Keynote Lecture

CIB2004 World Building Congress

Toronto, Ontario CANADA
May 2-7, 2004

High-Rise Buildings:
Evolution and Innovations
Dr. Oral Buyukozturk
Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Oguz Gunes
Ph.D. Candidate
2004 IST Group. All rights reserved

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, MA, USA

OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION
LOADS
EVOLUTION
INNOVATIONS
CONCLUSION

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Introduction

What is a high-rise building?

A building whose height creates different
conditions in the design, construction, and use
than those that exist in common buildings of a
certain region and period.
The Council of Tall Buildings
and Urban Habitat

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Demand for High-Rise Buildings

Scarcity of land in urban areas
Increasing demand for business and residential
space
Economic growth
Technological advancements
Innovations in Structural Systems
Desire for aesthetics in urban settings
Concept of city skyline
Cultural significance and prestige
Human aspiration to build higher

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Geographical Distribution of High-Rise Buildings

(Tables source: Emporis Corporation April 2004)

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Economy vs. Demand for High-Rise Buildings

Economic growth and resulting demand for office space is a good
indication of demand for high-rise buildings
U.S. Asking Office Rents, Class A

U.S. Gross Domestic Product

10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
-2% 2001

$ Per Sq. Ft. Per Year Full Service

CBD

Suburban

$50
$40
$30

2002

2003

2004

$20
Jan-98Jan-99Jan-00Jan-01Jan-02Jan-03Jan-04

U.S. Office Supply vs. Demand

Sq. Ft. in Millions

U.S. Office Vacancy Rates

Completed

Absorbed

150
100
50
0
-50
-100

19.0%
17.0%
15.0%
13.0%
11.0%
9.0%
7.0%
5.0%

86 88

90

92 94 96

98 00

86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04

02 04

(Grubb & Ellis Company, 2004)

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Structural Loads
Snow Load

Gravity loads
Dead loads
Live loads
Snow loads

Impact
Load
Dead Loads

Lateral loads
Wind loads
Seismic loads

Wind Load
Live Loads

Special load cases

Impact loads
Blast loads

Blast
Load
Earthquake Load
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads
Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Gravity Loads

Floor systems account for a major portion of the gravity loads

Selection of the floor system may influence structural behavior
and resistance
Structural use plays a major role in selection of the floor system
Office buildings
large simply supported spans

Residential and hotel buildings

short continuous spans

Types of floor systems

Concrete
Prestressed concrete
Steel
Composite

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads
Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Wind Loads
Qh

Qz

Qh

Qh

Qz

Plan view

Qh
Wind
ch
(S

7)
97
1
r,
lle
e
u

Qz = KV I
2

Qh = Qz

z=H
(Taranath, 1998)
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads
Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Seismic Loads
Spectral response
acceleration (g)

Response with
increasing damping

Period
(sec)

V = Cs W

Decreasing V/W
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads
Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Design for Increased Height

Building weight and cost increase nonlinearly with increasing
height due to lateral loads
Efficient structural and material systems are needed to reduce
weight and cost
Wind loads generally govern design for lateral loads for heights
> 150 m for steel buildings
> 250 m for concrete buildings
(Ali, M., 2001)

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads
Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Evolution of Structural Systems

A clear classification of high-rise buildings with respect to their
structural system is difficult
A rough classification can be made with respect to effectiveness
in resisting lateral loads

Structural Systems

Moment resisting frame systems

Braced frame, shear wall systems
Core and outrigger systems
Tubular systems
Framed tubes
Trussed tubes
Bundled tubes

Hybrid systems
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Evolution of Structural Systems

Type I

Introduction
Introduction

Type II

Loads
Loads

Type III

Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

Type IV

Innovations
Innovations

Exterior Diagonalized Tube

10

Bundled Framed Tube

20

Semi-Rigid
Frame

30

Rigid Frame

40

50

Exterior Framed Tube

Frame with Shear Truss

60

(CTBUH, 1980)

70

90

Shear Frames
Interacting Systems
Partial Tubular Systems
Tubular Systems

End Channel and Middle I

Framed Tubes

80

Type I
Type II
Type III
Type IV

End Channel Framed Tube with

Interior Shear Trusses

100

# of Floors

Frame with Shear band and

Outrigger Trusses

110

2004 IST Group

Conclusion
Conclusion

Shear Frame System

Resists lateral deformation by joint rotation

Requires high bending stiffness of columns and beams
Rigid joints are essential for stability
Not effective for heights over 30 stories

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Braced Frame System

Lateral forces are resisted by axial actions of bracing and

columns
Steel bracing members or filled-in bays
More efficient than a rigid frame

Cantilever

Shear

Combined
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Core Structure System

Lateral and gravity

loads supported by
central core
Eliminates columns
and bracing elements
Core is inefficient
because it is not deep
in respect to bending
Moment supported
floors are inefficient

Individually
cantilevered
floors
Cantilever
supports

Group
cantilevered
floors
Core

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Outrigger Braced Structure System

1- or 2-story deep
truss connects core
to perimeter
columns
Outriggers
Increases the
bending rigidity
Dependent of rigid
core for shear
resistance

Braced
core

Tension

Compression

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Tubular System

Majority of structural elements around the perimeter

Sides normal to lateral load resist bending
Sides parallel to lateral load resist shear
Minimize number of interior columns
Closely spaced exterior columns
Increased stress at corners
created by shear lag effect

Closely spaced columns

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Hybrid Systems
Combine advantages of different structural and material systems
Composite material system
Concrete super columns
Steel encased concrete columns
Composite floor system
Steel truss and outrigger systems
High strength concrete super columns reduce deflections and weight
Steel encased HS concrete combines
easy erectability of steel,
axial load capacity of HS concrete,
efficient confinement and reinforcement.
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

High-Efficiency Mega-Braced Frame System

Mega braces

Very large columns and

bracing
Small number of
columns
Bracing extends over
multiple floors
Stiff transfer floors allow
for internal flexiblity

Transfer zones

Mega columns

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Evolution of Materials
High performance concrete (HPC)
High performance steel (HPS)
Composite construction

Composite
33%

Steel
42%

Concrete
25%

Number of Buildings

Material systems of the tallest 200 Buildings

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990 2000*

Decade
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Innovations

Vulnerability and risk assessment

Performance based design
Materials
Structural control
Egress strategies

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Vulnerability and Risk Assessment

Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) and decision making have
been effectively used in
nuclear engineering,
manufacturing,
seismic loss estimation etc.
Probabilistic, nonlinear, and coupled evaluation of building
vulnerability is needed for identified hazards.
Hazard
identification,
prioritization and
evaluation

Risk assessment &

Loss estimation

Vulnerability
analysis

Decision &
Implementation

Optimum mitigation
strategy
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Risk Assessment and Performance Based Design

Hazard Analysis

Amplification

Seismic
source

ation
Attenu

SPECTRAL ACCELERATION

Vulnerability Analysis
STRONGER CONSTRUCTION

WEAKER CONSTRUCTION

MINOR
SHAKING

MAJOR
SHAKING

MODERATE
SHAKING

SPECTRAL DISPLACEMENT

Structural model
NONE

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

SLIGHT

Evolution
Evolution

MODERATE EXTENSIVE COLLAPSE

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

2004 IST Group

Conclusion
Conclusion

Design for Fire

Old: Prescriptive-Based Design
Design based on fire rating of
materials used
Fire rating of material from tables
Compliance with a code specified
value

New: Performance-Based Design

Evaluate the strength and stiffness for a particular
design fire
Coupled stress-thermal analysis
Specialized design for fire effects
Use of fire retardant materials, advanced coatings
and ceramics
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Performance Evaluation Under Fire

Coupled structural/fire analysis
Structural Model

Geometry

Elastic/strength
properties

Thermal
properties

Onset of fire

Time: 20 min

Demand
Structural loads

Fire modeling

Time: 35 min

Thermal analysis

Stress analysis

Time: 45 min
Weakest link

Deformations, damage, collapse

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Design for Impact Loading

Engineering problems related to impact loads:

Modeling of impact
Assessment of impact damage
Evaluation of structural safety after impact
Modeling of potential fire after impact
Coupled evaluation of structural integrity and collapse
potential
(FEMA 403)

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Impact Modeling
Floor

Core area

V
V
Boeing 767-200

Floor
Boeing 767-200

Exterior
columns

Core
columns

Boeing 767-200
Max. takeoff weight: 395,000 lb (180 ton)
Max. fuel capacity: 24,000 gal (91,000 liter)
Cruise speed: 530 mph (237 m/s)

Total kinetic energy

Velocity

V 220 m/s

Fuselage cutting force

Ek = 12 MV 2 = 3460 MJ

Pcutting 3.0 MN
MIT Impact and Crashworthiness Laboratory
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Energy Dissipation During Impact

The initial kinetic energy of the plane is dissipated
through
Permanent plastic deformation (crushing)
Estimated distribution of
energy dissipation

Generated Heat
Fracture and fragmentation

Core
columns
28%

(creating new surfaces)

Friction
Residual velocity
Elastic vibrations

Floor
structure
53%

May be used as
a design tool

Exterior columns
3%

Aircraft
25%

MIT Impact and Crashworthiness Laboratory

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Design for Blast Loading

Sequence of damage due to a
blast outside the building

Incident pressure waveform

(FEMA 427)
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Redundancy and Progressive Failure

REDUNDANCY: Presence of alternate load paths
PROGRESSIVE FAILURE: Successive failure of critical elements
Redundancy is essential for structural safety and protection
Ductile structural elements and details
Design for load reversals
Avoid shear failures

Structural behavior

Low redundancy

High redundancy
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Redundancy and Progressive Failure

Redundancy in column system

System
Redundancy
(Global frame)

FEMA
403

Local Redundancy
(Local joints)

Redundancy in floor system

Improved
local
redundancy
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Design Against Progressive Failure

High-capacity column-beam
connections

Catenary action of cables

Cables in the floor

Catenary action
Before removal
of the column

After removal
of the column

(Astaneh-Asl, 2003)

Other possible design actions

Transfer trusses at upper floors allowing
columns to hang
Strong moment connections for cantilever
action of floor frames
Perimeter frames with sufficient capacity
to span multi-bays
Mega-brace systems capable of resisting
partial collapse

(Houghton and Karns)

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Materials Development
High performance concrete and steel enable efficient and
innovative design
FRP composites may be effective in combination with
conventional materials

Relative MOE or Comp. Strength

Fiber reinforced concrete shows promise in fire protection

Effect of Heat on Reinforced Concrete
(2 hours of exposure to 1000 C fire)
1

Compressive
Strength

0.8
0.6
0.4

Modulus of
Elasticity

0.2
0
0

200

400

600

800

Temperature (C)

1000

Ordinary RC

Riber RC
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Structural Control

Lateral motion problems can be resolved through various

types of damping systems
Controls systems can be implemented in initial design or as a
retrofit
Passive dampers are commonly used in new tall buildings

Viscous Dampers
Piston forcing fluid through an orifice
Compact and easily installed

Hysteretic Dampers
Dissipates energy by cyclic yielding in
tensions and compression
Easy to install, but may need to be
replaced after major event

Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD)

Translation TMD
Pendulum TMD
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Structural Control Systems

Diagonal brace with viscous

or viscoelastic damper

Chevron brace with

viscous dampers

Chevron brace with

viscoelastic damper

Pall friction damper

Tuned liquid column damper

damper spring

actuator

Tuned mass damper

Active mass damper

Tuned liquid damper

Hybrid mass damper

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Passive Structural Control

John Hancock Building, Boston

Tuned Mass Dampers

cd
p

kd

md

u + ud
u

m
c
k
Governing equations of motion:
Building

p


(1+ m)u + 2u + u = mud
m
2

Damper

md
m=
m

ud + 2dd ud + d2ud = u

ki
=
mi
2
i

ci = 2ii mi
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Active Structural Control

Hybrid Mass Dampers

cd
p

kd

u + ud

Nishikicho Building, Tokyo

(Connor, 2003)

u +ud + ua
u

m
c
k
Governing equation of motion for the AMD

u +ud + ua

ka
F

ua + a2ua = (u + ud ) +

ma

F
ma
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Health Monitoring
Vibration techniques can be used to determine the vibration
characteristics of high-rise buildings
Advantages
Rapid
Can be used for periodic or
continuous monitoring
Economically feasible
Provides a preliminary
assessment of the building
stiffness
Leads to more accurate seismic
demand prediction

Accelerometer(s)
Data acquisition
unit

Ambient vibrations

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Emergency Egress Strategies

Elevated passages to neighboring buildings

Refuge floors/rooms with fire escape elevators

Perimeter wall rescue vehicles

Fire resistant escape chutes

Flying rescue platforms

Individual fire resistant parachutes

2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion

Conclusions
Highrise buildings enjoy rapid evolution and new
innovations
Efficient composite hybrid structural systems for
super-tall buildings
Use of composite material systems
Improved analysis and design tools for better
fire, impact, blast resistance
Redundancy against progressive failure
Effective egress strategies
Use of passive and active control systems
Implementation of health and long-term
performance monitoring
2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction

Loads
Loads

Evolution
Evolution

Innovations
Innovations

Conclusion
Conclusion
Conclusion
Conclusion