcet Bik Poo RTD dine dpoved he bl er "further result in hasmony with the new theory was obtained hey Mion” owe Xpeimentiy tat he eo of 8 Ting mirror i without inience on the velodty of Hight relleted aise vas (fie scenic! at eon oi hich STC Navelbeny, we say widow 2pukeane ne wa or the other in the Aipue between The wave and corpuolar Gases ‘tli Po, sceoing to relattycheoy, even ante compan Anahi puch ad ely eae re ‘woul ave Ube tne aelcty rea to aay observer, whether Be ‘hated inthe motion of the space oe ma Tn 103 Poiuare™ competed the theorem of Laren § om the earns of Maselhs eguatons with rexpect the Latent ‘tansormacion, by obeainng the fmelae of transformation of the tteeusedenstyp 2nd caveat pv. The fundamental uations are : a iv dntop; cout 2 s ‘a divha0; ceutha Shep snd i desired to find tansormation from the variable x 35 ‘dro now ean yt by ek SE SL uation tee of te ac Way hat Be aa form fe the orginal equaGone, “The tansormaions of 9.2 2)B hve abeady been found.” Poincaré ow towed that 77 * pop coth a+ (nen) sinh a Arte Ge foamy When the inal vavables are by direct sbsttation replaced by Rete vara inthe erent matin the he tke Oe ain dhaton, ay cary d= iv, b=, ‘a _ = ah eee SES yep " ATHERFORCE hn 0that i t say, the fundamental equations of aether and decane fetta cir Bim unaltered, when the variables are subjected to the {Eanlormation wih his bean specie Tp the autor ofthe same year, im the same volume of che Anaen der Pine is paper on the Brownian motion," Eten published a paper wbich st forth the relic theory of Poincare End Lorent ity some amplifiers and whieh arated much Meckon. He susred at'a fundamental principle the sony tality of Hatha the vlosy ight fa as i the sae oi Scio tleence which are moving rately tp each oer fe seni wih te Sine was ply ace bt as ben ‘oclaons which tmst nor be troduced lato the formtlae for Saiyan the Doppler ce 2 Gane, woe othe cart rp xeon ho in hc interval beeen Qe bserstions i nepal Bofote'an crit sytan of teen atthe earth at the Gime of the fot version by Read eral yom of scat earth at {He cme ofthe astondobeeraon by"? apd choos these axe ular te wax har the diection of tke veloety we (metanh 9) BERT eclaive to Re Lee be the ange which the ray-af gt Seg ecto ay mel he ne em Be foe coresponding angle i the sytem Kes Then Ebreder transformation give ae he coordinates of he arin the ‘ro ysem Goro end enh © yo (taking the plane of 97 to contain the sat): and ince light is dated fi vlonty «in both sytem, we have d= yet" Bevieny"). Thus ™ 7 (ggstoam: coe coh asin con = ach aco sinha Teva “This is thereat fala for abration + it may be writen sn ph atanh fain C3, pORETATRLRT cmypgygomeasen om, e ‘Wt RELATIVITY THRORY OP FORGARE AND LORETZ ‘When power of (we) above theft ate neglected, thi give ¥obot sin, Spar are ee a ee eee a eres ee areas ire a nea soiis esp oar Screg meate arceerl arses erage Se ee ala i Sey nay ie ee cea ESE Eee eens (eetonsisasing) ihre the quency of the gt a sieved by the tee Sika t SAU aaa re + (ootoe bers) y (pH cong sab) when the foquency ofthe ight at measured by an observer om beat a iain branches {roan ard sahew 3 [cnet sinh cont’ snd]} wv (eon ang, gusting coeficints of , we ave (coh asin a cong) = 1 Peas ey Thi th rt fa for the Doppler eft. When ony ite ht ee tae he (2 " ATHERFORCE‘whee ris the sail component of e+ whichis dhe oder formula che Doppler eet, TEI Be noticed that the rats formula. ters fom, the ‘ldet Gals bythe presence ofthe ctor VGL=!). Now ian sheer ing wy intro a ea te Spine B nhere'n clock belonging to he ier stem reads SLB Fic akeewants pases» place O where the cock in the Serta eth tends and WP the ineval of ine sexist by the eet hel between the potions P and then i flows at ‘he ftom the equations of te Lorene transormton that sm ate can meat omy peak ofthe tr Va a ‘Renting the dlworrite a whch the observer's clk is ranma [Enmparal with cocks tat ae at ret on the stat. 1 ob WOU ‘hatin factor must coryr i che relatvst formal Mie sbervel tat in the relatvst formula, the Doppler ‘eet not sero even when the relative motion ofthe sure eee ght angle to the crecuon of propagation of the Highrise Gado) we have ‘ri the ft approximation he equation” ‘As we ae com Puce ad caged hs equation but had GAT geen prost trish, however, war pt foward only at “proxate) for‘ pagcular eaves Leis regarded i as an exact 2bbitiom bot his poo aan ar not o's general character. Laws, ‘idvever? poised out that Wil principe i accepted, en ia Planes ejustion of 1906 (aoneraua se) LAS Sot Se ies ite eating was decd fbr by K. von net eer oc a OE Bas ED ae a Pn i ae ee Sealy crag ahaa — ‘ub RELATIVITY THEORY OF POINCARE AND LORENTZ the lst tenn, met, mit be interpreted a mean the energy of the Darel when at res, whereas the dference 7" ~~~ —S=—emd Seat argue Fergenimaon of hy hei red xian ecm aha as i Eero tte pore! amet Siete Ss Sig Lama Senet es et ee ea oe, Sh er in tre ik etree ye eo Ecnoar arama Pome a (Gr oa Ree rita yea han be iit a Uae Ae om te wa ne and dhe reaches that have been deseribed show that in calcula Eve mun inl energy retdent im theacther 1 1011 Lorene ‘owed that ext Kind of energy mist be sneladed—matcs, etched Soper ate ine so are Galt grate nmin 2 Stier ee ES ” ATHERFORCEstringy, leh ray, et, For example, if x sytem consisting of two ‘Seca cog pero args ean a dataneee apart, ‘'oomsideted hen when we alealate te value of for the sytem, tre do not obtin smpy the tom of the vals of Er the Snres separately (a Calculated when they are ifnitely remace Hees), Bak we ma le ao cg repens (era) and thereto Grass of he aytem must include aterm Sufoly, che mass of a system of gravitating bodies i not the sum of de ane take separately, but nludes © erm epresening fa) mes thee mutual potential Scrgys "Thus two Newton eee vies ny a ae a diane @ part ty om Fe eat rent papitchra es icica Sacra, eae Pike Wrenn kere ieci lbara ‘heSmomentut density naident nthe acer. But Planck now eerie ccna ti aes oe SALE) Soin ren dn Eee ee eee mane siotdsg temrmemarvameeee sr one ee ae ah ce clay roms a, an Cain i ig oo “rue nataniviry Timon oF Pomeand 4x0 Lomsnr2 appareny be deduced tom the theory of relativity, One af these, ‘She to Levit and Tolman’ may be decribed allie Conde {fig beac ve ae ata pied ath woe arb a ae ‘and perpendiease, a suppose that frees Fe and Fy eal Gots ite ai apple ate ann Gres pra Be od iPteoecttels® Re Secon incu ‘Now le the whole stem be efeed oases with fespect phigh ang lei in the Stn be Sbiuly Ril st bein equim, according tte theory of elaty, trih reference the Dew axes Ge aM be sould experience FitGerald ontracuon, and so shouldbe sbortoned im the rato (i=eole gol wisieod has the tame lenges arate. Morven, ores dena Me the rae f eammuniction of mentum with ‘spect t the tine sve in the nepal syste concerned, we a ‘hw that dhe values othe Frcs refereed tothe new ats See BeFa/(I-8) “Ths he fires produce moment Bteky/(1- & “ Arab tng hon 351 apparel wel nt be Stas onl by he Bowing eno, vie doe to Shamed soc ates? At the plate te ove Fe res seers ome Ae ae teh, recat At ger cart ere er ee ae i rape Heute Gg ME aeons ing eg ee te Da ee ee Beei chea aie orgie ced Epc dere oie mop nae ed pe at es pebae oa aoeet ‘Tas we se that the couple (1/4). Fab, produced by the two {bres Fs and yi eae inorder io account or the rate cf inceease 38 Rey sin a ao. . n "Ene ven Hh te 19, 818 ”_ATHERFORCE HOD uF, of (Ne) Feet 2h MOY we, oe (Ie) Feet ab$f ie mn ee TASCA alge aeometnn cn on {Shisha tthe cae) rods the fee Prana fy whe act at SES aici aran tats a na seston lh steam increta hota vaable angular momentom, “fhe cae and ever fact exert calaneactiameen tee oo meh ec Bheggesce sie oe a See aseesnaenrs Sire te aticcecrscrtrivimrren Spunk roraaire cae ceirrnats Saas eae aie arenes Spear oancaee unre oes Tangier bane ce iE ee ete pie cet earch Sinise mae a ences cae eee yeh bescontem aaa Take Serie meaimaagsts Besrrenalrs ik etry ae Sharon artawaeemeges ates aera cs Pa on ley uri rondgeag joensen eltrence are changed. ‘Since (fa) +{y-J)r ea) or ay) Seat ey Syd sche reamed adage ape ay Waa ae doy apie Loreen ie ae Hee Rare Reena deniers ‘the ge-plane at Py and by (X Yay Za) the components of traction 8 geese Manatee tot ait ms . al ‘crog the sepa a P, then, aie koi We have Zy=Ys, Xe Za, VIDS so we can wate Kee Yooh Zn ZoaYonh Xone, Yr Xynh ad the recon be repeeied by the dome (66 ‘Novels eae ofrtonce Be canged by ay oan Be ae igen, Laon Wie colaponta of sae a Ph apt th nw tes Oye a ded by (Fae a expresion Dhak y's inten alee os SAh Cangas th war oat {8 Sctkan's getptal wow’ grea 2 "rae tals nth toe ie Scar eee eo SPT “Ail Ala fmt wy at of Seg ores lr ot ok SOBER PEE Be gee eee 2a ae ane ig am invariant for rotations of the system of co-ordinate ane, it Fale that Oe Bo on wD ie para ym tor of ak 2, and snc al yoni tn? i yc EerpCnailie Che Demise Soma ine ath 1S cali ower chap tat FAB, G 9G Aden Be ances pura ef eo sapien tae he Sihcteadhlte te BOE "G, "sate "Felden jt sven cn be general #9 a8 fash Lethe ann) aid go) be two diferent vcs "Then ho Lepage) ont Oe season Bice ~™ ETHEREQRCE ‘a, Fer Aus New Haeal be called 6 tens of rat 2, fey tar in the same ay Pb 4 Tn Fn i Bb Ob So far we, have considered only tensors which have invariant propetes wit repost to the rotations of a ayer of onhogonal Extrdinate anes in theesdimensonal space, Th taco was fencaben into a tentonealster applicable to raformation in faved space of any number of dimension. by" Gregorio Rica Garber {i053-i9h5)"of Pada fom 1087 onwande’” ie hie became widely known when's elebrated memoir dexibing it was abled ia 180) by Riot and Leveivitat eet toate Aa fel cooninc" pecig the pid 9 pia ia pace of dimensione. Lets new variable Ey pss ds betntrodeed by arty equations Rafts te ot) Lee 0) ‘hag the dir ofthe coordinates are wasirmel according tothe equations 5 Bn (1s. Ata pont P ofthe mdimensonal space we can consider various Gt quantities analogous tothe alae, vectors and tenaoy that we Sine lead consider “ily, there may bea function of positon where valve is une hegey shen eprom he acorn 1 Sach a neon Sealed salary en of rank oe ‘Second, we conder a et of = numbers (V's Vi. V4), which ate dined wits rerpect to al co-ordinate syaeme nd which when’ we perform the transormaton {Ip ate tasted i the Stic way he doy a0 that w By (haa) whence vag ey (1 eee Such a st of x numbers is called a omtaparia! tn of rok 1, oF ‘olga cy ad he nutes ate called yo ‘Next comer gets af mumbert (Ny Xgne Xe) which are ch that i (VV, Vy is any opteavatiant tego of Fa Ty de um e360 PSUS pala Suck sn MS gM» HOG AS, Jk De MP 2s ‘set of m numbers i called nro tri of rank 1 or carat Since ERVATRVAERE EN we have Xin Z EN, whence Nim E HEX The covaintocontvariant charac ined by pacing the indexer or sper paton repel To Fara ce, for rotations of rectangular aan there 100" dsaeion Eten contrarian sod covaian tess fst the poe Fo he nedimemional space, we have nt numbers (vey ins Pe hic, wen we peor the tausformaton ins et Wie is where Phen PY and (Qe Or are ow ovine tena‘of tae 1 Bai‘ ie'the components of eran! lor of tank?” Seiasy we mbar (So Nino sr Rag) which ramon Uke (iy Sey rnske¥s) where («$8 and Wy) ave vo dillerent ‘ovarian tors of rank‘ are mid tbe the components of a SoS Tahini hs ERLE A Nes ale Witmmedeees ras twat hy pecan Pear as a Pas al nica ges te Phd Ws cle few el soon yy bon ee 8 (x). hr oe nna sy oo ene, Erp Se Peat calls BPS SBiteeih een seenta tet nh cat PRR oes Cana ea ae ee severelinteas ely eile hater Sees Sei een eat Ae a pp Ld a i oat, pre Agee vf lato hn none mtr i Aa See orn PCa tye egal hy bo ™Coasider the wansormation of tenors when the co-ordinates ” ATHERFORCEae bite the paar Lorne wemfomatin (wing, igs cosh 0 Sy sinh «deja diy sinh 04d con dindte dymd Tis ound at once that Jor ay consi? P= con oJ sn for oy earn: ‘Tor Jo cosh oJ, sinh Jy Josiah af cath «Jam fora arnt seis of rank 2+ cos «th 2X sinh SEI ie sin ot 2Xor sho onh + Ny cmt BOX Neo Xee Sue Sn Ne Ny coh sn} Ny, (ou abt) + Xu Sah «co foro evra sw tems ef ronk2* i Neg=Xoy coh a+ Keath o, Rigs Kes ck a 2 EN sinh a Ku -Nuw Ko-=Xu cosh a+ Xe sinh e, Ky Nu cae PN sino 1 seen om thee at eto that sea ach a ig ‘onsiatad by the lecre and magnetic ntenides t mae, ar @ Sige tenor of rou. "We ean write Kwed Xenthy Xarth Xeshy Nemby Xueke rom the definition of a tenor, it evident that io tenons of here type are taken sy (2), nd (V2) th the gan formed by adding corresponding components of these tensors T= XE4¥E are the component ofa ear of theme ype, which is lle the ‘av ofthe oor (5) and (¥). oe) ‘run RELATIVITY THORY OF PomNEARE AND LoRBUEZ Moreover i i evident fom the dfnisions that if two tensors, spy OFA od a are en ened es and Taponeltl o he otter, ten he we" products 90 formed are the ‘components of new terkor of rank (2) thus) Xy YE=UZ, “Te tem (UZ) i ele thet pdt of the tere (%) and (¥2). It may property be called @ product, since the distri- X(V4Z)=XV4XZ kl We eam fr nei way the oie rai of any namber ONSGn arbitrary tenor cannot in general be expremed as an outer product of tenors of rank Ty sige there would not be, enough [banter at our deport to Sat all the conditions Ti it a tensor (2) i giver, we cannot fm general Gnd tours of rank 1 (ip, ayand (V7 bach hat XI-Y.ZVr but the sum of any number of outer products of this ype willbe a tensor of the type (2) nd by aking the numberof such products ‘alien ret, wo shall have enough quantiles at ou disposal to represent any tesae (Xt) ia the form (Oneek zee ems XIAV ZV RHE Bry Next comidrenor which hs both contraariant and coesiant indices, (2). Make oe ofthe upper or ceavaran indies ‘aa wid Sie of the tower or covaran indice adm With ‘pesto sien =x “Then wecanshon that he mb hg ad, when by 7= 1,2. sot copots of ee ter (Fa), whieh st Ler 3k tank than (205). To prove thy" we remark that (2) cam be ‘Spremd as Tam of outer prasad of tewom of rank" sd the ‘Blin thre Cebly ete in gence efor " ATHERFORCEthe cate when (X; hay fn single outer prod of tensors of rank XI-¥, 2,7 U'VL ‘Then we have Exg-Z (vy) znv: and since 3-T)U" isa salar, these quatites are the components ef a tora ype (12): which tables the eorem. Tis Pe atone ofa ming th Fat fy nue of es a hen coming (neo ene tts rey anal we oh ‘eau J nate ee eel po Bae ie Ma) ‘7 Eotpace we oelder il faneraly be sapped each ee a Cenc nes ‘derences of the condones betwen the enc of he areclement {ip otary Ea cima pace ith ange (ay (are Nt eI, and with spesial-poar co-ordinates, ), we have (anaes mae sioredg We assume generally that the square of the ne-lement dei a homogeneous qundra form inthe tifzentilof tie coordinates ‘These lierntats will be weten (ie ay = a, te inde Teg placed shove soe (dF = fa Sobivannt vector (2-5 ane Since (4) i a wan is obvi, fom hs cation tha the dumber fn (he gos a) mart be the componente of 8 eo arisen er nk 2, Un) hein led te art ein be “ne RELATOR THEORY OF FONCARA AND LORE et deo the determinant ll ofthe cece fy an lex dente (i) esther ang. = B ere 8 egal to er O scnding sy equal 1 diferent Eom n Then Saletl S —hw [Now if p and Yp are two arbitrary covarlant vector, and if Xp Et so that Xin contravaian veto, we have EASY, E eee x'yl ~ Zax Which isa scalar: and therefore the 2 are the component of & ‘Sonoravariant temo f rank 2 Tt ie Elle the coor fae ‘metal inor Morevn FU" ia contrvaiant vector and Xeis any covariant ENUF vx, wale ad there (a tenor 2, covariant wit respect Ee index pe evar wil rept the Ine pH ‘Sig the sd inet es By tla of th damental tewor CP) we can derive om say covariant tepor QSyecrng) 2 omtavariat tenor of fhe Rane ‘Sn by ne te Mh ees, Tei easily shown that thi equation i equivalent to ro Boat ‘Thus to every contavarant tonne we can correlate a definite ovariane Yeon’ and we may say thatthe ditneion between ‘variant and sdntavariat tchsor loss most of i importance ” ATHERFORCEwhen the fandamental tenor i ven, Le in a mul apace, since Ris not the tenor that are enentlly dierent, but only tha ina recat therepgent for uml we red CF enn ae cata BEL SS EIR scores on Ess PA Exyr~9, ‘the. the two vectors are sid tobe vgn ‘hie ster geen le nme cletn we cn reuur fo plysce A contnbuton of great importance to relay ‘henry ora mace in 108 hy lem Minow 18641909 levee paren dst i tf how chat hi fren equator ofthe electromagnet fi in moving onder: Siete ire ow gee cons (yo gmeti) an be derived from the deena equations for the same system thos a et by the pineiple of rlity = and to rae nome ‘tthe formalise’ tt hale een by Lorente But these sere ‘ot Stl dhe no porantlemete i he paper th seat ‘Svance made by Mintel were connected with bis ormulSton St phys in terms of ourstimensonal mandala tke ae of tense in Ke many aad he danery of son ofthe mote importa "he phenomena sadied in natural philosophy take place each at aes ates th ade tone Be thot eee jigraimesedl wot apace nde" Th Ser fre fd ow made i clear thatthe separation ofthis four-dimensional roid ino a thrsedimeional world of space and a independent Specimen yor of gay yf ina init nmr SF'vays, each of which it dstngued from tie other onl charset that are merely “arbiary and secidenai.” (a Seder to sepretent natural phenomena widhot inteducng. th Sringe emg 1 ete to shann the coma dimensional sptem tf coorinals, and to operate in lout oo TPG He Jo 6) and (tym Jw &) ate the time-and-space co- 1 cee LSPS ene ately Pome dtc breeacepattnn $e eager UIE, a eee ag aha Scenes Sea Ene okees % “THE RELATIVITY THNORY OF PORNEARE AND LoMRTE inate of two poinveveas refered to an inertial system, then, Shwe have sen, dhe exprenon (ot) Halts Onan eet) 1s invasiant under all Lorente wanformations, and theefve has the sme value taharer ee tata frank rec quantity © theretore an ivariat of de topo emt, whieh I these fo all olyrvers and we can make our fourdimauional facestme ste io deseribe nature wen we impo meric oni, ihich we do by taking the asl (te oursichona aos of Seagu betvec the evo event ly MJ 2) a lm Ho) 1 BO [enwdenssorn tenet ‘Taking any point inthe four-dimensional manila axorigia, the cone a0 site hie i called the ml cn parton spacetime into two regions Uvbich one's deine bythe equal and Includes the hyperplane 210: the dieeions at the origin ‘yng ie inequality are aid to be puna dictions ar et SoG he he read te pal Lente ae tion re smply te rotations and Wandaion in thr mail "Now conser tenon ia the maniol 7 ‘Minkowsks had ot propery amimilated, the Rist tensor calculus at applied oo noheBuclideam smal and in onder 00 feb to work witha apace of Ewclidena type he used te device oF wring tbe "y= ithe spnce-onondintc being denoted by Sh Sos that the expression! (ey (Gy + dere" ‘which is ivaviant unde ll Lorene transformations, Became (4 (di JT ma of cing tn at of 8 inal Cy. eUmibinrensogntistiint sree 3} ‘Shirts pin guia utenti ih a th ~~” ETHERFORCE‘his enabled him to take a is mesic (dt (e+ (d+ (+ led Which defines a four-dimensional Bucidean manifold. Tei, however simpler to work with the real value of dhe dime, and to expres Minkowndt's roa Up terms of tenors hich ext {nae non-Eusidean foretimensonal manbld weave introduces, whose mete specie by (dr eae (ea— (HP ()* which we may write (aoe = (ae (aay (eo 1, turtangne le aategte a1. is grestet discovery * was that at any pope inthe electromagnetic fei sae tere exis a tensor of rate 2 of outstanding psc Itmportance, which im is xed form (E") may be deBmed by the uation Beh WERT EES ren ete crams decoy, dt 6 2, Apu MASE ea led at Seles Boke Sy hae Boxe ok Sebacatng in the equation which defines E, fhe components af ts tenor name, Ge dE the hee Be) Xin deo X= Xue Ky Ma X¥ Xe ‘ve find the values of sah Beng we this represents the density of electromagnetic energy, dsovered by Wi TRomon (Kelsie) i 18555, Boe ety Be didn, Bo chy —aty “Mure tec tinume ae g m ile aac; me tata ae 7c Seat tint i en sve yp azn . "THE RELATIURY THEORY OF PORARE AD LR (Ee, Ba Be) epronae (1) Snes the. Bor of cletromagnetic Sig, donor by Poyohig and Heande int Bt bbe Bate 2 bea) Bm hay repent ¢ ins the deny of ear ay oman The eh land ndP bh, Be, = Et, — Be smagectic momenta, sod ly fr and non aderbh, sod sina Bo, be, BB The soe quien Bs be Be BEB BEE preent the components of ures in the ax, coed SESS in osST Th wh cmp of the in Bhar pte Risin hte hc SoNTN a dra ant RRM Eco utes leases aces tioor ofan The tenor Bis ced Se mg fa oe SEetomogactc ad Since B= Sab Bap Ee, Ey Bu and hence we Bind Ey. ~By ac generally ByyEey tht i yf Moreover can show thi pte nity of ery and rE? fr tht metic, we have By, Be BL ABE teased) BEE EE EE Ble gheendy) ae fern) eth fiery. Savana savanna saves "ATHERFORCE‘The eto thee equation is E diarsarsers weairehn se? Lada) ae at ea 4S headin + $f tesa) = -Plode ty) ar (desty of esetromagnetic energy) + Ae (a-component of fx OF leGomagnete energy ssiéy (component of fe of eect. Sagnese energy) +800 [ecompoment a Hux of electomagnene energy) pled yt oa) rate of increase of electromagnetic energy in unit volume + rate at ‘hich energy leaving nit lume we tork one bythe electromagnetic forces on electri changes ‘win se ie wl) TAPAS E clsty nothing but the cain of eoscreation of eur. Mhbly the oer three of the equations (A)"are the equacons steawaon of omen, foment a com especialy! Tis open to his paper? Minkowski threw a new Hight on the eguadihe of he eelatvee dypamics of a mater parce, ictal been ecovered by Planck two year eater, Denoting Uy lacy) the comeiates of the particle at the nstant fhe ino. eekiad lotion of the poprtine rf te parle, whove differentia {S4tned by the equation L carpe cane) lars corer} Iti evédent fom this equation that dre gvarant under all Lorentz Urnformations af (05,2), 42 6m the language ofthe tensor= Cities sean, Aw wring eh =m my, me we Siow that (de, de, ae a) mn ai OE SSE. Nan Pl en eu ri 10, 975 Se sencmateea aie wEee at “9 ay ty ay RB) ‘Nowe Banc hc shown that mathe ass ofthe pari, ite cncegy E'S mel e/a and is components of mora are its fs contravaraat vector. AS Ths (Ble Pe te Bd 4 a contavarant vector, Thit is called the eurgy mest "ened si aon ed sept, Recenne ras pene ya cheat felt eal el ia er SENSEREA ll pepe hie be ene eran Ph Oh Bc serra ise asta Saar ae Gerke bat atta so-[ian- acre) ‘hn ma ere tin ny ye oven ia wo-(18 & & i : AETHERFORCENow the equations of motion ofa particle, at fond by Planck were ee Comparing these res res dat we mut tke the Ie ere ‘omoent of the relat force to be (27h mg os 7 mftar, nihaFe fe aftr, Since (Geo) is a covariant vector, the fit selativst equaton of motion must ‘idetly be a nme ore Thome Mi a of ion orton, The at enon eat megan where Eis the energy which ie evidently te, since Bs ie, Since MX V4 + 2, wehive 4 aeardes Fy + Poie node) re rae » ‘re RALARVEEY THEORY OF PORCAME AND LonESTZ o Fadl Rude Flys Fede 0 ‘as equation which may be expreed geometrically by the statement res that tory Fy 1) gia ha tee af te prt sandy 4 & 6 4) (a & 2} We cn nana single prion the pndeumotve force ona parse ofchargee and welosyy vin electropho), In Neweotian phys the thece components are ethed) eres Sy fart stg) three consonens these, ‘multiplied 'by dds, Sof the retest force (F), we have oe ™ Baa (dit eae vst) fn Vo Kae AY «6 eee hee one( #) {i the contrvarant vector representing the relatvit veoc the parle Ths may be wien oe £3 Xv ad similarly we have FelZ MeV) BALE NSM ‘hge are he las hee component ofthe coat wt which 1 haley eset fe cectemagncte meer a mk parsley cosy VG the bo component ae hee Sr be he ot compet of the rset ad et fem pr of agenda i £3 Xv ‘The fat that energy-densty gceurs at the component Et (of Minkowibis encgytenson while energy ce Mr the st "ATHERFORCE ieee Keri at in cpeetion Between the fe men his ext ” Grr enter oceping ite volume and inv erty onal cee bor'winch te can dele an energy tear TE much if ceoemes rues gee ramen gicioree, as jam 200 0 0 r=43,3) (is) here sno fx of energy in the tate of et 50 Teo, THO (1,33. e From (1) weave [[froes ae ffftonrfoerons Lan bere the int Hae 2 is taken over the whole volume occupied by fern: [free eof bm ae) where the lst intogral taken over rare § enclosing the whole Stand (hme) ate te dittion-cornes of the outward. dear Born, THe suppose de surfce § 2 lege that i aces the whole ofthe nce which here ae any tenable feet due to dhe sytem fearon Sy and Gere te fast integral Yoshes 53 “es {[froa dee. © [Now mippote that (ts 2) the frame of reference relative to EN Bb yet 22! ate, SD he same ern ch arrive to i the system se item parallel tothe ait ? {THE RELANWITY THEORY OF POROARE AD toREITE £3 with ciy @-etah a Theat 9 2 a enw be Prva tothe dau of uy ¢gepectely. ete tao Bendis ae comes by he oats and the equation of ransomaton a the mined ete Tt ge Tyo cat Issa cae Ts! oa ie Ty eal Te sinbte Ty sinkta [ftom tosawre Tne 6a fffeomer sinha Ty) sech de de, since Ay, (3, 5,3) tmearor over the ald a Lh ait being understood that 5 5, Z are Constant value of Soy (> {ffs a6 a-can fffte ded te Now let U= [ff de dy de, s0U represents the total energy ofthe tystem when at ret. Then dine ca (aw Bem the result now ‘Total energy asociated with the moving system =U (1 ut), “This may be sgardod a6 an extension, to yen of fit se, of the orale chat ip relay theory the Chergy of & partes of Dropersaatm, moving wih veloc wey Now consider the momentum. ‘The equation of taslormation, ba dned tensor ol ran ver date cate Tosca sabe Ts ” ATHERFORCE= Lain fff ae as, oy) - +; ev) Now —Ty represents the density of momentum, Therefore the {otal nomentn ete moving seem parallel tothe as “This may be rogaded az an extension, co systems of fie size, of the tormula fr the rcomponent of momentam of a partici. ‘he above aaj svg how be competent the acy snomencun vectne oow no longer rsrcted by the condition tat Gre apply ony {o's single parte) cag be derived from thos tthe erbeytentor” Ie wevident that whereas the eergytensor {tested Qeseach of tu components i's fupetion of pean in Spa he eg ot rt ied Sekre ae Aocovery of tlaivity theory, physics were accu tomed 10 think of enengy not at component ofa tensor, but asa Sealar: and indeod even im ratty theory, energy as shared By ‘pura beer sacar. Fo lean observer be saoving along {het of 5 wht welocty 0 that Ue covariant vector representing Ris loc, nam 4,-#-$-2) be Re) oF nf fn 8) — eae a SE? FOR" Rnerton, Ae Ey Ma SY (0, SA re a, el e -_—— Leta pari of proper m be moving inthe ae straight ine ‘wth locity the tecontavarianteergy-momentom Str (8) malt) ‘The eaosetant of thee vector, samely, Gas Gn Geto, isa scalar: its value is Pt Rs moms ey ” 7 a0, yao. Now the relative velocity ofthe particle ad the observer is, bythe shaw orl, sad the energy of particle moving with this velocity relative to The ates of reerene i a se ny pi, at solace oh fries ergot tetrad he! sates 1 ector which sof importance fp ecromagnctic theory may infect ee pars ofesbeveciae m BeXO, eX LOX hee bya X, hee Xt Worl nh spn nf oy) ever genih tty Rae be td fr, sh qeon, The que sere age et, Setar svt, Me an tenes tat Secs dnctetie ile Potente dt ea tal Satay SEC cee ~ *" ETHERFORCEthes fy by $) aria sctr: connection withthe si secoe Bien bythe equations Knit oy 1 was discovered in 1915 by D. Hilbert dhat the energy tensor ‘fastens ean be expesed er of the Lagrangean funeson of {he tem: “Thi theorem was developed furer by Schrodinger SH Bic YS he vl war gen By Seung el (ty) be on of he foster oki he Larges dpdt tt gto gta dL i ccncnamete theory Sopcast nthe elite picsalwecion ou ay Snes Be dete lt tern hol of i ay ely ae 580 of 1 acd ai i ma, if fom and te de are caret Se eee wee gap fate tna Ti he inlet of al eter stove ators, Mine tesa atte eae Selly Fetes ey PS Pee ceo aman Rena ence SSE Oe cicinice 2S _Constant woo hich again isa case of (1). From (#) we have, by (2), foe be (G4) Comat us, : o his equation does not sive the way in which the frequency» enters ho derma oe Uh yen Had shy i TR Et of the tres TSG(TN}Ay of MY/T|Oy 20 by (ih, U mus be of v=) © * ne Sa (10, ravens (neg -cnsnonor OF geavren THEORY ‘Ths equation (8) must have the form = Con and terete by (1) the average energy-demity of the radiation Inthe frequenesrange'r o'r ae Bf where and Dace constants. This Plows formula which agreed Sith experimental detersiatons of Lusner and Pangsbeiny, Je geo Hates ia Renu an Rtn well at taoon dplaced all ober sugested la of radiation, tts hove a jot helices thon seems orm since cqustion{H) hat‘ complete theoreti! juneieation, "This ‘iclecc was gemetiod on 1? December ef he Same year (1900), when Planck ead to the German Physical Society a paper * whieh Placed Bey und uation ain dng raed He comidered a sien conaasng of large numberof simple erin vibrator, fos hollow chamber enclonel by retstng wi UN of the vibritrs have the frequency N° the leeney Sed wo on. Suppose that an amouavA of energy iin the befor, at teeey vr Planck stumed that tha enetay i constuted of qual dace clement, each of-amount ya Wat there age sMlogether P such clemeiain the N'vibratoe that o AaPe ‘Thos he asumed that the emision and absorption of radiation by these vibrator ake. place not continuously, but by jmp ‘Ay gion of tice Pee ang the N wbatrs may be Sle a rump, tne mer of pole complies at ‘uaber of panble ways of amiutingPatjetsinong eontaine, ‘hen we Go er take secount of ich partclar objets ie Th cular containers, but only of dhe murtber contain 1, each Fis punver's by the ordinary theory of pemutacons and com weP-p {xo prion ont | ant pani ain RSs ER em ” ATHERFORCE[AGN apd Pare very large number, we an we Sirling’s approximate Sahel the Setataamely, log (e109 (e=#) log ££ lg (2) 4 the numb of complexions is approximately aandicny YY Sere We assume shat all complesions have equal probably, 20 the inbigy W of any rate of the stem’ of N vibrato i pro= fordonal fo the numberof compesionecoresponding toi that wih sulicene approsinntion for aur present Parpo, we ave log W= (N+P) log (N+P) =N log N-P log P. Now the entropy in any state of «sytem depends on the inequality ithe dtl ofthe tual energy among the naiaal members tthe system sand Betta had Shown 5h work Ove inti {Bory "of gases" "thatthe entopy ‘Sein any sate ol a. system buch us these brat is clowely connected with the probablicy Werthe nate. Planck developed this dstowery feo the'apuation Siok log W ® ere the damn paiiy Wg ae Senses the groconstas one maecle oF ‘ine SpA (N+P) log (N+P) -N log NP tog Py a eae, and Now Po NU whee U ithe aera ake rte X ito, ft the energy’ of one. of them. ‘Thus retaining only the nes important tetas, and ignoring terms which do ec involve U, we ‘ve ‘HE nEomOINO! oP QUANTUM ZHEORY so the entropy of single oxo of he sti 8=-u{(t+¥) tos (142) te Y). Thus from equation (2) above, 1 bg eV Pay Ue But by equation (8) U must be ofthe frm nT). This condion aed er ree SO hs ob 0 hg ia conan indent oy‘ ara fovetie ‘lt aoe of ly tat an a re "irom (9) and (10) we have be Unt ae herr by (1) eee er dey of Waly rfitin Seen a Whe bral of epg esos cd Ente te or Bade ay whichis Plans formala. This grees with his eater cele (2, ‘tthe cantons nh were unkown in (1) are tow replaced by 2d hich are important constant cf mature and Spee fa many ther connections “When 0, te formula gives EAS eta, or Ee tabTen hich s Rayleigh’ law ; and when yi gives Enfthie ay, o BxBnaiht oN ‘which is Wiens law; now expressed in terms of the constant and hy ” ETHERFORCETo gain Wis nicoment Inns ve proce lo 5, Let oF laph in ich enenyedenty of radiation ie pleted against ‘rave length." Then by Planck formals (11, i the sale of & een by 2 0-8 aktp cent = 5+ HT. ie ‘whlch Wien’ placement law ‘lane dtermited the values of the constants and by com pang Smal (1) wh he menorrene of Fe Kaiba 42516, Lamimor and E, Pings,” the rere obtained being 8655.10" erg. ee, B= HO 10 ergs per degree. ‘He used this determination of kin order to ealeulate the number (of moleees it's grammemoleale (Avogadeos number) #" rat She equation Sok leg W swe cam calelate the entropy of one gramme-molecule of an ideal tess and fom this ean derive ehesmodyuaticlly te relation iNT ot ere p denotes the pressure ofthe gas, V it volume, and N denotes rogsdroimunber?thnshowe dat Rthe sks parconstan, RAN. SFR ca asamp. ys Tagg dhe 7 ah ‘ue neorownos op QueEM THEORY From the known valu of Rand Planck found N=6175 10; this agreed safari wih the value 640 10 which had been they by 0B Meyer: ‘Morcover, the aowledge oN so obtained lends 2 new method hing he hae oan cn Forth charge we cach shat une lieved tw be 9238 dectromagucte uta Tae it che change a an electron in elven ut re he Neu 9 658.3 10" which gives fo H69 10 os J. Thowson had found +=6%10-" en, two yeaty eae * Fiat Sat was scoala nearer Stelter eterno Which gave approximately 4770s" ex Plapel's ir made t posible to give a more accurate formulation of dhe Sta Boltmsns lw fo the tral radiation per second fom Soiree a a boy atrenperae Rate cena Planes tw me a a a a ea ert " ETHERFORCEwhenes, remembering that By 1/80, we have Sotvate amy Putting P= A/20T, we see that tel radiation fr sod fo wt fate a ac body a gerae Ei eke Ter this i the praie exprion of the Stefn-Botemann formula in term ofthc anneal ont 60 Rn py leper insight in‘ the peal conceptions undelyng Planck's law of non wat freaked by s ic? prot af et he a wel own, inthe kine theory of ga tis shown at the probaly that for 8 partular molecule the weomponent of elsdty wil ie beticen dads fu peomponent of elect between > 80d Pedeand i eomponent Between se and a yf (ofa where m isthe mass ofthe molecule, U i Kinetic enegy, At Bolte ‘manny constant and T the abla temperatare “Thi rent wat erase by Josiah Wild Gib © (180-1908) int the flow ‘heorem iP te considera large numberof imile dynam ‘St (whlch Eel we layppese tbe near cence), sthic ae in tated equa wit’ Inge reservoir of heat a2 Temperature, and if ¢ the conordmate ip an oclter (eg the ongadon of woraitg lectron and p the momentum {ined Sly see) were Liste Kinet pote) ten the proba that for any particular esto tne conde le Becen $a {ndp and he momentom lo between pan dpi tg dp foray ae dsb bo ‘wheee U isthe energy ofthe oxlstor, andthe integration ito be {ken over all ponble vats ofan fh “Tne tore eomespondingt this the quanta theory is that as Gere Pi 359 1910, 7 1 Ree, De Qe Hse ct ni Meh (Se Ye 1) soon tein og ‘run muoooaxes or QuasTem TuEoRY fh com of an lator an tak ly he rt tf vale Uy Us Un Uy. then the probably Wat the enegy of ‘picdarcelsor ie Use com coe, “Thus if Us
‘Etemine the angular diameter of Betelgensy and interes ene Shen ewe ea ch are the Ha ten et Spare “Te seemed impose that tcse very lange coherent Dears ‘huld be singe photons a “The altematve hypothesis scemed to be, thatthe photoot in a coherent beam fora regular aggregate’ pomesing’ a quality Pike photon sabe a em probally sreponciog to the Neaverthenryteplaation of iateerence, 90 that gge hhunber of them i rete tothe brah places othe itetxeaee= pattern, and few or none are dneted tothe davkplacen This planation waa, however, unatactory doe Xie hot ual de two lnertring Beam fight have sey met hae te ierence fate deerme ond hee te ung of he moon of fr ea meen eer pes athe il 4 proces dificult to imagine. Teas Defoe suggested that while the photons are being propagated te beans chich ate ate sl re thy te cid guy crt Sng to what im the wavertory i clled pha’ order to const dentin hd on she 8 Rowe, woul be necry at to cone? whether the ‘ret be regarded te pointe (in which ease anyparcular photon would always retin the came ‘hose since szave with the telat of i, bat diforent photos ld ve tnt pa) on wien he phoxne be fas extending ver finite vestons (In which ete the phase ‘Sould presumably Wary fom one goint of 2 photon to nvothe). Innere to account for terrence, would belneesnry wo guppore tates opal py og pany nee ck ‘ment "of tyo complete photons would be incempatble wilt de Principle of eonsreation i energy, whe Wf the ptocs ae regarded [e estending over fnte mesons the annulment of part of Sue Oy Be ante wou som te Icomps wh he tere Eharacer of poten, Theres moreover,» dilly ere ‘hc neat tha rae can ae pce hen uly ge ston ir traveling through te apparaas a any one isan or {sitcom oregute tha the ct Sa quan a stom pers ‘These various atempts—none of them entry sxtictory—to combine te new and We od conceptions of ight created Soubt 1 a it ed St a ” ATHERFORCE4 to whether i was posible o comtrct, within the framework i space and time, a Pcture or model whist would be eapable ‘epleenting cry kndun phenomenon in open fa Decor 1000 ine” inated ew devdopment of quantum theory, by earring is prncple owe the domain of Fadiadon, fo which hey Rad ihtrto been confine and apply fhem 0 ihe study of the specie heats of solid We have seen Uist accord to the canal law of eulpariton of energy, ia fae of arnial equim a¢ aeons temperature T wit every {dgice ef reodom Ot a dynareal system there socked on the Serage a ine nergy ET, where & 1 Balzar’ constant Row'the thermal moti of 2 camel are conte bythe ‘Sate vibrations of ts atom about thar pose of equotiam: Ge of thee stony ce it hat tees Kinetic degrees Bf feedom Sd alg "thee. potenta-eneney degres of teedom, wil have ean Kiet snlsgy HET aad’h men potential energy 4kT, or = {otal mean energy SAL Thue gramne-siom of the erst il ie mean cn “ANE, whee Ne Avogados mbes Ieat of the ens (es the amount afhea requred © ase the nperstre of grasimeatm by on dee) theres SR 1.906 cal. RA9196%10" er to the atomic eat (at conta velume) i $58 ca This law had bee oresed empirically by P Le Dulong and AT. Pet? 5 While Dulong snd Petit’ aw is approximately true for a. great many elements at ordinary tempersare, excepons to it had gon How, pear fh te ie of leat ol ‘omni weight uch fe Gy Ho, for which 3 ordinary temperatures the stom eat are'mdch smaller than 3980 eal: and thoriy bore this time it had been shown, pavtiulaly by W. Nernst his pup that at very low timperatarer all bodier have ne a a ok empetr e fhe elements of low’ omic weight obey he not Feit tlc eS og by" experi ith ape st ih EGE Ronen er ae ee cunt tm, a Pa ag (89) 287 ‘He mecnownos oF guaxren THEORY Elnateia now pointed out that if we write Planck’ Formula fa the for Bnery-dcosy of raison in the Gequency-range» to r++ at it Beit A, then on compating thi with Raylcigh’s derivation of bit law of ‘aalnlon wi aoe Hatin order to ota Pans mula mode Utsibrtin of fequency» must be counted st peeing the average emery hese = fk, stead of (as Rayleigh assumed) 447, then ia THeSipeoaclDelong and) Ret we replace $88 by Gere Nee find that 8 grammesatom ofthe cual wil ave Bnet cacy ort t Go simplicity we seme that ll he atomic beaters have the ne eiquany) and three atm heat oe ~ fefint gt), oe aR, Ee fle th empress ad Fig Ayla Nea it ha hae er Wome, a Renu of e's Spproached, the atom beat ofl sod ods tend to te. atacand i any eee eraton of ETRE ML as RT [CE Ral Grace i ta Auge ORE Net tea Clete th he SHEA comma of he ea ih ne a SR REN IY Sah aaa aT LEE ETARES or a gl dg dered nd Sd ty Lenie eee pr a eed See opie Serna SDT A a Meg a (91, $7 8 ” ATHERFORCE“There was, however, one obvious imperfction In allthis work, ‘which wae plated out by Biwtin inthe recon’ of the papers as Telrredto/amely ue the vibrations ofthe ator #3 etal dovnot all have the same ffequeney >. "The mean energy of |Eamme-stom of «crystal wil thereto aoe be aR gh where # hs ingle dete value, but am gh wen the summation is taken overall the fequendes (ihre for Tach ater), and ke Boltomang’s constant. “The, atomic cat, ‘Sbainnt from this by diferentiating sels respect tT (remember og tat «= by, Where (ea In onder to dnerine the equ ofthe marl vibrations of ei adi oben sea ae epee PBR TE Tal Soran approninton to he an body ‘a cae soli and comered the ante waves tai THe showed TACs ed lot dy orl Ue moro aa Pods or modes of bration inthe Foqueneyrange » to +a sevra(2-3) here 6 i the velacisy of tansvere waves in dhe sli and «the Velo of fontaine waver and he sumed atthe energies SSE. Set und wave ary inthe me way te eng the ght wave ia Panel's formula, 90 at each ofthese modes fhe he tacrgy » art thus the energy per unit welume of waves within the equency- Hinges tonne w(t 5 a Pi 1 9. 00 3 {HE nEqnewor oF QoaTEM THEORY ‘The tral energy isto be obtained by integrating this with respect tom. But here difiealty presen isl” forthe number of oti [Requencis ofa continu body inftely gest! extends oat eo io gin Debye Gent mea) et wh ths Situation by ting, tothe Gntogration sith respect to», So Upper init oy such that che tral nue of frequetce ese 'than SPs cual te SN, where N isthe numberof some nthe body. Ts pase be decmioed thom the equation anf Cura ne rga)e snd the atomic eat of de body it (244) [2 sede where cate suv (fog) [etipre tee snp te bm Rhea “ee = ewe wite be pete fe 0/T and etme hati anal fton of te rai ‘heli ftembeee ae tinge eh iene iy ag ee by wel Dee's theory iin gpd general accord with the expeiment reat etary Semen eee ‘When th Gate Tver reat very sal and the above formula forthe atomic heat «oi ir Dog and Pts a, a would be expected, ‘When oa the other hand T's very small, we escape the ifealex hich sre front the act thatthe body, ae combed Wil the ontinous, laste said has only Balle 'number of dees ot ffeedom. "The above formula shows that the enegy of the body {8 proportional at low temperatures fo the integea ity flees, ‘hat & € proportional to T*5 seth atic het of a by atl soy S™ avery Seen, Pip 3), A, 44, ” ATHERFORCEtents is operon Ue eof tebe npn, Tha teas toon Sry tae eve gine ya th Debye oy of one eas was uid Mas Fr TA i de (ft rast the problem fom anuber angie; hwied Stacie te Body y's cious ete mei Dee had Bose ey sade Dynamical say of cara s Bra pee, {icf Roms more dette SE nraal eee ie Emule bined wee ofcnaferbisonplettys Desrestaeed ipl ough Bory and Karma's sme ger ae ene i Re Cae of ow tempersuey Brn aad Rlcinde eeetard Does seal chat the ome heat poportal to To wea ite bear, as found by expen, of the mace ext of gues (the soon hee eure as by one eer the ‘Sapna of one grammemolale cf he grat ornate) ‘Sb eaplaneg Oy quncum sheoy fa ar he mane ay se tt tg is Acording to else theory 5 monatomic 2 Gch elm, argo or erry wopous) Re ee ean SFfreniom (aamely, the tare required for talatory ion Sad {© cach of thom aoa coreg S oan Knee te 4 Resmmemolecule should have. an energy TINT’ whee N Anglos umber or Ri where R rie geeonstan pergeame, ‘oie ihs the molecular heat shoulbe cr afore {hes ealreg a rel verified espinealy© et et atom ars THN. 8 eee moe het is 9 calories, which iz explained clintaly by supp ta Sy Hae! tnmtry and’? rouasonal dees of aceon he ee ile may be pictured a2 ret dub, having no carlos ‘long th ine oii the atom and no rotations bow tha eo EE ue es ld pec he eels abla trae semper Shs Fi th sme ate ae ace pa eevee lenis that the part of the molecular heat which is due to tse te ‘Biol pe often of th mele Ps Sen Supers The qo nsession phates ele mit ese a Soe 4 Ete dan ae ly Rn Py. abe ws sy al te id ist ey RE SE gen it ete oe aca ph BA tale mein Ro Loc hsome Suvedsaes arial ‘HEE nrcnovoior oF quate mtoae efi ts et mo oi cn ue ty siete ta een ens al et Bf Sieretih pier sane’ a one adr ey femurs airy green ool pe ee Ae Goahteal ies a, oae Sig Tear ca ms a ft i i a Eo aay Ace cee et at eet Seis lc Gone Eee tt aa Te air mma oes cet ea on at a Oh SER ane mice aa sctutatiree Sanita tr eine Sprain ce aan ceca per mrae imemmibgmamat ee Remuus a anes ews arama ae oe sontdad ate inet uincadt eesti rr rita thee so 6 Be aT viene for we aban the vale Selo! 1 ot) eT : oe ad It instead of Plank’ lw of radiation we had taken Wiens last ‘we should have obtained eo hE hile we had taken Rayleigh’ law? we should have obtsind om one! Th th manip of te Bains eg Pls lan i it et oe ry ek en sozchtoor ha indigent agg ak “Posh tomes ev secon AETHERFORCEAeren axp riscrnem } ‘ue necmawos op quavruM mor the cases operative in the ease of high Gequencig (or whieh When's ‘This resembles the fe term AE in Eietein’s form {aw holds) are independant of those operative In te ese FEequencte (be whih the ls Raye) Now Ryle but ie fe tow summed forall values oft, So at preely the’ seal we | ReouuExpec the energy Bs were made pla ehteeantn each of Sree re ea ee en aS laa nel deer Bad eNom antilorat etree | SR nits meats WA ens Sms Calitics eet i, Sean's roc tbh ere ae Sacked swede wenriete | Peel Oe cet ee aaah athens Sis ROP Sta ce fatiede e Bil Be ty Wty aa chain Wate i es a acy Ap St oy ea tea at athens Mee te ei Sat cre that each molecule has encrgy fe : that is, the expression is what ‘hy, 2h, Sho, ad ae - Eel re sie Be ema ate FR Ki fe canon of te cy of dan wa le Faas oehcoution Oey, ices, ee a tr a Beate at Reece on mu cence RE eh! as dey, die Soe a a Ae pte eon outcast EE SSe SE ih eiceatece tars emir. nde in Mater atlas Se maa feat Tota eee Se ec as eee, Teta Leitner tte hemes MBN, Tana popes noc page a SRAM cretecaietacs ame | Sinai ae ni ah Pa eel iat cece Uh el societal go eee See Peau ne’ Sie sl RoGLAGrSal, ooh ice och epee leet te | RSG Geta tonne ror ak Ce et Ph Bn wre de by SPS maha Sie ec on ates i val SoelL aig ti acti i eam Sado nt ey a he oper te on 5 pte ot prea." th ge bey eee here mee yp ducts io “t althoug the set St einisioninvaled oy i, “ety ed onde princi ja generaly cle Plan's seater Wie arritaeerey oe Bes Sable laren tat he eau) ofa Bear eae oifegieng suo maybe en Bate (cr then, Se Ba Bat Bat were Babel pts, eee te oe [Now Bint’ formal ie atalvtt| 1 1 whichis greater by br dhan the value given by the eater dheory pated + goat |; so that a ti alc oo of trae, Se mem nga ele ane) I) Se! Shs Sarthe Reape fe tcace py tthe feta tem Semis) wpe atl te ent pte yor9 Mn ~Sun. Po A nai ESS a ta Reece Eacaie * Pe tt 8 ” ATHERFORCEYocune of epee ey, wih ter aguned great fmporance. Te TOIS A, Eicten aed 'O. Steen fade I Oe ae OC 3 new Frou of Fane's tataton orm "sad ip 1016 W. Nea epee thu the acter everywberé might be ecrupled by seo PeHAsney Second, Theory was ccd in 112 by Potncart* andi 1914 ae ce te oho ta net by nt SR rey he ie il nal Sanyo now ‘mission as Ge as the abooeption of radiation’ by eeclatary it Eon ant ay Toi cmb a at atu daconines te’ place gay in ache of nergy ions between the osiltSr and free particles {molecule ont sal sn A yor ne Rwy ac he ‘hat te ealeuliion of We stationary sate of a Hyem of rotating gi dete dpi s given ldo rasiton, When ie cleat tin was pared acrdlg othe res of dail ecrodyami, tet reas in eee diet sntaicnon wih experinent "Bh Setond toy rouge men py Powe the ‘aie tine, when the experimen of Franc snd Herts” showed {iescongatlogy bewegs opal sberpin andthe undwbiely ‘Rana plenlZons wha place Shen dow econ coe Siimlede ‘Meso, a Report pened tthe Physical Seton of the earl Congres af Conte tenet cence a Ruta on Bs Sep tebe Tl, Sommertld* image 4 ragenon NAc was the fe ig vn pew method, Reng foe name Quen Tet wc ad be ie othe quay hy ancy on ect ite her that i dimension wet tno (Energy ne) din, he remarked that tere wuld be we sonnet bees Ha as Sega wich appenin Haas Prin ome, Joma weg T emt he ts nV se tl ey of he SLi tee Sarr eS Imsking the Plowing hypothess It ey purty malar Proce, ‘cla seme of Seton wrbed ote, aay te anc EEA ‘use irate pa HER OC SAE, 5 ‘rum angnoaxos or guar THEORY ahs L—T =, the intitle in andere se the drat of the prot, A dscson of the psonlectic ‘ect in the gto ht prindpla was gven fn TOL by Sommerfeld Sind Debye “The principle tae however, was superseded in the Uae development of the subject dP 03) 088 ” ATHERFORCEChapter IV SPECTROSCOPY IN THE OLDER QUANTUM THEORY Tn theaintenth contr, ts gecrlly support the incet vibrations represented by a psi we prof Sn he se ay ssroual se poduced by etre beans mater Douy. [TRU aay thc noms ws Pardes an elected sytem of ome Gd lege mer of sl pro ct correpning othe aeeu os aperal athe ba peat fo break with this concepuon wae Arthur Willen Conway (893 feat peso of maemalal pace a. Univesity” Calle, Bub nt 10m pepe ony ae pat fnuaied the rail oubich the te explanation wa fo be Sed nah tate spectrum of a sont dow not represent {hei frau fhe stom sea whse ba tha a tom proses ‘Pes lns one anes at fe prducon of he complete $Bsstrum depens on he presets tat number of toms Ta ws ie an stm, fn oer to beable To generate spel toe nein sora ordstd tes on saber Sia ingle deny santed whine tm, ile acevo oie requency conrepondi tothe spel ei qeston The sora te of hemo doa. ntendare Fermuntny but tse for tine fide tenable he neve Sia fC Sey ong an of rations ine spect’ and tone wich were clopenable for the costae SESS they of aol pet or gl afer the pea Sota Riel pero 108" pricy nc se, ate {fSjucni of delat in e pea of an deta e ee ‘ky tke in pat of eran numbers led “terms "sn Sea hot nl WIT that Rehetrd intrest atom, {nated of, ceatalpoitelharged mule wh negate ‘Seton cittstog rund eur the feveaonry peng ne pis at Conway faced weve’ erly sound aad owed ‘Segal pal ms "Tite pds were teafirmed in 1910 by Fenry Vasghan Bevan {i8hs-1915}, in a paper’ recording. experiments onthe Sonate deport, by plctstm vapour of Rt he sein abe ee tno ihe! fous yun, He hint Stempel {0 caplain tir role theory eacordance wi Lovers ‘Soden eden he Maxwell Scie thay, an utd SERS OM SRE RG I fll aa SEYLER DP 8 svecroscorY 1 THE OLDER QUANTUM THEORY that it required him to postulate an imposibly great mumber of seo per motealdeng tom th contain he caret conclusion, that Speceoncopic phenomena are to be explained by fhe’ preece of a very grest tuber of stom which 8 any one Ins ae iflerent sate, and each of whieh at tha instant Is finer at wth he we Spectr, uta with ony "The next advances were made by John, William Nicholson at thae ‘time ‘of Trinity College, Cambeidge He iicodueed Inco "spectroscopic thety ‘the Stoel atone which had been Proposed a few mont before by ‘Rushesord, namely” a Ney Sale coping proce the seth sa a Tounded by negative clectrns citing round like planets found then, This was so much more precely dened tha earlir model om hat might owe pole caste act auscal “Talus forthe wavelength of lines in stomie spectra. Nicholon' ‘Sco acl wate cone the fundamen hy hat the Drouction of stomie spor tr eentlly a quantum Penomenon, "Pc fundametal phys awe heen of ieee quash cor unit theory of dition, rcealy developed by Planck a other, cording to which, interchanges of energy. Between systems of Pevodi Kind lan only take place in cera definite apwounts dette Fined y the Irequenin of the syteme'#} and he dcoyered the form te usar pine shuld fakes i aptstion {Ge Rutherford atom "emptor menentan af sim van oy se rj by dave aoa’ * Mofsover lowing Conway snd Bevan, inelssered thatthe difrent nes of 2 spoetarn are peosaced by irate oe nc of aes iy no cana rom the fame tom, but fromm alone whee internal angular moments have, inyradatcn or otherwie, ran down by various dicot unt ova anardvalue Ror camp i ie ew there ase ao ‘of bydrogen storm, Heatly cheneal properties sad eve Jnveight br difren in their intemal motions ©" In ether words En'soin of 4. given chemical element may ext in many difereat seus remblng in many ways the caereleye of Plan's el ines" acpcly “anand In contnaras pprrittcwe tpn dian, Nihon dit hone, “pproprste Conway ea thst a sogle cectron (cong the ‘any prea in the ato) ie sloneconceraed in te production of Pipeceal Une ‘on the conuary, he studied the vibrations of umber of electron ccalting round!» auceus by methods recall ing the work of Maxell on Situm's ngs, ening lai! ies {Bf che szial computation of the motion and setfing the fee quency of spectral inert se eguency ihration os dynamic Ssten oR ape oa 3 AETHERFORCE“The fn succes aplication of quantum principles to spectro scopy srs the domahe noe of ste but ef moledar spect APTS Sis Bjrrum applied quanto ideas fa order fo explain ern characterstce of te aborption spectra that had been ‘Ever path hydrochloric and Ihyrobromfe acts in forge “For thee and snd, compound, two deep ‘elo of absorption had bee ound Inte inlaceed, of which one, Tie oF ongen wavelength, war asigned by Bjercum, following Bruder to Sotuons of the imlecaie "For the absorption in the Shortwave infrared he gave'a ev explanation, He asumed that Uhevtvo atoms constituting a melecule are postely and negatively ‘duped rpecively, and hat thoy enclst relatvely to ech other ST the i thm yh eqn nent die ‘Soni he requeney abso reduce lowing» sapgeston SiLareau) if aoued that the ie jing the ata roses tn plane ad thatthe rotational energy most be a mulple of fy Sulere inthe numer af revolutions per second.” Denoting by | he foclat tigers of the fotating System, the votatonal nergy SU" and we have iJ (Qe) (0,123, or, denoting this value of by om we have nen gh a sting the nee and aol moony eon ‘bain eels apt aram should contain i the eortowave inaced the equidistant Requencir 4 a Soe vo mtghy naglp nidlp ce Bjerrum’s ehcory stimulated more carta experimental measure. iets by W. Busmetens Eva von Bahr j.-B. Brnsmade and EC! Remo? and Es ScImncat “Bureeter ind afterwards Tes Fond that he conta feuney va not sheorved which would fem to indent tha ota always resent Lr” AEE Simao ar a cr Tee ea a eo eter ama = be 100 28 serornoscory 1 THe OLDER QRasTeM THEORY In the year flowing Bjereum’s paper, P. Ehren improved shen theory "Seaton by sokohing ats we ater ot evolutions per secbnd, then the rotational emery mat be ape SF Yo (oot by ae Berar hod supposed) he factor | being ftstea beaut he rsioal cna prey Hct, and ots Ine cate of an oeclston half poteaial” IC] the moment Of ‘meri, so tat the rotational cuey 3) (an), we have Herma (00,125.69 or st Fea) “The angular momentum 2a] dheretore as the value a?2m, |The Guan ibe ie ow genealy denoted* by Thun ie a ee lr om a tb he a “rhe culination ofthe efforts to expla atomie spectra came in July 1918 when Niels Bob (6: 1895)" Dann nactech student ilurtotd at Manchestey found * the tive sohition of the Problem With unerrng inne Bohr sized upon whatever was Bgbe inthe ides of hs predccesorm and rejected what was wong, Honing to them precy scant was acelin order to make the iia ety rang tory eh as ee he Hating-poine ofall sabicgueat workin speiono Pacespad Comey pane dar) ome prose spect nes tne at a mes and [2 that‘ single ocsom Sethe inthe pros together with Nichokon'r pencples that he" Rutheiond stom provide satisictory Bais for cxact, Glatstins of wanedength of pec nes, (1 the producon af fom spec gentunploenon 9) an gam os gen emia chment aay exist iferent sty character by inn derete valu of fe angular moment sid al dacete Selves ot ancy: Heder indepen Ehren Pmcole (6) dnt quasi, ang ome hak lips of tHe further adopted 2 pincple which vas ered i th et el i ee Stpely 17) that tev later ster of he atoms ar concerned i the Proludcon of a spettal Hie’ and he recognaed an exact cores pondence tweet the forms at which the spectra were analysed ee iss tine by BC. Kemble, Py, a vit (1986), SFr 0) pH Ss me 91, 8; ae (p32 cE gr edn fe 1,08 bi be ee 109 AETHERFORCEbyl ad the gates or cry: of he stm deed by lin He's seamed Ot the Pack inden Bhs connecting energy and radaton-requency holds for enson ‘wile stnorpoa un finally he ntedced (9) the principle SS ae a i tao vn tye Shas" thr co atoning «auton ote ee fo oe ‘ator Yate‘ asthe "Ths tsk principle which bad er beet Arent of by any of hes predecesoy wa the decisive ew element that wie required fr thereon f scence of theoretical speero= etl us now se how the Balmer series of hydrogen explained by Hoh theory. The atom of hydrogen condos of one proton wk ‘be negaive dearon circulating row the charges belng ead oe ie cr ea eT ah SSeS nbs tat emcee ag Beira Se ae tray ty hy seer ait Este ie wedge Stee Bid poms cot cee orcas, rude 2 Pa, er HS Sg Reese we foes Ss Ber a ara a ee, ae Sass metre, ‘The quantum condition ie that the angular momentum of the ‘motion most be whole multpe of 8 “These equations give og, em ac ne ‘The kinetic energy of the electron, de, ime. TE the electron Takes stilton to. an orbit neser the nacleus fe which the Shgular momenturn ip here it gain of kinetic energy me(1 Bh (pe but lat of potential energy srecrnoscory 1 THE OLDER QUANTUM THEORY se altogether (remembering that A208) the ln of energy of the Foy ee A EG "This eam be identi withthe formula fr Balmer ees provided we take p=2 and ete Rate se we have obtained an expresion for Rydberg’: constant Rin feom of and : oad The vale ent 70 had been obtained by R.A. Milikan the value 531 10" by P. Gnilin? and AH. Bucheser* On the bass of Planes theory, Be obuined eran, Sf,Ye lien 28 Jo peal emer, oun ae ae mpl eSres occa tte semaace, Reet errs A i nee ere es tio, Wate, Gane, Hahn a " eTHEREQRCEUsing hee vals, he got R826 10" (se) in close agrement with onervaton ‘This syceal prediction had Sh lle wich may be compared with the elt of Maxwells lcalaon of the ely of ght from hi deetomagaese ticay, oe polsted cut tat wile by taking p- 2? we obtain Balm teres by taking f=3y n=, 5, 8 5 oe obtain a stig in the Infra whee htc wo members ia ncn discovered by F-Paschent in To08, "Ake ane eB paper theres ‘bianed by fing Pf pt gen obvi ta in 191f by Tin Lyman” and the series obtined ‘by taling p=, inh 6 y= = wan observe in 1922 by F Brackett Bots, rematkod that the frequency of revolution of the electron fn the a sate of the drogen tom b 9257, oF sent oe But the fgguency of the radiation emited in dhe Wamsiion fom the (ee Pate to ew i “"(s-eent hich when is grent has approximately the value “To get gs of the gn of heaton itd nthe a pe Kerb these Wb ele he funy of en irik ork, So we Mave an anynpote conecion betwee the ‘Iaacal and quant theeres "Brides infor of Boh'sthory was obtained fom certain fang sharma way Sh te ie (of the Bates series do aot appear ithe sbsorpionspectram ‘Of hydrogen undcr ordinary teresa conditions ake this wan at Sha id yh cesta hat he nde some ve formal o cletors inte orbit fr wich #2, snd sherere ‘Seen can be raued ftom thew orb to higher orbit, a would etary forthe production ofa Balmer cbeorption ite Inthe it (190, p 56. Th he enn rt Ben ag ts Mam (9), 0204 lscrmetcorY 14 Tine OLDER QUANTUM THRORY scones ene eee eg ee scope ong cow SRNode anche cella ecard Seaplane cgateg, Say esa tedaicih led ctr cauecat a ical ieee RE ig cata gen mon ied se ‘et tht nt ft equations ae were bot marian with respect. SSA acento a the lw of enegy tn the testa Wit uy oe ted fee Pte eecae maa AN a Sd ner ig dha hay ee lea ak ee sels ceed bE mentee CeSctes ache abt ‘where the direction of this vector in space-time isthe same as that fn satiation ‘Some other problems which had been ruse by the observational sgestmcpa ered in Bie pep, HD he sercan astronomer Edward Charles Picktring (0046-1919) die overed® in the spectrum of the tar ¢ Puppia together with the Holmer scriey a teres of Line which had the same conyergeace ‘incr Aste Bulmer serie Now tee propery “of the difine* nd" sharp wibordinate sein of the alll metal that the more ‘etrangitl? member ofthe doublet converge to te same Haat ix fhe two sara; and ea saggeted to Ryaberg* tat the Pikes fn eis eye ey the “sp ad ata trdinate series repectivly of hydrogen. Iie were tre, then Stavelengei of the line of the prepa seis would be jmmedic ely casalaie, the ff therm bey at 2468788!) and Ta fact ‘ike Waa obscved inthe spectrum of € Pupp at 4685, very neat {his poston the higher members of the sere could not be expected {ablseensace they were beyond the bie wich ou amophere Theine 14606 was observed by dhe English spctosopit Aled. owier# (1068-1990) at the Indian clipe of 28 January 1808, the spectrum of the nots caromosperes"In 1912, n a ordinary oer ane ig 28.0 ” eTHEREORCEdecharse tbe containing a mice of hydrogen and helium, he See eae ae Sh RT new sel in the ulti which had ihe same comvetgene- td's tis spponed pesca td wich provibealy Ded’ he “alld poled cts ck hydogent Tk tal ie ck ig weap wi Heres cae we, ‘ver, unexplained, and abo the fact shat the presence of beam ‘Spolarad be etemnnye ie sted ne move aura wy fr Fikrig’ § Pops he ee ry Fy by tg ttre bt dt hydrogen atl, batt os he helen cleus has a‘chafge i and toned elm this 8 accompanist by one negative electron relating ound iA calculation sinlor 12 that cared oat forthe hydrogen atom shows that this cave the teeny ofthe radiation emited i sn{ 3}, wicca bee ete Ratan, in this we take f= and n= 5,6, «4 we obtain a series which inches, the two series found by’ Fowe"?'while if we take Poot find #25, 6, Tre we obtain the seis obteved by Pckeiag in ihe spectzat Of Foppia” Every iterate line inthe serie thos tiie Woah be each eh nes at “Thege wll, however, remained the dicaty ariing fom the slight dacepancies in saveiength, hia war accounted for by Boh, who fomarked hat the geometeal contre the cecal orbit Of the electron i sre Sprang, not the nucleus but the Serr fay he tit Ante von," mae eeesary fo mulply the value of the Ryder constant by ‘to af the mas of te mucous to the combed tase of the nleus find deetron "Remembering thatthe nucle of te hefum atom ‘hs mas our mesa great athe ma of the hydrogen mace, the igh diference ofthe Rydberg conatants Or hydrogen and for helium can be calculated. As Bohr pointed out lone hehum Iiust be expected a eit asses of Unesconly "but aot exactly nciing ith ine of the ordinary hydrogen spectrum’ = the Slternate'memiyers ofthe { Puppiy sees anne be superpessd on the Balmer hydzogen lines, but should be sighly, duplaced with et othe. Thur ear te hydrogen lina FE 22563) Hy MO, HERS) Ghd thereat hamlgea anse, Cse ok 10022 respetively, abd the observed discrepancies are ‘completely explained. SEGRE n recrnoicony THe ObDER QUAITEN THEORY ahs sated hat ome ns whic be adobe in {Rergpctrom of magnedum fod be arranged ina crs tht Hyaberg constant which, he the Rydberg constant for Sonsed fim, was approximately four mes the nora! Ryerg constant The Silas wasnt ie were ole by ned ‘when the metal onsed, the outermar leczon, which describes Tote concer w er the nance of the mst togehet seit 0 negusve lection i the ner ori, dat the eee eg hare Bs ie i ome dng conta mit be malpled approximately ‘1523 this principle was cared further by F, Paschen and stot Pen td ete pr pe ot lamina capable of being represented by = sr of he Hyg ingen hich the Ryda cosa bade a Tens Tue.” Since the nae of samaaiue has pote charge ths eres obymaly belonged to douse atoms. for whieh there would be 10 inner negative cectot, and the eee ental ‘Sage on he outers ace sata woud be Se Swe wem fuer land dasoyered the eve of lion noc only series witha Rydberg comtant 9 duc to dovbleoiation BS sth Ryley costa 1 to eben “Rother pe of experimental vestigation which ed to real confirming Bvkrs teary must now be tentoned. In the couse tan invignio ont sonsaton of gaves by callsion of crams ‘wi che som, Jones Franck 189) na Gustav Here (31687) Rene a ih He) und tat the clio oso ‘eudne withthe atoms of mereary yepowr led Sn some cue ‘eminion of the mercury line 2536.” So ong as the Kinetic ene the ectons i smaller than where rf the frequency of Ae earned cca heat to Dap Evidently the cillsion brings about am excted ate of the atom 2nd the Pdinon i eted hen the stom fale back fot normal ae ihe ct wa amo a many baer bythe aed eer ations withthe blowing general eau’ ivy hana of st ‘tt rome eb ci oso te ino co's pa, io a ey Wil ey se lon cna of te Sg ae te Whi rani cary depos on Te state fected of thea Ws nema rand sn rants 1 ta end elie of he chapiospcon of he teed st eee PRGA Ey omen stent Mlirly te expltnad CE eo thee ESS tess 3 AETHERFORCEac sears her ds inaction bw he ation a tom a spectra Ife dats he en at stb {Saeco nor Bs may ioe he tm al Vi te tin Poel then vm er» vt the gn fh lil it fa serie he petra arte ae ae tra rts ts, slr ithe imine regu the ssn rts of teamed ao ‘Thoin the cane ferry vapour the onaton-potental #103) ‘alt, corroding tothe ltseile mt 80 M0768 of the sei fh 22850 the St tem" Tove pottie cae namely that of helium, the value derived spectroscopic proved more rlable than that obtained tn the ise plac by dict obecruation af lonhation brought about by leuomie bombardment. The ater valve wa believed sl 1922 fe be 253 volt, nhereas Lyman found ip tha Year® thatthe Heit ‘ofthe speetral sre concerted was a 04, ich would correspond {O auionsatounpotential of 23 walt. Tse dacrepancy led Franek to reeramine hs eapertnntal dat wth thereat that he found gage ero wc ed eda fhe value 35 ala by ‘ols, bringing into coincidence wi rcvopi vale Bae thee proved adequate sig acobnt me pial phenome of dbrecence bed By RI Seats eae it otumpogr emi by he Bsa eed by seam Mamet emie Dag ag resonance radiation, Now the Detines snake the fine doublet in the pelplpal serena ‘btium, the scond doublet beng ie the rales at 13503 Strat aied the quston, wether stimuladon of tum vapour by ts second docblet woul give rie to Dvight? Te fou that Raoul Mncoer he nice at eg ne be pera fhe vom dt S03 tt ge one Ee ae ‘ing wit the more erangible member So by making te of = Sine Spark be wan able to aimlate the sodium vapour with ight ofthe wavelength ofthe ea rangle member oly ofthe sodium aii nd ta i oe Dey we ed, ftom depends on the ft tht both nes of both doublets orespond to trastone dowa to a ertain oft whichis he same inva bur cases and which may becalad orb. By the absorption ‘of the ulster light of the fecond doubles, an electron i ised fom orbe Ito s higher oat a collions with other atoms ta ‘Saket ino somewhat lower bi, from hic i Tals ito okie srucrnoscory 1 Tee OLDER QUANTUM TORY With eminion of the Delies Bohs theory i thus sen e0 be of [indamental importane in regard to sresence ‘the fist year of the canary W. Velgt" had prediced the existence of an Gece Suaogue the Zeeman elec mpl St spostral nes yan iene secre eld” However, deus the ater by caste phys e conchae at wih & poe Fat of 300 wots per cnn thee the efoe weld be oy about the 20,0000 pal of the reparation’ etween the D-nes of sodium, Soa hence wold be unoberle, Noweihtanding tis unfavour ‘ic opinion in 913 fobanns Sta (189), when imegating ihe ight ented by te parle thie conse the canal ays ‘ramfoed the ilaehce ofa elect fild on ths Hight nd observed State eB seengeope operation ina decin irre each pit itive component the cain of the tree inher componente (which were f feb intensity) being parallel to sete hl ee eos of he cero Liters te compen wae proportapal tothe elec ores “For slam, ic wae found tat the eect ofthe electric held on the Hines (kh pnp sete and he shar seer was very mal od hal fistinguoble, butte elise on Se ne of the ne sere a of the sme onder of magntode Sra the hyarogen tine, though sta diderene "The Sarr an Ht hae since been called war extensively studied roam te experimental ide nthe yea mediately flowing Sey cy by Sc ane diiat Sne es rics were noticed ac as at in some aes, whee mo pit Eouli'be observed with the fields employed, terms were dla towards the ultavslet tha terme belonging to Une same series Were nota rule flected ithe same way, Bo hat here ea en SSS fe ihavr been tr hich blac ote iia "homologous sefey, snd’ which had: tke sume tere-aumber od that wien the spectncopie observation was im direcson alle tothe eld ly thee components of an elecialyspt ine appeased wih, when te obreration was at ight angi ‘he la, oniltedUneary perpendcaany tothe eld; but tht {se components were now Unpolarbed. 5 tas No 1S, po; epi dP i (910 65. “tue de eter ive let bY A ard eee See ere enna ro wep vie errr ‘rin pa UR a ‘wal 89, ATHERFORCEAssuy ofthe Stark effec, rom the standpoint of Baby's theory, was undetehen by £, Warburg’ and by Hobe binelle was ‘Simed that the fed idence the atnary eater of the ening fyatem, and hereby the energy posssed by the system de hese ‘Mater 'pltting Beta into fo for more component Warburg {Hove Tha te eifectt be expeted aczording fo quaniur theory, ‘an elec ld on the spectral ns af yogen, would be o tne ‘Sine onder of tagatude 2 that obverse expenmentally by Sat ihre invescgaone were Impentect a compared wih those pub [edie two yeas afterwards by Schwaraschil and Epetin, which wilibe decribed later "The nett great advance in thersieal spetrecopy as the semuval a isitacon characterise of the Grigial Hehe theory, famely hati took into congestion ony 2 gle set of cular Urs Youn each atoms st was abvioutly dedrabl to extend Bales fincpes by taking inte account more than one degre a redo. ‘Hileman achioredfadependenty and slmat simultaneously tn 1915 by Wille Wilson® 6° 4675) ahd Sommerfeld Their idea reals tat which hod Supied Somwmertls pape of 1011. ibibo oe uray tein Hos hay of he fn atom, let dennte tangle which the Bn fain the Slow the inh mason hw the omen ‘oresponding tothe coordinate the anlar momentum ofthe {eer rund tne proton, and or seady sates ths mst bes mule otis since heel we have sSer= «mito where the integration akon once round the cre ; or, remember Ing that fay the dein of the Action, we have Tncreaeof Acton in going once round the orbit-=a multiple of Wien Some gale nh amen’ at Rese nthe tly ed sae Sat canes ea fin ‘tender pesos Zoremponing tothe coord See ESTE the emconee seecrnotcorY 1 Tar OLDER QUAsTOM THEORY ‘Sommetfeld now considered electrons moving round the nucleus fn onereuar orbit infact Repleian elias. Denoting [ooh the rads veo? and vec angie of the letra, By ae ‘Sta at by Ze the ponte sharge onthe wiles, the Lagrangean ‘inci of he moons where so the momenta corresponding to # and + are mo dd and m dt Teepe the quan cade cng stay ae were ete tien by Emer be “ 0 ofan a so A @ Jnganwe where w and rare whale number, and the integrations are tbe {aken ence round the ore ‘From (1) and (2) we at fom the known properties of Keplerian clipe mation, we Bat proper plevian lip Jroa—2ectzmai, denoting by the major semi-ais of the omit. Therefore (ee) hada o Aso from (1) co “ shane fav dome * a wee oa 4 “entes axp wrerncrry from the Known ‘humbers nd ra of lide pee, bet 3 dea the sa! rie meet Sana ‘heenlexactde ose in wal ey coon = ut -2 o where R is Rydberg’: number, “The total tumbler of posible steady orbit hae been, greatly incewed by Sommerld'e intoducton of elipae in ado Bonrs crear orbs but om equation (3) W seems as i the {oral number of pele values of the emery has ft een increased, ‘Shee the enciy depen only om the angle umber ex), That Spparenty in the cae ofthe hydrogen stom (for which 21) we SERS el cy fee spec sre Bawerey a Sone Stel cut the theory has 3 far muppomel the obi tbe Keplerian lie, the electron being teenrded aa parte. of fovtant mas heresy since the veloaty in the opt eat, the relative incest of nar with velocity oaght te taken it Sccount! Sommerfeld shed that the obit w an ep wth a ‘moving perish, the moton of tae perielion Geng gent or nal condi a for the quanti clipes) the quantity jh ts great ‘or mall’ “Astally lek whseh generally denoted by and alld the restr coment, hat 2 value® which a hatte as fied to be bout 710-, snd has ance boen found to be 1/13. Tereprsente te ato ote vlaciy ofthe letron in the fret Boh orbit velelty of ih "Phe formu fo an energyleve o* term ofthe hydrogen atom row becomes nthe est approximation, TeTeT, wheres the uncorrected value m0 T,~ Rt mbsing the principal ‘quantum number? and Ty wa corcedon term given by natal) snd cain spt ove tet ted tt Be tok poe a mR pecrRoncorY mt THE OLDER QUANTUM TuEORY where kis 2 second quantum number, The fequency of «radiation omespoding to the all of am elocron om one coengylevel posi wl depend on the was of 9 Spf both ca Tee {sen acpended only nthe nepal quasar) there ‘wt now Eorespo ‘a gop of lines wary low together? these Predicted ines were found wo agree remarkably well with nes Stserved in what wat called the fear of the spectrom. “Are shall sont, Sommers thory et the complete explanation ofthe feseructure, which depends ako on property| ‘eeovered later that of the apn of the elton uci wae hal Stelaimed at the sie an 7 great achievement. The quantom umber F now inuodueed ia connection wih Hydrogen was found Inter fo account for the dation heeween he priacpal and ‘Sherdinate snes of he alkali metals ‘Sommered's extension of Bohr theory led Karl Seward * (aB7S1915, director of the Anruphyeal Observatory 2¢Potdam, ‘a Paal SopharEpten (61083) alormer adent of Sommers Sst Munich, folmvetigete eoretialy the Stark effets Ina sation Sept fan tn Ke te cc ashe dee edo, nam amie Sone the ‘etme este he Broblem depend yf finding three pr of var bb orber girs co-dinate and py the corterponding momenta) Sich Ghat thd Haruon's panda difleratal equatog belonging {he dasical problem cap be slved by seperation of tables ‘The integrals uf corresponding to these patate pats of variables agetiensquated fo maples of, By careyog oat Os programe, “pute found sn the eae the Hale serie of hydrogen the fllon: in simple formala or the dlplacemens of the Sate component Hom the original pion ofthe special line « wb Seen where Zim (ont myn), — (mm) C=) Boy Gains By tn te atti mane ota oe at BEC aan tne a en ame see iopremrn tua resus {rg en ote iy de, fon. 11900, 4 a " ATHERFORCEbe mpl Te ae tae So fama) Loe Da! agen eho) Sots patetacy venue tek BIA Es ge es oe ea QO sali een as Yan ee teri aed cae siete te Hehe en i ae acre a ese ee ale as Fee ny fb gee gta ar ad pt i 8 oe oat reek ee oa Sects Sie acheter thn prabsihig Selah lls ce eat ate Bae Se Ee ce al Eorigries oie Sagem tee preaeal de peace Mae eee Dipetpel be fal sect nop ns BE st “Ar mete gen ope, Sem, sate Enum cei, rt agate Se eke NER cites Pano a Ean? (ip ey a hee get Patiala lst cee ce issih nin a ae ines chy"waiey ogee eee Seta at Aaa ay es lat Hera gc Ce ca a rei esr tar te EP Set chic ms i oe a ii tieet rir 08 a os cca eh itl ees seater ety pooh a Sere te ir Ze gas 1 ee Pb as (181) p88; ea (872), 8 1879, ee ee i Be srmesaaar ieee aa srecrmonoory 1 THE OLDER QUANTUM THIRORY 1 dynamical sytem some parameter ix lowly changed (as was the fadluy ofthe sphere in W's theorem), end if srme quantity | fond to be thvarant secording to classed physic ‘during this cate os was vin Wiens casey shen he syste maybe uated pda Feuille ofA cml oa habe lc yen of le ptm when he ‘he general probleme formule allows. Let there be 3 sytem af tieremtal equation (or smplicty taking two inde: Pendenc vibes) és 4 Xie amime YX ao) where the leer m sands for one. or more constant parameter ‘These ve%n dees, ssn) -4() Ao ee kgs) (0) este stony rls Sf GR pL) eros, btechangngp and ¢ inte summation of he second term, hit ~2ffffz AS 0, cocoa, sd therfore the atonal equation otsned fom the vraons athe nena se ys sya 0 6-01.25) ”" ATHERFORCEiv (X) =0 and the ate proce the Ampére Maxwell trad electromagnetic Shustons in Retailer the Faraday eral of coun lows ome GE "Gxprenton of he Xp tm ters of the potenti. Ths tlh ‘Baste gremtaonal eatin ond he ogee eumions con be ‘diye ava of he nega of ies Sr fat Tents propo by Comme! Lancton' thatthe wordsneton H. gccartng fee itcest Iuftiys dedeurde should be formed n'a" way diferent from that adopted by Hilbert namely at it Boul Be quaiae funtion of the Rice tener Ky and fn fat Sho be ot fe form HAE Ka" CK where C ie 4 numerical constant ‘The advantage of thi fom i ian te cob ote age, aipurveror bund w oat tral ety canbe eed we cme Sena sector thw cromagncte tory can be une wih ont General Relay. a In Tilda ciicu of Genfal Relahity was pais inthe Tg Blt! oi athena Popes ‘ites North Wiabend (180it0¥7). TT daub he athe iy af maureen space ‘hich ie heterognena a0 [e'proplic dn dite pars. W'do hot understand ow te fd tealidos erect are tbe bain He famed Sp {Siig by ating an akcmatie teary pick hese ores Se. Sook Tie Poni of Rts iw WEE "Timantalny hess, ‘ahold bl nthe endamranl carcer f a sige Bat ada tw the onwe one by the quaeton SEAL. ncoy of senandy nay be Strato oes Geil expr” Thswatonet of couse smi here theory ef Hoc ind Laven bun nt compatible with te Geach Theory of Relay, in which an obacver® dona of Sune boul poe tale ae mca Sghbourboad."Whichedtherchve’partlated. two Bede fete! clan, oe fem (nme ce td ne as Teng trop aes tn and et condone by py Sreumetancs! the or comping ‘he physic telson propel by of mature wc ue canaget “A prlount py of Whitehead te wis publi i 1052 by J. Le Simge Ab he remarked, the theory off Whitehead offers hiking between the two extn of Newnan Why 08 he Fe ESS 2M py 0, 3 Po tm TERT ES pa nn Cnt Urn ™ ‘one hand and the General Theory of Relavty on the other. Te Soriano te reqorenem of Larentstvarance (th overcoming the majo eetelen aga the Newtonian teary, but dow not ‘einate the concep loc, wih dhe equality often and eaction, fe that ir range Ot sppisblity remains much lower than that ‘Newinlan mehange However, ids fe the tert om th Beary impose tak of sleng Seto ponsnea par flerental ‘equi whenever he serke gravitational eld Tei not afield {Mery inthe seme commonly Understood, bat deny avaling sion ats ditance, propagated with the fundamental veloc ‘Whitehends doce thoogh completely dierent fom Eien? ip forma, ny beset vary Ty Bg the lartcnian lw nto a Hat spacesime's and wo practicable obveryae Soa ea ay her och peed or dacrminag Btwn The ides of mapping the curved space of General Reatvty on fat space, and meking the later fondant wan fevieed aan dear aher Whitead by N:Resen* Heand oters® who develo Wcimed that im thr way it wa postbie to explain more dicey the comervation of enengy, moment and aagular momenta, ‘Stu ‘neo poly to sect Yor crtin explained renwal i ‘epeton! of the Michelson: horley experiment ‘in ol0 K. Schwarachild made a9 imporiant advance ia dhe Einatsinian theory of gravuaony by dicvering the Snalyeal sli fmt ets fat peti when eco ‘single masve par ‘The'ield being 4 satel one, we can take the quadratic form, which species the metro space to be (ere vnae- a where ithe ne lement in ther dinenonl ps8, (are & anteat andthe fnctons Vy iy (Py 1s % 3)y do not ivelve There Sil be s"oneto-one.Corepadéace between the pints of the {e'§, ‘wich consing the masive parce, and We poing of 1 © Tem PP me (8) 1 WB Po BC, “a Wi 8) 1, ~ CRRA 4p ty Pe Se RL ORG OES nt a RESTA Galea AP ” ATHERFORCEspace 8° which is completely empty. Now the later space can be ‘sled by coordinate (7 # om ork a way ats neelement Eigen by (arr (ar mam + sin80e5)9, the origin ofS cormsponding tothe locaton ofthe massive particle In's “ihe efor of te presence of the particle wl be to distort 8. compl i 5! ie dni wl fe Ammer wh td the parle, ao the linelement im wll be expremble ine fom (apr ne era and if we take a ew variable R such that_ve().r=Ry tht may Seiten (1) = Aran REG sn aCHH)9 where A isome foncon of R. By symmetry, Vial a function Rata Uetpotlen rt dete Nand. "fy now wring fr ky the uaa frm which defines the meri the space around the particle i (arte anata’ in nd go itera when pi diferent from g ‘ie the tacry-femor ie sera swerve except at he origin, and since K=O Wien” Kny~0, Eintc's qraviatonal. equations eauce to Kyo 0. (Caeulting the Roc temor, and denoting diferenations by dashes, wend Forming the combination (A/V) Ku Ku, and ogating eo 0, v v x fo AV constant and since when rm the spice tends to that Aefined by the quadratie form (ete arsmanr enon, at At and Ve mat ve wel The ion Ky now eames ae! 8A 100 deni (V4) =1 ye ae 7 want, wero, or mGonsant, Thu te mir he pnd epi dy wer-(- U6 smtanre sma). Tis Scere tion, ‘at any nant nthe plage 0 br, we come a crelean which i Const et tate gis creat of are Ben ithe uation so dnd, and the circumference of the whole circle is er. Thi ecemine te phys rang of the Svat rk Hf we fenrider a radu veetor fom te ong, the element of length along ‘Sir radia given by (ar 1-2 ” ATHERFORCEso when 7, in decreasing, tends 10 chen doco: that isto 03, Yo Sade he poe wt impale dicen equnions of motion of parce (appar to bye so sll tha it does not dat the field) under Ue tfuence Fa single gravitating centre are the diferent equations of the fester intipacetine ah Schwa matics These equae ES bec: dn ander i ime oie ttcular case i tht ofrecer obit long a ris tor sel ms Wie 6 hy ne etimegral (1-2) f-consana} so, sat we ve ining & brn he eqn we hve 7 (a); Let dl denote the element of length along he radi, and let dr enote the element of me 0 care, ra wre (-Day then the precoding equation Becomes 1(a)or-wet heh cbiouly corsponds tothe Newtonian oqaion of the hit a Egy." Dierenng ee 8 (1_3)h feo ge (9) seas a a a ci eee oe ea al wy igammnaa esate cae LU isghos Sv a 8 When ris large compared with this becomes approximately ort aie sei i the Newtown “Comparing with the Newtonian Ia of attraction 10 the yy ee where y isthe Newtonian constant of attraction and M tthe sun's mass we have aM which vee 2-295 km Ths is eel of he cotta fr the By approximating trom, the elipticfuncton solution for the perl ce of motion round a gesting entre, we eam sty the {sbi when the dane thea parle ome emt es Fe lom he lips decree by the plants under tie Newonia Seton ofthe in. e's found tae the fine of spades of tc an Gest u not fixed, bat Sowly votes’ Il [the semilataprestam, then the advance of the periiion in_one comple revolution te"Geal which forthe cee of the planet Mereuy revolving Found’ the sum amount to: about O°N nee Meteary mabe Bont 0 Telnet the eel ance wee von as ose “The paths of rays of light in the Sl of » single greitatn eure aff caus the Hl poned of ue Sent Bat amy of crm awe’ remarkable forms Te ound hat 2 ray of Behan be ropa perenne of ad boat te iis cide both externally nd intently the baer trios of the erjeeory bring on te cicle rvs in the former cave and St Infntiy in the late, Tiere are’ abo ‘rajctoer ef which one sen ee ee eo el pc See ee ea eee Eade Msp ac gc artewi ated ys ” ATHERFORCEerm t nny sd erg he re sg iad eth ne a cE eh er ete ce (ogee iaheae lolita Began Feb ala hc if ae pr he rm ares ot Rar ei en a a ee ene Bae he ine cra te ia Fe fe eek ae, nt aad 3 km., then Einstein found that the displacement of the star is 2.3/7.10* sup aoeeee ts FC omc gma, wd tt re coc apa ei a tore, sateen ae spear tog ear tT eee er si eas ea ta a fine ele a, em sree SEE oRunS tare ude amiorete Siig tated ale banal Sacer A ar ig oC See 2, se Eee atin Si ona Fe i Ere rmemie oie ied nen eee Se ape Se ete aos BY Che Baap atteg came aoe be be ced rt co ee ea ad ae ilpomar hina tana of the perihelion of Mercury. Ti is ‘quantitatively in agreement epee oOo, ie gee et SAL ier sw en as ae AT twa dirt he th a in a et em ee a CLmLh——L Soe see ee co aaa aie cae eajectories Seehof Wa Sig Sects Goa" aati ee Rent koe drone Sa Ear Se ee ute diluent Shea Rca Oe ree cole ay SAG natn ie hae ee Sealy nada Sl te hears Dipaces ibe cate eae ES, on teers Sanneveten 2 ont mich ne Pipa arenes ame ae Saudia hes Poetay ha ciabdee g Sporades i decane & Sep ah Pay A A Lae (4) Q) t Seba Te os hme mo 8 here vel SSVISTT hn Me Renae ae oe er ene es pees NA Re Serie aes st Picea aa Specimen a aca tre sh A A Seen - ” ATHEREORCE(whieh reduces to 4, when evs) then the Lagrangean equations ‘Emotion ofthe parce sre ieee )~ nd twosinilar equations in yan (which reduce tet — = 86 nd ‘two sila equation’ shes =), sad that the ajectons ive the lowing properties (9) he vlcy ofthe parse ca never eaced 3 {htt any tees ins 9 move wih i ape eeheon ofan ore advance according tothe sme toh tiled rm eae Rant Ray he parte molng wat speed are ident set oy Be Sac ears maser Sy Ete tthe inl dere om General Rey SEs te tee tery baaly om the round of age rca bare (6 eR Som edhe ease oberg ie mambo oflaces nya vst pte cay spr ntronomical consequence of General Relaty which bat not yr beet meesel le Gacveed in 1081 by AD. Foer? Tandy Cae Seen She cata ot space prodced by te sar ae Tritt ak ae a pene, adioe thar deducible fom we Newoonian theory, of amoune O°OI per tau he ray recs oad epee ietesed shncvontiy tage the shape and intemal conssttan Freee ata wh fie aeruracy pve reac the sale tranny eso, ane vane Pee dee tenrscinl soliton, a numberof other parsclar saan th ni of Gee Rey or Sl eves tend SIG tbl tee covey oa parle ‘which Ins Boch miss aod elect charge" and to fds pawn eal symmetry" expecially an infsite xt and two parceleas 1508 A Einsel, E- Ineld and B. Hoffman published 2 method * Phong By mia appacatsn, he Badd © # boa. se MB ait Aca i ot isc td perio fa ala ye sit a fH Clo Ses (BH eR EA on ms. are A wt ana Suticisotropie solutions of the field equations, and aymmetric Sethe of pareve te dace by A What in 116 an ing year steno wi fiven* to the prgpisjon of iurbancey in gavtadonl Gel. Tt the et fon of mater in space changed, eg by the cirhlar moon st'a plate in ie own plane, gravitational waves are generated, ‘thiclare propagated outwards withthe speedo Ug lh neg an dct wet a othe pie ple of equivalence showy that the physical station i the Sone gif the Hecron were moving with 4 certain aeedlersion, and eres on laced pattie ase ms ae Tn 1517 Einstein pointed owt thatthe felsequatons of gravtae ton he had given them in T913, do ot say Macs Pape, Heieing owl no spacetime old ca eng ara is-due to dhe eusteace of mater (or enemy) Bina’ equations (F151, however, admit the parti Gny=Consant, — Ty=0 (6.9-0,1,2,3) fo that a felis thinkable without any energy ta gen He fereave proposed now to modify he equation by wrang tes KynbeeK Age HT (690,129). ‘The effect of the term it to add t0 the oF : Atractlon between parle a all epulsen ene the ota sary ng ety ap te tune» wey reat dances th epalon vn anger be mall, bt wl be wit o balance ce auction find i fie as Eisen showed ie pomible 4 haves rated Universe spherical inthe spatial coedinaes wih a wnfor ‘dutbetion of mater exact equilbriom Tse generaly ead the’ Binnie," departure om Euclidean metric it ‘measured by the radius of curvature Ry of the spherical space and {eds connected wath the total mass M ofthe parler elastaing {he universe bythe equation hae Mak, fs Rint Oe er, ei Rae st Pat Bh 8where denote he Neto constant of gravaion, The ft lund of tienen 8 2 ‘ves shown by. Chazy! and by Ee Treiz*that when the tein incloded i the geoiatonal equations, Schwarachild’s frets for the spacetime Shout a sage gravitating cetre mist iemodiied to co etter Ifin this we put w= 0, which amounts to supposing that there ta ag tan WUE orgy ob the word completly EmPH;* we shan wr-( (wy | A 9) caye— 1) DY days + sind)". Jere ornare Now this mesic had been discgvered by W. de Sitert in Ma Pa Ad IAT ATi! sine of tt TT ae Si wl, a if as elle, was the subject of many per pry on nccount of te nae geometieal inert (0 the papery cian, and party Bote othe pest tat some Bratt are ah bert hone for atl vee Pee coklder ihe uniere at ould be fall mor tarts were smocted out jus ashen we sa hat the eats ‘Bphrcld we men had eth would bea spheroidal mountains ‘etic snd all vale filed up tthe ese of the aniene WeTewling nore formidable operauon ice we have o scot Si iy he sand ah heaven oti do rs {he word tot complete umiformity, Butter al only a very oma Fo of de coon occupied bY material boda and it 1 SRT rer SE ieetng ng wat pce wl he when we mye eee el i ent, hate mii tone cari a dt la ere son cine hemes er Rae Tee Sere ie so seem ots ya eto ere an meme EAE Soe coer metre Ponts anager ern STUY a alae a gear feat pave te Sy en paa icse o ay gh 2a a te ee "RE Ae So es ac te we ee Sr a era the el Satie Sal Whe at lata Spent e SE ANSisa ica ye ae (d= (da + (dea, sd in dis manifold to consider the four-dimensional hyper peo Sphere whee equation pe gata “The pueudepherical wold thus defined has a constant Riemannian iad af ganas HR Tie de Suter word may be roped rm aighly diferent rmathemsical sandponat shaving § Capley-Ricin mease, governed Byam Alu wise equation in four-dimensional homegencout ‘honda Sepeeiutete where wie sme. Hyperplanes which do aot interost the Absolute Tre spas, so apa tneauremets sre elipiey ves the threes netonsi wool of space has the sue Mind of geenety at the Sarice o's sphure difenng trom s only ia beng three dimensonal Ienend of twdimcndonals immu a gromery thre a tata ‘uit of Tenge, namely the length of the complete straight line, ten gn cae ie cr da 0 pl rut le dimen, od the pce reef he Sunt ‘eer Spe eae ” ATHERFORCEst ao he sure of sphere there satura ui of length, amgly the length fa complete great cle "Wl ee broach guction ofthe dimearon of the iver hat ie length of the comple sg ng te eit ofall space Since 17 there har seemed to be pombiity| that by the Combination of chery with astephyscal observation, ir gusion might be answered 8 Scent ietgaon of he de Str world, However, reached onclsone which apparently were not coacordamt. "The origi of Somme ofthe ducordasees coud be waced to fhe ambigues Which Painted ee th ee inst dace nd from ig in carved pace tie, The interval" which dened by (US ante involver space and time blended together and alfhough any particular observer at any instant perceives in iiamedite aclu an “Graptancoaytestimemonal Teale ee RGR cea Be aS ety Wanita ‘negtbourhood for with a general metne defined by a quadratic Micros tnea.e act tte “eet al igus en mal pe Rese aia haat ade mere ‘workrpoint occupied by ogres at the preent instant aad the ‘ae cane ee oe ke See ree eer nate ieee irae =a HeLa tae bh rt ge Heed Ses aE ee aisle ta ise ta, Po eee wre ae teh eg ici mteetantas a AE Ses Oy Tea Sees EAN he hte age Ase Hs cia as otic: Se SRR Gg ad teat ins on the ame, nll gods OE eral i alway 2a Shun spas tone? exist sen and onthe, tented 2. hi ee put deter contra the tay with Spec etic Be spacetime, Retry tet vem Pn on 32 we into the language of diferent geometry the principe by which ‘Sttonomers seta eaeslte the duane of ey mots ee geht pial nee “The princes ep None are ghia afte objet the starP art may cai Seemed SES compared wih he spare bilan Le he Doge actualy son by the observer. The ditaee ofthe star 6 then ‘Ej td beproportnal tothe mquace too of te sak of he Sige eh le gr bh in adepung tip pone io dental geometry, we tke a‘ sar" Atand an oberver which aren the Line ull goods nd‘ conidr 4th pets of mal geo egy SHR) ‘he stem A and fas ner Be fie pene estes Shecner By "nnamtancouttineedimenional Ses gins eee Gisemsona cossecion’ the ‘opted detoce ARS ey dened fo be poporsona heeft sot ef tis trom seeos iste a uly Sends sam ovary te: lndopedent the doce’ of the cordate quem "TAb Invanantoees Involves ot onl te poton of the started he peaion of heer, bot ak se non ofre bse sas ts antanes threaiemsonal sace"'@ dermis aly when Keto ironman the pai dance of ar om tn sete Atpendy om the mon of te aerser- but ths qe hold iPad infeed had aaye beet Fcoged ike sy theo ei pare and Loren” fin da tes the pad dace of Str fom an sere is (Sir Veadmy here eRe ae condgng rtere 0 Aa pr al amn wl ree s {eit oar ote soci or ewer es ‘howe thatthe digance depends on he slcrert moto, "en ae de Ser wold wsuded fhe pt of dition of she oe ty mal aril oe ag Spenco beso sal uh ahey dnt Seay ae he itrcal character of the univene)y some remarkable rel are and." Th ely moving sat and's fey mag Sgr moi remain a's gbmant tal Gatce Spi de See orgs "When he obverse the Bag Spel Ae Sai lt ea he ame Aer he Talo, ater which Wnerue spy indy ae tea topes ty sect tt the teminus of is own worldling, x0 the Nar condnues to east Be hat ceed to ave any rene wi pat “Te inten word, which a we ive sen sa sata salon of he gratasioal oat specie he spiel esate pS Ra ei Se ea Pa eTHEREQRCEwan gencnafied by A. redmant nt sion ia wtih the Tahal depands’on the Umeha in fat came fo be known io a gue" Not muck ges ee ken oot al fee pan ny he Abbe Gears emer et kad evearctnen al IT LCEEATE ed ie he ingly nie sua then AE dort the nod progen thrash Shunapus ses of Internat wate toward simi whieh toca ted Ste ene ‘ an i ate fe of 1280 ives in conjunction wit his reach student G, ©. MeViaie, the stably SPEC ere: ans Lene paper the lation 3 Hh AAD sete Sti poe am gpianaan See ered pn of he wll uel ‘Scr 1980 htop iene en ena mpc in ie ecltme of general relativity, as put forward by Einstein. in 1015 oe lh Sn ae ard he gentry pation sop at Bata plesaem, "We geen wat Seiya ot mie th th on nea Beers derbi Se nto! gacona tne wat Spur lal herp of ech ge tg Seiad Srnec bods Mate invay cine or mage ‘edd sl persted sein the old physics. "This seemed at any rate fest Sate pa yt beso imprest ws TSCA some of er ching cody reseug, Stull intend sd Topoetd some way arcameuenes (Of the pure geometry of space and Gme- In 1918 Weyl proposed LEED Dy Rinddincesmety once mae on me oto, a ee eg oe 31 aed Intnl ihe Gin pas nthe Hghecon” or re ict on» beipit hich ie SEeaD Ga go out om ie Tue bpbecone pra hae word Sau wha abe ale by infin a om te os hoe sens cam ae Pi 0 pads paras pal rom Hoare MRESMRE gl tn epee by he Sate! = 0, wea bean eed Wy rr a non TOSS hn equa 2 hk me Behe a he arts point ofthe suect In other wird fis the pte of the ten Teta Ber ad i Sal lt Se cue, 2p mm cea BP Boe a(R Fs umn my nt ee nied Se aged hp sn tag yr mat tan hs onder! yo nema Srlegeh at diferent times and place may yield Gincoedane rent Seg re tea cere pet anata! oes oe ie ne re or geen se Senter itis specified by 2 quadratic diferential Gem S gyi and a linear differential form 5 dyds” together. The coefficients gy of ‘he quadraie frm ean be interpreta, a im Eisten’s theory, as he Potential of gravitation, while she four cocliens fF the ey cn bce ne canoes Boe ‘maga poteatalevecte. ‘Thus Wey! succeded in exhbiing both aac Ad cry a ees ol see fe wor alangement of geemrrcal ides thus achieved was son flowed ‘by ul wider extension de to Eddington’ This and ‘os subsysent constraction nthe tame flare based oa Spa Not fei, mh a ine ond ‘question of parc it curved spaces ws Taued fn a us fy the dicvey of Goer Rati tary eit ‘ow became neces forte parece of ysis 1 cea theo oP eign fa cured space sad a thee vston Bam post Pint ofthe space. Now ig Ediesn space Ua V re wep Sectors at theta point, B, we eam find the vector which heir aliference by using the tangle of vectors Bur if U e's vector Aaa point Pand Visa vectors diferent pot Q. and if we want tnd Gh sec whic te ren a aad ae (in principle ttt trate U parle to il i the point wee pl Grand then ofthe dif ofthe et 3.Q. Thus s proces of paral rar neesy foe dog the Sicrence of veto at dierent pot, and hence forthe spatial ‘iierentiaion of vector >and ths bere wither the spice it naiean er non Eucidean. "The spatial diferenaston of vector in curved spaces already teen diets analyallv under the name ore aja, Evidently "ths covarane difereason tut eally be wed on irl espero vector othe curved space’ and in 117 thd parcular Rem ot psn tansport wa deel frmalsted| ” ATHERFORCEby T. Levins emay be eared a providing a geome Bitpedia he Ghose Rice re eh war deve th space maybe regarded as fact She ge sane a all pec come toc, 3 ST peall hy Spal tranpor, ch water the conan nds Ye oe se be edd wp Eyenor in sgburingomallpce, Tce pe oie. Sagem thar tts Hossa dele paral ranpor “$eiMSte hee pins tw consider geomery onthe sree he eat egndad are er Te aus da econ © Sod Va fwoairat poly canoe (lem one of he gins Rebate Bae ptt a othe) Oe paral i he odiary SAY eae” fe" paral tn the tdimentona space it ilcride cots liad bu a pond of pul can be WetnedSod hati many geen wa We ahi or ance, Ste PE Be Dy pratircmprt gum UA apa'U have {BE ine compasrbearag v0 at ft the serves econ at eae cats Srtice moll be said be paral toe lt deo tc er Pte a a eubport on the cath inthis way, there are ow two diferent nds of othe ea ware SS, ay Be Sarl as analogos ty the sgh Hoe i the HEU ine Wve dehaes sragh ine by Oe poperty dat ESE Irs dutance between two polo then fo asic on hecathtts grat cite upc it ger tbe dito dance bewcen opine otic space sadace Bo ie eine ough Une SPUR opr kr pcre the sme deton slong wle ag ant pce har aces meaty are deed ffom tach other by parle transpor, then if analogue\on the SO Whe ha oe ip wise compumbearng cmt ‘Riot ir Synge’ GUE the are cle 2 bedoneThe See ele balla er een We gest Grd an the {Exninin ony beamed to oe Gc tat an ceca and rare Ulta ene of ct re and he nes ot {Pitta nese two mies learves pape and hiro Say ay sve sugges hw een phenomena may Berend naan yr oct ope Weis opal ors ele theory gration and ecto, magneton wae flowed up im another direction by Th. Kalra 1 Inshore gl la Ea nd a tes Rn ead iermed einen por Smauns s SSP union otioa eee els ae ane Ten tae ee nce Bele ze Feit hy 9 cyl ahars Seca by Ose HieeTand Sede ES Salt gel GRE nt sone A ae eee asa e ay ara See Sa tenes sean as Hit eta plete le int ee Engh ese fs men ons eee ae Specs tee Alcs Phair Tcupig Serie a money SHE atin nyo pay Sei ar Pint econ SERINE, Heo a ae sae ee ean omit ceria a's pai eS PQ OLAS Me “ign Qupld Ven ag Sac Hefan of Picea? SRR in Slee ee ‘epee Rylan pape eo Ta cy sage SP tee PN AS ee PTS SSS ye ie aeeectaarrecers Seet Se patay ot toon oe tenes poe Rs See ital cd guts ete te Eyer GETS been decd he wort of No do Ee i og Me ce, Terabe het ean Sen ed Sapna ceae gear an meareee eaten Baad omy Slee a Eee sth tase ae Bisson SSPE Wyo" Vae a ene ee caer i FF Be i as (Ml poly ef Ei Be Se TEL Edel aba OE er er RA Ia enka ast REA NRE Ml, «aes c sam nave ie he lm ite: Sl fas Ota eee 19) 9; a ak Sm Pa ome REPS ee a deel a ee ns MEE Cee ia ise AETHERFORCEDuh seol at Delt nde y Ie A Scout! and he rach Past en ated Ie yar"ecs FREER et ae tt ee imathematies rather than in_physicy and witch are cherefore! not EUS SMT? She lod oP "booin af Cis SUSE SUT ictus obi Oman abt Some of the Americans, as becn, broadly speaking, more physical Toman ural Moiese alte wate deren faye nly BoE set et te seem psa ‘theory mast fr the present be regarded ‘sx hypo "fk cape shen coer the mas port ih General ant rE Snes Stir cu een ppc See he Aen ees gel pe {ind indeed quiring How far k lnay be posible to-contruct & Pusch lem Whee ul moons mee 2 Bag re em cist Cr Do td alt dW, hh re re ten Teer Srie, anak unk ale mer windsor Erase be pices och se Sap ns tal ie raat "IR ements ined by Pscich Kotler of Viena wots Bas pthc ety NaS eae Tea ant TS Rete rt tel i ar re nur a ata a ee Mees PRE Sa fen et aha Oke eee San Leh ae cp ae ak i Se fe ive Se AE vee the independence of metre which characters dhe analysis of skew temo ton rh an rhage of ay wo nos Bey whi askew emer of unk 3) w™ © & Heron 1s 8 (yp xe) veh (vex) canged ithe mee (bite on ded snd this ele ie replaced by (ayn an de de scar ptm, he epi S oge SSSA cee ila at EEA e bt ge eleoran Signed ore eae rahe Ricueetsreminioncs ea ata Bos goes ore tn eth Bou atpete cipal 8 8 8 att ag ifthe meric gven by (6-3 onan 9-1.) ae aol VE es jane Bat & ar€4 i the contravarant vector corresponding to the conan we alt (2). ‘Then Paso’ eqn : EU(vev) tery Inox mm iso an eutn doped on 4 rs SELENE Rance ae Egven by (aS ender ent), ” ATHERFORCEdr re te oe 1 gating a ne tn on Sop a even or an odd aan’ apd when fare pot direst rte dagcd wo be mgon Then eB es Irae ret 4° Wi sall denote by Gye ‘Kote wie Fyn E Goel! 4 in x covariant skew tensor of rank 2 Je dhree numerically ister component ate Bae vel Beevacdy Fan veeLt “Ths Piso euaion may be writen Hy Ba oo seh 2G Row 'S be Wy Wing ucce encoing a volume V, hen Geet tewen (OMR depend a ay sen te) seh ants awe here (42) are any paramcter ng pstion onthe surfce, ‘Thus wre oben the sqution flee ecg) ens ae [fnaanee, "auc ah TF Kotler interpreted he left-hand se ofthis equation a the total fe troup te sarace Sof the skew tensor Hy apd he regarded {he equation as representing the relation between the occurrences inside'S and the B21) (expreed by a sew toner) acting on 3, fe ‘em ne of rt ena cone een form Gas, ‘ieoremé Korler regarded this equation as the sarangpolnt of $ Be Seaiccens aati dee Same ein EE iar he ees ciate Br cae ES Ba Pe ON ioe 2 IE 8 fondamental nopsmetcal formulation of gravitational theory: fete introduced, a later stage, only wey te comeepe of 1B Sisugubted fron tae of faci itroduced: tat when We free acting op a parle conte to be wondered, Heke pion Marat cine, raed an er problem ce th eerie and magne forts ogee comin Sttu-ecin which tthe higd of tenor ruined br a eoncnesse fect ihe bl "Meg dene onal Et papers ween nf iningham' and Bateman? ‘who, korting fom the propaston shat the fundamental equate telectrodynamics are variant with rxpet to Lorene tankers ow. fe.f9 toatons inthe burclmestonal world of paces, taf crac ate icra eos ar tar ith respec to 4 much wider groop, nately the tanfonsete Fe which he guaton 7 "Ps BawelY (ars (is (ey eat is invariant. By writing ¥/—1 etd this lst equation becomes (ds (6) (de ("=0, try wh an espn int ar Piece aes ae wnt ae BE Gs Serie ot tale be he fate he ed PE Se ‘il nA acres ict ion, Fer 80S nent et “PS ees pe eecnaetc mucha eae te ale ach scone Bey el ct ea ce Sneed he ly une ecm ed le CL Ii Sey ml ta tae ea eit coohk oann acu eel of ace xed stam “ene, in which the whole it expanding Bf Cae cs te Cet Ea wok at my dre y Soa ae a ern mene Dy. th anlar ey ans pope foment Betta tre a. prea esate ig mee a eh re tt BE Pa me ec tay aed SSE each eas: ” ATHERFORCEeee feces eth aan Ey See ferours shane nl oats sae ef the energies of all the partccs crowing through & closed Bones Dyan Dig Bn (8, 1 16 Chapter VI RADIATION AND ATOMS IN THE OLDER QUANTUM ‘THEORY I 196 Bip pb a new and evenly pe pot of Hut Rare eer fo cca So net ith tentlig ht i a eta a pe ipPaclcas ine’ uuin a thought lowed was more or se Pmlete, eNe Gore ret dei ain! ipl Serdar ocd Fe rr aie nt, duct tere saceaera rate tg ete Ne, rots See eae ei raed foarte fa epi iebaniel as sees e a ey erm Wine A Nor mpg ht the pba of sng mle fn he snd cert ai ta ok ——L—™—™—™—™rt~—r™——_C Ses Ge aes na cate aa ey Aba “ Suppone abo that the probability of melecule under the influence i radiaon of frequcny » aod eoerey-denty ping i tine ffom the sate of lower taergy Ze tothe sat of higher energy Za, Ly absorbing the radiant enegy exam Bip dt ® and suppose thatthe probability of molecule under the infacnce ar wis fadaton eld pasang im time dom the sate of higher sali er I TASS etn 2 tS Sa - " ATHERFORCE‘energy Zn to the sate of lower energy Zo, with emision of the ‘radiant ergy eee Bip ey This i called tinal! emiin; Hts enntence was recognised here fore dae tne [Now the exchanges of energy beeen radiation and molecules ‘pont not diet the eanonieal estsbution of sats as given above So'ln unt ime, ow the averagy as many Gemenary process of {pe (8) more fake place se of types (A) and) together. We se Sheeone have Baty (pest) ‘We astume that p incest to infinity with, 50 this equation gives o ‘This ia evident Planes law of radiation Bes tmnt in Raygh bw fr ong waveden, ens lw lor short wavedengt, we mist have and a 1 we tis (1) and (2) nf pape of Bn’ jon Sy de fe xonge fen Beton ma tad Se a oe ee a met ‘pie a are eta ae ie Oa ce er ey cee ate ee tS se See ea a ti ats ad eee a ey en menaea a! Bae ie be ge pm et) a He Seach ear eee mere SPEIER limes Sal rete BY Pte 80 3 | [RADIATION AD ATONE HY THE OLDER QUANTIM THEORY mot, ct poten f oases gay bo soe cocficent ch at Use Biotly Gefhene, for dus separ Stead mole, "The ton 2) ap bun el ape linge eB ie ee ean ‘tom ear the ieee eee cces a cl ier, I ered ot ppe ne ee an ence eee a Seta Srcliamine e eeeptee ee Eras ee caterer aale acl a ere: te etd, (ehh fate mart mata pei te. eae era cima mn ee mays cere ee meer aT atte te epee septa se A inayat ‘Pomerat ey abn oe ced irene relate Sumber being gever'by the lwo Carical er ee oes le enn ct So Ce ire chor nme eee ie opera ean atti ines ce aed sree cuion moon ase at MS SPeetcnaaries a eh tee as a ee Tee cm Sanayi ch srior amt te wee ae in arent with the rit previ ofaned >The average {oul energy pe unit volume ithe ange a there abs ees Bla Sprain es TERRORS Hep age ” ATHERFORCEOkt a YO inagreemet wih Panel’ aw of ation _ ims theory othe oxen of emsion and absorption slug enabled theoreealphucsy within Tew Yeas to create ESusctony quantum theory ofthe watering ecracton and die pesion of ghee tn 1921" Rudolf Ladenburg™ (01002), Fermer pupil of Rantgen’s at Munich who aterwards, sted In"Amesiea at Princeton, ntedveed quantum eoneepa into the Taras nec St fr him to find a quantom-theorte inter. pretation fr the aumber that in cauieal theory represent the [uber of cletoas Bound to noms by forcer of rexbeon, fr it wat these electron which were responsible for Hghtseaterng, Fettacton, and dsperdom- Les call thom Aopen Th Ene achieved by eliclating the emited and abrorbed energy ot = tof moleel i temperature-equllosum wih Fadiason, ep te bse of laseal thoory‘on the pe Hand and of quantum theory fn the ofr 7 Soppore then that there are 98 dapenion-lectroos per cm’, antl cnctating fey wth fequrny” Now fn the Intrmoniconlstr of lequeney my if the Guplacement x at the nga fist cor font he mean valve ofthe energy fo (a)* Stdg'ie it Un2emnit, and therefore? the average energy Aan por eoad bee, PF ee or Ifthe molcaes are in equisien with radiation at temperature, and ifwe regard the electons as spatal sallatrs with Uivee depres Macy eane eae Pe ns Ri otbin nod witch appear io be inconsistent with the orginal Compton theory. ‘A inte accurate Westnent of Wr Compion fet, making we of itt evelopments in eneral theory war ven Sa 1095 by Ie fn pts ao en 3.2 Paes 7 Td cai set mad Ti et ee haha Mg Satire eres RADIATION AND ATOME HY THE OLDER QUASTOAE THEORY eee acne Sain. Rss tz Ge “The Compton effect raised jaan acute form the contr eee see ee wee Gy rib oeeer chet haet Bens, soe Corea crete dled Brel ae moe eg ean Sere tae at Creare tt Sane SAS Se paces ee lore Sted Pole oes Scere ceed eas acs coef Eee meres eoer te Seer oe eee mote ae, Bes lig Gr x Ganesan aa Cee ARIS Roe Seen eee sea rnin gaa re Sone th eg seg tent ea GERI, potas Wetatesace sec es FWA alot cherpy or momentarns Wher iced eo Conarcson with Sheet Se a Som ero Su oe Same serene rome Seale cd arias ean a ni ta oe Eee see etic me Seer gigremiemey cain fon gpa i “on thst ely ae iste ean cess Shree ease meng eran Elnacn's prise of Ii} Wile in the sacs ie oe Eee Fes fans teen Seer Ss ee certet em eae eee tet emt el See ee een ate Pigs en i (108), SAB; ay AETHERFORCEgn, Wg il nao ig ral ai seat, om sare talent abens SEaicere er theta te tems SERPS, Seer eet er act bead nae tts Se voor fsa dae rata Se as Saami tae lar ark Be Seite Spondias Sunn fe Seeriacecates deadieie er eh Giunta Mee" Gar tt SEaiee aise, macuner tice Se ie ncn cet ate iS it sey ae ncoeeros eat eee eet lalate ata ik ich ei ec eae esi i erect aid an ee Ses toh dtr th Day ot Seta {pili te tas i spntencot Sythe recon of eae eaten ee dees ‘lomeptum the sone an tha ofthe wave propagation tm ths i rane Seon wr wd win ahr oO a seer hie erapen ta Ger ae woke Wat idler er Seale Gm se ata elie Sipe Soon nates se ane Soeur miieuecntuer Mae ete SSN hetahedtcre tia lites EGE scitegarvnal get Peace yb ee ee Gat tee geagay Seine Gaeta rc tly ton OE he Oe Hermes iy Pert th “Rea hoe Ben ie tattlan hoya pnt le SRG omen" oe Scklacn ee Ny al SS rin fy, Cp a SES Panic aces paces ee Saeki Ce a ieteady toc es Sieg cial ie pow er acts LL a mee [RADIATION AND ATONE HY THE OLDER QUANTUM THEORY of the quar afer eating. Te was therfre pail to tet the ofthe gustion Ps +) tan Scot # (oe) of which comet he dn fhe eater quant ad he Shc ci es ees aa cae a at eS eee a che ey ee ee TO icin signe and demote See ee oe it Wc ee Se ee ihe SET ae as at SRST rida ABRs een ath — Fe a Ox ogee amy eof pS ae EE Pn! as Hae a Islan Ma an ny Ret Ba SSP ft lat SF — SOUS a eitaearage yuan ont Sie ne ASPET Rana i Se Byte Sel ee me sic ner ee eam PEATE RATS Feta ec Scapa an ie Seda Wet STH Tunas tmmimese ata ie Seti Ine eee ttt SSRIS ANC ect Shani ae feat dlan e tmand ty Pina nde ee tpt ee teeta Se et Speen 2 Perce we a a pase ane ace i rio Lr ———— Sa SGP Pact el obi he aed Heeb a cs rr Fer ed ee qe 7 ar mh, ” ATHERFORCEPat's assumption that the photon sateed all have the energy Jp when Ine sca a gureeetre ad thre are ako deine proportons of pkotons taving the eneres Diss cent iti aumed the tach of thew i ester et thoy fn exely the tame way a8 the photons of enray fy he Praliaecond term fallout, aed the thdry becomes mec simpler? Tn the Inter half of 1523" Lous de Brote introduced new conception wich proved be of ea Iapertance quan theo. "ine analogy of Permat’ Principle ia Opes wa the Prindple of Lea Acton in Dynamics suggested to Rim te desrax bil af studying more profoundly the parallelism between corps. [iat dynamics and thet propagation of waves, apd stacking tt Spl mening ‘He deoped hn de tins ote, fete Comper Ru? then in doctorate tess sustained to 1924 nn other paper Inde Brogies theory, with the motion of any electron or material, parle there anaciated system of plane waves, such that the Ect of he eleton sequal to the sroupvelacy of the waver etm be the macs and the velocty of re partie, It sumed (far the equency vo the waver given by Panos relation Bob, whe Is the Kinetic energy of he parse, so et a vt) Since sequal to the groupeveocty ofthe waves, we have bee. ® where isthe wavelength ofthe wave so that N= Viv where Vit The phasevelocy of the aves 5. Zope weaiment of he ule brn a Santander nie RRS EC iene irae leh ae Cee eee a A aE Ista TAN oat 889 UA eB He pln rth et ae | | | | RADIATION AND ATOMS TI OLDER QUANTUM ttEORY rom (1) and (2) we have Qe where the momentum ofthe panicle. otorating, we ave 1h o sc tiainge esig t gire "ike phaseeacy Vf the de Broglie wave ie Ee vow sgh cay ie es ys tow a wavesnotion of equency E208 aed of wavelength Pensa eae ph eect feeap. [f(Eepa~ pry —padh 1 ln ion eat ay Eo Ria te mim St crate 9» egy cry he Bele Pete aera yee (evn ap in SER Diag eee ym MO 25 AETHERFORCEIi eam pe nerd it i cbt mr tbe oe (obi tpeckal ortce . deep. [te -(!) eompene)] when B denotes the energy fr and fy) the momentum Hoe UP'ihe ctresponding photon. Compara tha. walt the above fagrenint he de oe wae ut eat nay lowe that tha Se Broglie wave rerarded asa quantam eet, then einer drs fh st ne a ly eatin fr yn fact, 2 ia (igh the «cleat thoory tat 2 tually 90 called dae fo the hioreal ecient that the wavestheory of gt happened to fh decovere before the photon theory, which isthe corpuscular theory. When intetereate i treated by'the corpuscular theory {Dunks method pr {42}, ea te qoanttm character shows by these se quatcam jutpe af mortentam make thelr appearance. Moreover tht interference and diracton of ight are event Ghibe ihe nature asthe Sntererence and fraction of elect team ‘aad of molecular raya, and he later phenomens are ‘ndoubiedy quanta ete. "Pe prigcple of Fermat applied to the wave may Be shown to biden with te principle ot Lear Actin applied othe partie ihr ins aan Sidr p conta mate oie 'Be Reopie ow showed that his Uheory provided a very simple interpetaton of Bohs quantum conden for stationary states {ie bydrogen atom, That condition way that ce aagulae momen fof te an should be a wholesnumber muluple of for Aaya MiB But ifr denote the radiue of the ori and p the leat {homéntum of the elton, he angular momenta it yp: 2 the ‘condi becomes Wo speak athe wavetheory 2epaah Baraad where Ais the wavelength ofthe de Broglle wave asocated. with Wie lecivon “Thus eqantion, however, mesne spy that te came Jernc of he ob of ao mat Be hale maple of ‘ll ge RADIATION AND ATOME IN THE OLDER QUANTUM THEORY ver gon ape ei oc eri acer er arn eck ceased alt Sa cor tn oe Ei ieee dates See Fe PETG Ree cng ea coctay has Saar at sqrt ecient 4 alee hor) (Dusne's method)" depende onthe’ Wilon-Somtmertld ccna, which ye (ep 3) (ody (in ¢—sin»)~a whole mumber, where p now denotes the total momentum of the quantum of Tish, frie ttt ‘by the wavesneory of Yous ahd Free, (the other handy depends "on he prncple tht (1/2) aed the ference in hase beswosn the rae rected om adjceat feacingiscevalr inae’ bea whole numbers and this at once ee (a (6m sin fa whole mb. ‘These two uation ae identical if (9/8) (1/8, which is asured| pales relation ae Th July 1025 a recarch student named Walter Blaster, working der James Franch at Gotingen, made an iporantconsbution fo the theory. Franek had beer told by hb colleagge Mx Born tf an taaugaion made in Ameries by Clinton J Davison td "i." Kuneman?! eho’ Rad’ studied the angul diseibaion of Petras vetlected at a pltinum plate, and bad found se cers Sngls strong masim af the inten of the electonie beam Born, ith knew ot de Bogle’ theory, mentioned i tis conection, hd Franck proposed to Elnner tht he sold examine the quetion spt, Det mains could he expiind sora way Dy de Broglss waves" Elser showed tat they could i Tuc befor: feed a ites Ge etree of Ie wave there ware Strong mania, which with increasing elecwon-veacty sppreas edo the pinGons of dhe masima ela would be sbecbed lig of the wavelength given by de Brags lw, namely Ahn wer ita oa otc Hae fing, the conan of ae ing beg those af plstnam eye he was the ret cone Fimaton of de Broglie theory which was based on eompaion Ny 195,90 1 ip he ep 28 ” ATHERFORCEwith experiment. Bsser remarked farther that de Broglie’ th [rovidedolons for tome other pugles of current pays, Sled an ced amc Carma, 2 Incepenteniy but lacer Fownend ley? ‘Oxdord and by R, N. Chiari working in ©. W. Richardson's [Bboratory in Londo, nately, thatthe cance pth of an lect Inte ier gases beodmerexteedingy long when the weoey of the fleeom is vuced’ thos when an lecrgo moving with 8 veloity ‘ot about 10" concedes with a rolecale of notice ge, {nema es ire an oe por amo sen bt wc tildes with’ 4 rotecule of argon, fe loses only about one ten= ‘howandih par oft energy 1 and the mean free path of suc an ‘decron in argon boat tn Us 2s Tong a hat ealeulated from the inele hry. Ekaserexplsined ths by showing cht when sow ‘lSstons are seed by some ofthe srt gases, tbe eet Flow She sume nw atthe canal wetting of radiation, ofthe asocited aE pie ave by smal pers wise rad the ue lier frther suggested that electrons reflected at a single largegiol fee uimance ig ow te ditaconciiat he Sica ec i penomton us pated ws {and experimentally faton J Davston Sd Lester Geis phn Ceo ond tar fo ‘ett, refleced frm the face ofa target cut fom a single esa fice, gave welltened esis of scateed electrons in various “ceuons fou ofthe target i fac cifnction phenomena were Sstnerved preeuely sla to those obtaed wth Xorayy of water ieee otested wih he momenta a helena by de Broes Tn Nov-Dec, 1927, George Paget Thomson® examin the scattering of cathode rays by avery tin metal Hny whieh could Ue regarded sua mlcrcryalie aggregate, and confirmed the fact, that t beam of electrons behaves Ikea wave fmm the ie of the {ings in the difcson-pattern se was posible to deduce the waves eg of dhe wave eating erm, and iy all eases he obtained the ‘alte =p Ten steam of electrons drcted ata seven in whith — SEER ee eerie Tee ea amet each patios fees eC Cea re hy i, ee RADIATION AND ATOMS I THE OLDER QUANTUM THEORY oh a ite ses cepa Poles jee witig a Fe Set hacen of de ey femal a feeb apt t ‘icy rat ea. refer Tea oe Rc oe Od a awh era ae aii St Sat Seat fe hh re So Gis oe acer a eat SRE TE nal Sen ae areas ted Le SSE Se ae aise ay ih Root ated Ce oon oe cn of dem el sr phe SER te rm a Fag Bethes pupil of Sommers, and GG. Darwin “The ‘next pouble advance in plaial theory was made by Satyam Nath Houe#of Dacen Untvcety, in a owe paper sing 2h desiaton of Planck's mala of tadiaon Elstcine whe fess have tose ato German rom an Engh manus ent to him by Bose, recogined at nce fe importa ad eae ‘econ With de Bro’ theoy. eee Bowe regarded the radiation as componed of photon, which for staisicl could be teat ike the patces of © ay, but tri the lmportanediference that photos! are intingtshable from cach fh, that uicad of Somer the scaton ak ‘ndvidual dstingushable photons among 2 art of statey he nes Menton op the'number of nate that contain a given cube of Te assumes that dhe weal energy of the photons Se EEvep, and that they are contain in an ensure of unit wou. thre Conpeen oi aamantn (he Pe Slice Me wee momentum i, we have Pr Be Bie See aie eal Btbbteptor where robe Let volume in the sicdimensional space of (3 & By Br Bi) be “Eunorm uaecrn amar epee allel Paar MMe om me TA a SPY cen er cs eee IPS Meares erates ate SRE eT As AETHERFORCEcalled phaespac, Then to the froquencyrange Grom » to v4 there corresponds the phassapace Jor ssc ttn tertte a Sse now sume hat this phates paitoned int cll of hime Bo there ate dove cl In Grder to take account of Foland ge doublet numer, esha bec Siow Rob hc tbe pos ne equengrenge sad rr ner she iw a aed Matha ling or Ear he momber a ant Sa theater fee that conta one photon y the number Fee Say po Tien he ie of ae Se ieaggs ee a Sec a eau oe ra Rint: + where AB and we have osm. Ag the fundamental asumption of hip statics, Bose assarnes that f particular quantum ste i considered, thd all values or thu o parler in hat te reel hl sche po big of any datibucon spected by the pis measured by 3 suo dre ways wh can Ge relic "Hens the ry of tne note spectied bythe (ow taking into account fre whe range of fequencis) is Since the pare large, we can woe Stiting’s approximation log sl log n= so log W=5 Arlog AS Sp" logs since Am E “This expression i to be a maximum subject tthe condition E=3 Neb, when Nea Erp. “The wal contions become ia this ease STV Hog H=0, EAN =O, ZAOITON AKD ATOME RC THE OLNER geAKTEM THEORY where NS iio, Zapren, which ge ° " SE mr [Uss pray tho here and the ate constants: 20 whege the Br are constant Therceore while New Soptoay ne Tm Bag Nine zeae Te ogy SektagW ie dt Sa8[f-Z Arles (1-e8)}. aT pagSet a fy hich s equivalent to Planc’s formula. ” ATHERFORCEBoss's paper therefore showed that in order to obtain Pan’ law of rubato, we mast asume that phowoas obey patealat Hind of static’ "Tir point may be istrated by an analogy, {Ellows‘Comider an eipty rulway tain standing at x platorm, fei pasengcrs on ae plasorn who getinto the tan | and suppose {hat bien they fave al fen er pace, fy comparcment are aca fs compartment have one paseger apiece, compartments ive te panagers apiece and on''so Gat Ale the mame tf compartmests in te tain, we have Anfethetbet and if N the number of passengers, we have N= ped PotD ie For simplicity, we shall astume that comparatively few people are traveling, 20 hat che number of compartments greater tan the onder jase. ev gu what he probably of i parseulr tiption specie by the numbers (he Pu Pr = Ly he poate on the ammonia ge a ing the foties wie iflacnce passengers im thet choice of Eompartment. Thre mck assumptions areas fws a wg tas tear er ra SPREE tt an peng te ten a, ee ar ne a Sr) Wesmigh seme th the f 1 tel emi ie tomy te poy ga meee ail oe Sot a at BE oe an a a re oh a ee ta eee tat de the tmp le ie Spend’ Toe ee ee a bas Ba Se te i gut ls yc Zs diver was immedi een by Han the soy a st HO gee Bt es Bak ni 84 8; CRB, BADIION AND ATONE I THE OLDER QUANTUM THEORY hotons and Binstein'sgaeparices i that for plots the ene Pretimes the momenta, Wheres for partes £ ferent equation Ildrs tnd, moreover ia Bow’s problem the total energy fixed bot the numberof ‘a Boe feed, whereas tn Einstein's roblem te toa nuutber of paris dette These dillerencen, Eowever do mot ate the general plan of the investigation. The oar leads tthe following concaxons +e average number of parle ia ina we wah sept he ge cranks w where je conta: whence te tal uml of pari in ait volane ve 2 at [bt stan! [pay ry sd el gy et mei 2% ant fate, ° ‘Bho ae the fondamental frmaae of what gear clled ‘Now comider the relation becwcen these formulae and the formolse ‘of the classical (Marwellsn) Mele eory of gases Wer should expect the easel formulae to be obtained. at the Und eave whe 0, fn which ease evident from (1) that rst tend to infinity fc auch away that fe haw a Bole al, 52) A From (2) we den have in is imiing case, contr « nant} see (1) states inde iting cate chat the tral pumber of partes In unit velume with energie beween eande+ des 2 amt enue de fon, by (W), ot ofa total of particles, the number with energies Serle cy dei oF “s = A aun * eich is pracy the Manin forma mS AETHERFORCE“Moreover (3) becomes i this iting case Be om) an Ta) =e sbi Mat fae fr il eae ee ml, ae moe mugs rn wail tau betwen, Da’ ptr sociedad woah etaeceearearcr ee Wes wey a Oe an at cf tll post tet de arse a atc eee (et eco at nh es yrs See ie el Sub ast the es Serre sn mas nee iantae webby eames gE het em ppg anon ne aio pel sh mares eter ale ak tana inde te wel thy ee AS ety 8 ti fn tsi ie eel Set betaine resto hee Baar lithe et a en ee Paes eet foo uch i hae oi mie atraen te iey ol gana vu male oy fasta TH ple et lara Ca ag Mae cn pe meee Preece Gear Ms ca lave Ha at ised trials ine ash met econ aes cc de ue rene eer tons heer ceiaGek wat siete Nem eae hh ec tf SF ping Hag Serer ta at lad ee SELL Balin iy hee teat eta ae es esa Een es rn Aint e Sipe pant ao em Seay BO pS St oso. s0e Lames shyrpgng et taconite ype nce este Spe erase ee a i Siac dampen pail RADIATION AND ATONE BS THE OLDER QHASTEN THEORY never contain two elements of equal vale with excly the same set Een emt ft rama at on oe ae With spectted quantum nasser cou be present im an eal gat? ‘egy genta use beso tse which ee ‘ict tgn ovandaions en satiation may be performed at follows: suppose the se scan ins Cte ae ane ce hf en 0 asthe porble quantum value ofthe coments of meteor of th pace are Bh, r=, Bom (ly WB fy ty Sew mateo eo Hub nil aber ath ‘olegsthee can bes tonto pvt wit spcted quantum "The ent of the pari is * coats teat’) and asin the case of Boe statics, the number of quantum sates af the parle which eoreapond Wo Msele energy Swen and 22Y com 228 com cd dew Sow apie hat N, pars have engi ee Dal thee sats, Ne are scape [by oe parle cach and the Tot uccapnd. "The sumer way ln wih it ose R Sor eN fo the tral number of ways in which the allocson {Bel am beret "7" NCA the aeason specie by Ru WoONT(R NT! apd we aimume that this + proportional i 2p. eet si proportional to the roby of his og W = 3 flog Ret —lg Netlog (RN) 1}, Using Stn’ approximation othe og. of torn this given log WB {Re log RN. fog — (RN) log RN) Thi isto be made » maximum, subject to BE Newm where is the otal numberof parler ” ATHERFORCEaad /=, where Beth total energy. = ‘The wasal procedure yeas Nea pth wire and pare independent of. Now the entropy is S=togW a1 = ar 1 whence we Bod dete. Hence tember fpr er tone with int ny eon cand cde is a hte Po aeons This he finde tin of Rag tai? ‘fh ll yo fos ere [fate Catto esti wi dni 9 ion hee "Fe parameter has a thermodynamical signifcanee, If for a fine Ine of gat U's the tou energy, 8 the eatopy, T the ies alienate td Spe ph i tee Sot. sree ala ds call lead acta meget ropa Mata Fen eles a bent hte peered em tin at" RADIATION AND ATONE Ht THE OLDER QUAITTA TEORY "The tl inti az 0f the arte nei oles Eafe Braatantf te “The clo similarity ofthese equations othe ceesponding equations in ‘the Bose sain evident the only diference being in the fecurence of 1 ented of iu the denominator. in exacly the'same way atin the cave of Boe an, we sce cht che Htc 0, ety emt wes pn, Manwellan Statics speaking hyscally a "Ferme approximates tot amie gu at puicenly hgh temperatares a tow prewar ‘The devin of Fel shies (ont casita tehaicu'e ie prt drt oe devin the cao ie att cpreware o's gua Fern nati related the chergy> leony By the ame futon i casa theory, i pth {Casical pati sno the onl iting case of erm stain: cher is aotherhnjng ease a the oppo extreme, nately wh bei very Large and mare “If we trie —e fa oy the itera ‘Securing in the theory ae f the fora . a snd can be ho at tim fof Ze so the total density of particles Beeomes and the total Kinetic eneray ofthe pares anit volume it B-entarel iminag owe hve 8 8(°)1 2 a approximately, ‘he need ems nvling Tad ihe power fT. we RESRS rn goth Pt ne ml by FRETS el ewan cr te rng he ” ATHERFORCE1s evident fom he, quaton hat a he eof abate temperstor the parler of gar with ered sates are ot at fest but havea definite arosprt cure in hs iting eas we ne om Ue above value of x that b(t)“, which ie reali dhe temperature it Yow, the density i lange Tei tae foe inva parr smalls" The deviation ifn clameal behaviour ie due Totdamentaly to the eieamsance thr dhe quan vats of ery small mamentam are all occupied bmn i? io aertane wit Nery eu leghem’ te entropy 8 van st the able aor of temperature, nd since Slog Ws follows that Wel when =o, he there Sony one way ef dieting the pares’ ey occupy every uaa sae th ghar of the we So moma “Tas Yat haw an interesting apseaton tn astrophysics In ‘Bent! conte Bum regula ithe toto of Sigs that ‘eas one component of double sta, the sther member ofthe pai Ug viable with the tlencopes then avallable” Some yeas ler the fomparon was olserved telescopically, and found t@ be sar Exivecn'the Band magutude. ite masr not much ls than {ha of ta un, ad eis 2 me says thae its surace brightest It be greaer than the sus + bot tou radiation fon about Hah of that of ibe sunt heice the area of sr surface must be {Eby sul slr than the maps, and Tact not much lege ha Tc. is densty mus theflore be very grest-abou 60,00 Utne that of water, “Thi surprising inference wae confirmed in 195, wlich Walter: Adame of Mount Wibon ound in thespetra i Companion of Sur displacement ofthe lines which maght Swell be the decease of requety that to be expected nines Ua ave beth cited ina ntetacgravatonsl fe "The explanation of hie abnormal dena) 8 tha mater can cit ni dee et a much cry ae lees Some ovits but ar the main fee, ‘The detty ofthe mater {then fimited no longer by the sie of atom, but only by the ses O'ihe elctogs tnd stoic nll: and asthe volumes of hese a thops 10° of he volumes of ators, we may conclude tat eno ch ne ta cea aie [vert as stars ie te componion of Sits recalled “odin toc cea hay f the ration einen energy and temperstare, such sar, having execaively "eat coer Sfould have a vely high temperate, apd ould efor rate intensely. Te wan, however, Shown by fe. Fowler that this MP he RADIATION 480 ATOME THE OLDER QUANTIAE THOR se ante cigs pe te meg, inc sowiet SEE AS Mer maak Oe he See eee SEI erasine i Si SATE tad oir eee tothe tere SSR ele Baer Piles ih el oie ee or aa Se 2 eee AP eee ee a SPR tana i oy naan 5 an ny Oma Ree Dre Betoun P and (2 hath tomy, Slea-tesn 1 tin tas ppt te ge Wnt ge iret ot xin a a ayo 4 un te nec, wea ae ram fie ss teas otal perenne oc eaten tas athe Rana SLGaGREENG Witonatieectld eaters "he ei Gr (HB 9 hye es pe he rin ake sand 3 a oe —— = Pave! bat Vib E po LOm(E—V)h= 28) Ushere the upper sgn must be taken fr the semi-osilaton fom to quand the lower sgn fom p10 geht Joss unde ni 2f%ply-24" he sod dh he Went-rmenilon conon ces Aptos Joseteons PERU Be WtnSmmer onion, competed by the term ‘wilch appeam i the mote aceuste th pba aeit have conte Scvidingens woven only wih stationary tates ofthe ato, to which correspond proper ofthe ttl ney. Weslo coder ore eal ay. js Boh’ theory a satay tate meant parila hid of rit motion, 0 hat am stam could be In ely one talon fate at one tie, In Schrodinger theory, om the other hand, the sationary sates correspond to diferent solutions of aca pv differential equation, and therefore the various Hationary [Estes can be supe juntas overtonae canbe saperpeed om Aalto a wating.” We fave vo comes Wht Gppore tel Plne-poaneed ight whe’ wibraons are in a Aircon a pac through 2 Nicol pity which resolves i ia ‘ibraons ‘it diecdns f and y sepecuivel’ pare and perpen: lelar to the plane of polation f the Nicol and perme aly thre i ro au atetn ob ge pon, ‘which inital plarse inthe drctom we can regard i ae {s mlerhoion of two sat namely, thse of pletion in the ‘lreadon and polarisation in the direction y. Ween peak of the SE SSeS ~* RTHEREORCEProlaiiy ofthe photon being in ether ofthe sates Band y, these Brobabie being such se to account forthe beard ica EE Tph plated [nthe decion 8, which emerges oe “This connestion between seperpoon and probably wil now teen yates,” Cie wo sana salen omy for which the energy hat the proper-vluce Ey and’ By re- {getiely. "Let fy and yb the corroding normalised goltions the'wavecequaion, with their appropate mesfactor #8" and (Sd lt dye here and are arbitrary comple tuum Then te sate Sr peal tuasion represented by ge SEEP'be ced by the pops of he natn repre y fa Sod gu da of coun stn the general ware-quaion Mok goa Let. ind the condition that must be sted by 4 and yi ormalied. "Werhave, Jodeci lari sede es ee mcefs ade ‘Bis equaton ae ints to mean tht hr i on wry (2 tsar sohch would Be found bp u mantener of St cio ets BB aig pone ad thes Rope ier ley ane Pr"Store generally if hy Joy «x are the aormalised wave ‘uncon (th le pigeon eg rape SLURS oth enefy of te icin normale stain {ofthe general waveraquation i expanded inthe foram Paeabe scab tibet en tn i mei pe sr ete met ta ipa err SERN Sore Sree ee tes om Sire nate ee Shae Fmko ie amg aa ape °F dg Mr BE. “Then g* wil have the tmefactor es in the produc fy these Aimeclcots wil destoy each oer that to why te diction secre charge in the atom, and therelore i devel: moment wil ot vary with the Sime “and therfore sedi ot dase heat when isin stator sate wil ot ei radon. rg es hoe a heat nM pure ata seat, itis sate wile iy rprenented bythe sperpantion two iatonary sates for which the wave-uneton haa the Gime: Bitoni and repel o that ener Bens ‘where A and B do not involve the time, ‘Then we have BOP (Aang Bers) aren Bese) MAAS ERE ABKen Hy Aes sd hens ie ee moment of he atom, which depends onan integral molting ony ine eombaadon wil be period, ‘ph ene enya ome ty ‘hd ot acd tesa toy, wll eit radiation a requency (yon Tie nie ‘ion wil continue until the comequent exaustion of energy haa Seni reed the atom wo ngle pare tomar ate iE and Ey are the cores sont wife to sationary rates, then Ey xin, and Eyeing 30 the Taition i of quency UT et ja a el Beary, ad ths ea as nok Bek btained by’ what are ewentlly cise methods—the elasical koro theshny ‘of pra itn equaons—whoat ding vnlence tthe eectrofaagnese theory of igh erdinger dd poy a the out OF Ha searches, spect an Mrs ithe clement inthe (mati) clectic moment of the atom, EMGAGE Gand fom telnet Re melee | a | Semfti(e$ 2) -1e—t} uo ¥ Oni : Sanath Me Vib aot eer nn (aM ‘Similary the coeficen fan he expansion of fs determined the 1 [Mee 8"*, (Mn eal Ua ee we “This euton gis the otarte ole of he amen, The cece semen oe ciel cco ii ul Sse aon ‘pie inthe acstering proces of am atom nthe sate , asada SW the tanto t eh uate Qs the real part of Jarmide erin tis cae [teh Mlb Dk eqlesting srs of the send onder, tis i found o be Marino} 5 Pain: ™) Marr eee eee | Rg em Mac cpremutegmtomen iain macand | Pee pe saa aide aiid wil te trenton Bor, een yw hay watt peers tena roe ema seg es gee ae pe SNL ire eae, Gaeee posh ee a ne bee Ea ER Ea EST a omeic means of the earresponding clascal quantities at the pening sil nd of he procter omar at acodiag ar he iti eu ote Corpo at my be SSialsly Brot fav the motiow of the cone’ gray ofan som len nto ceo emgon akc. ace only Sister ee il ™ In 1927 Schrnger® showed that by means of the conception of de Brot waves, the Compron effotmay be inked up with some sabe aeons qe iret characte. He begat by ‘eesling an inverigston of Léon Brion on the way i which {eczarding to dastcl physi) an eae wave in & tansperent sesh ac th roan oie thee be ap te ompresions! or loatadial wave (ce. a soundawave) of wate: length A which is propagated in'a teansparent mediom. Te refcets SCS elon lkeay wh ae te atthe BeSvoveleketis and te angle ea Ae2A coed vr fhe ce of nee and he wave of IST Aa TGA ana Re gh sus hse Kw te disse ronsant) "Tae proces the Spoon hich fadGcn una STS by Wee Ringe he nditon that Xcraye of wavedength A should be relcted ‘by Ee pal anes ON aie ln fetal hen ets ag idence Aare tc Bean he pare pes Socane ha belies heotsietpeed nine So of propagation of ‘he clastic wave is small compared with the SOERP PEG staat the mals bt be ied DR tabliciine sr le ture ‘Lcliger Min thowed hatte hempin fect can be asnaled Bae Baio en ithe cette ote comps Sct ine a ate ont plated py 4 wane ee Seedy ind a is al suis brie Of ae’ wae the tu a rm by fhe ene emt cay Suse i’ cya, "tbe ache fornmiae see a De nena Uma und by Coton in eprops ihgrs omens lace ore fen ge Ol as mr bibom eich taniioe oA prise ors Saco eso TTAB KUM hy Hie tne ese ea oe ” ATHERFORCE0 avothr maybe trated into the superposition of tw nerng “Te ‘year 1925 sa the publication of some insportane ‘on the problem of atoms with more than one electron fe bad len nn for some yest thatthe energylevels or dnt stations fy water, th acount or the spectra of eral ely which it oo eons conte to ater ach dat the Teele longing to ane yer (the pays) donot i general combine with the levels of the other ayttem (he otheaywem) tn order to ied Ipecral tine, “THE fact ea spectroscope at one time to Cone ESSE a ene often dices Sak cine afin, Beene! yen ‘Sodsus of sngles and the Orcs consis Eee? and Dir now inestintd he general quan smechanial theory of sytem containing sever iSeatcal particles, Ege electrons. it the potions of two of the electrons ae inte ‘Sage the new sat ofthe nom spy idanguibale fom the orga one ‘Tn th ene we ould expe the mares fiona oy inthe dina the tesrone (nladng the coordinate wich represents spi New Sew wave finetin vanahes Hentcly whch tee ofthe leon i star defined by he ame quantum mombers thi mean {hae f'n lation of he proem specs by sew wavefunctions {here can'be'no watonary water Be wlich two or more cle ive dhe sme at of quantum rumbcis which ir precely Balls fachuson princple. A solution with symmetrical wavefunctions, fn the other han aliowt any number ef eco to have the snc $2 of quanto nimber an ths sleion catnot be the Correct one Behan er Rectan oa the case ofthe helt som, ‘There ar enengy lets coresponding to wave-funcieus which are symmetric in the spacecoordinatel Sas fe the spun ofthe’ cont (the fps ef the te Slseoas ae nga) = thee may bs identied wih the pare Smtr here ate abo wavesnedons whieh are skew it the pace ‘ovine tnd pment apt Ge the apna othe two letrons are parallel tage astciated with the ortho-ystem, in both res he wavefuncnsivcting Both e-ordnats d spi change wien te wo eas af nehanged Now 2 waveunetion symmetrical or sew) stone may remain synmesrcl (orem) a all subsequent stant, ad here: {ire We Change in the sean cannot Met the ptonety (or Fes wemtainey 2K Lacks Pan ge anti SEY HE. gens Pe SETI TE, Sas nk yr as 2 Be Sree Eas i SLPS ise, PPE si (186 398 showne so be parade ad ope cat hae tsdons Vieni rer ‘ote or te Gack es property of lhe partie known an exon itt, whe En important plate in the phyla! rears ofthe years immed ie iccedng: an chum of a ina be served re ” ATHERFORCEBiber aro eit Fila Pa gan ist “1c S206 2636 230 3, | Fey AB gan 17, on fd Stihee || cers CaS Maca arane * ETHERFORCEi Sims se SS oy Sor knoe SEE nate Soren ESE HL Bee Roce XO ta eae Asma BEECH, Bee 29, to sss, er ae Soe | Ea mw cf, . ” ETHEREORCEws, Beenie hie a abit ws 1 By ne Tee te REESE £08 an Becta = Grama: ge Vand AP ap woh ss am tag on, os, nll B sor ome vue SE me Ms Subject Index hernia ecrot go Sraceg in toners tg nbae iver “123 Zompeee on ees | = ete nen Sees oe Ea "tite one Seeman ‘Thm dee «tome ‘og cect tay Sa Se ee, Avopire mame! 8 618; eats commutarae nae mal quit umber SES Paes y a a ” ETHERFORCEsunjecr nex Seen ode Zerg 2) ae oe She ae st ya a cn ny Zid rte ag sation ary of cerenegnetom, ‘emincion ged! ateorpton, Eis ‘har een ty eye jumps ot ewenia 0 ace nls weer Sema call « Serpe he nie peg pon ea lec wo voce, pea erie set ae ci gh on ie hae oe af min eon 6 neni tery of graven iy fermnentn, eat eee ee ee ae Sra oesek Eman. Seis shion: EES as Speen oe soxjeer nex Tag TE 8 te tty Be LSeoe am gatas eae eee aes ighedaree a tn pin tay geal mete =i a “aarp ely RAIS te, anmaon oan mato ies By amg ecpeache es STA BF aay Hamel city, matiemecanien, comesion win Speen trav me SE Bia ik cede ene ti on nt er eGR in Cte oe eae denne yea elas ene ee Re ay i penn ceasenor wes sah godis tec of a fh maaan conmigo resale. an8 (SORSRSREA Sn 0s of age eT et 6 epteeerer 0 otic SERS, ace mee of Sarai ERE apie 0 sy SST Bw erste a chan, econ of tg dere Pa en 8h aye te ta nme Fede rocing, egos iran of pin ie sungtor more i rece ok ay cht enced yo at tel RGIS, Ease SEEN Bs Touscace ot 3 ee Soha, re SS onary coutravariant 58 5 0 a ” ATHERFORCE