ΑΠΕΙΡΟΣΤΙΚΟΣ ΛΟΓΙΣΜΟΣ ΙΙ 2010-2011 ΑΣΚΗΣΕΙΣ

Askseic Apeirostiko Logismo II
Prqeirec Shmeiseic
Tmma Majhmatikn
Panepistmio Ajhnn
2010 11
Perieqmena
Cauchy
Upakoloujec kai akoloujec
Seirc pragmatikn arijmn
Omoimorfh sunqeia
Oloklrwma
Pargwgoc kai Oloklrwma
Teqnikc Oloklrwshc
Jerhma
Kurtc kai kolec sunartseic
Riemann
Taylor
15
33
45
59
67
79
85
Keflaio 1
Upakoloujec kai
akoloujec Cauchy
Omda A'. Erwtseic katanhshc
Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc

thn apnths sac).
an + an kai mno an gia kje M > 0 uprqoun peiroi roi thc (an ) pou
enai megalteroi ap M .
1.
Ljoc. Jewrste thn akolouja (an ) me a2k = k kai a2k1 = 1 gia kje k N.
Tte, gia kje M > 0 uprqoun peiroi roi thc (an ) pou enai megalteroi ap
M . Prgmati, uprqei k0 N ste k0 > M , kai tte, gia kje k k0 isqei
a2k = k k0 > M . 'Omwc, an 6 +: an aut sque, ja prepe loi telik oi roi
thc (an ) na enai megalteroi ap 2, to opoo den isqei afo loi oi peritto roi
thc (an ) enai soi me 1.
H llh katejunsh enai swst: an an + tte (ap ton orism) gia kje
M > 0 loi telik oi roi thc (an ) enai megalteroi ap M . 'Ara, gia kje M > 0
uprqoun peiroi roi thc (an ) pou enai megalteroi ap M .
H (an ) den enai nw fragmnh an kai mno an uprqei upakolouja (akn ) thc
(an ) ste akn +.
2.
Swst. Upojtoume prta ti uprqei upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) ste akn
+. 'Estw M > 0. Afo akn +, loi telik oi roi akn enai megalteroi
ap M . Opte, uprqoun peiroi roi thc (an ) pou enai megalteroi ap M . Afo
o M > 0 tan tuqn, h (an ) den enai nw fragmnh.
'Alloc trpoc: an h (an ) tan nw fragmnh, tte kai kje upakolouja thc
(an ) ja tan nw fragmnh. Tte mwc, h (an ) den ja mporose na qei upakolouja
h opoa na tenei sto +.
Antstrofa, ac upojsoume ti h (an ) den enai nw fragmnh. Ja brome
epagwgik k1 < < kn < kn+1 < ste akn > n. Tte, gia thn upakolouja
(akn ) thc (an ) ja qoume akn +:
Afo h (an ) den enai nw fragmnh, mporome na brome k1 N ste ak1 > 1.
Ac upojsoume ti qoume bre k1 < < km ste akj > j gia kje j = 1, . . . , m.
2 Upakoloujes kai akoloujes Cauchy

Jtoume M = max{a1 , a2 , . . . , akm , m + 1}. Afo h (an ) den enai nw fragmnh,
mporome na brome km+1 N ste akm+1 > M . Ap ton orism tou M qoume
akm+1 > m + 1 kai akm+1 > an gia kje n = 1, 2, . . . , km . Sunepc, km+1 > km .
Aut oloklhrnei to epagwgik bma.
3.
Kje upakolouja miac sugklnousac akoloujac sugklnei.
Swst. Upojtoume ti an a. 'Estw (bn ) = (akn ) mia upakolouja thc (an ) kai
stw > 0. Uprqei n0 N ste: gia kje n n0 isqei |an a| < . Tte, gia
kje n n0 qoume kn n n0 , ra |bn a| = |akn a| < . 'Epetai ti bn a.
An mia akolouja den qei fjnousa upakolouja tte qei mia gnhswc axousa
upakolouja.
4.
Swst. Jumhjete ton orism tou shmeou korufc miac akoloujac (an ): h (an )
qei shmeo korufc ton ro ak an ak am gia kje m k .
Afo h (an ) den qei fjnousa upakolouja, den mpore na qei peira shmea
korufc: prgmati, ac upojsoume ti uprqoun k1 < k2 < < kn < ste oi
roi ak1 , . . . , akn , . . . na enai shmea korufc thc (an ). Tte,
ak1 ak2 akn ,

dhlad h upakolouja (akn ) enai fjnousa.
'Ara, h (an ) qei peperasmna to pljoc shmea korufc: Uprqei dhlad k1 N
(to teleutao shmeo korufc o k1 = 1 an den uprqoun shmea korufc) me thn
idithta: an n k1 , uprqei n0 > n ste an0 > an .
Brskoume k2 > k1 ste ak1 < ak2 , katpin brskoume k3 > k2 ste ak2 < ak3
kai otw kajexc. Uprqoun dhlad k1 < k2 < < kn < ste
ak1 < ak2 < < akn < .

'Ara, h (an ) qei toulqiston ma gnhswc axousa upakolouja.
An h (an ) enai fragmnh kai an 6 a tte uprqoun b 6= a kai upakolouja (akn )
thc (an ) ste akn b.
5.
Swst. Sthn 'Askhsh 15 paraktw apodeiknetai ti an h akolouja (an ) den

sugklnei ston a tte uprqoun > 0 kai upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) ste: gia
kje n N isqei |akn a| . Afo h (an ) enai fragmnh, h (akn ) enai epshc
fragmnh. Ap to jerhma BolzanoWeierstrass h (akn ) qei upakolouja (akln )
h opoa sugklnei se kpoion b R. 'Omwc, |akln a| gia kje n N, ra
|b a| = limn |akln a| . Dhlad, b 6= a.
6.
Uprqei fragmnh akolouja pou den qei sugklnousa upakolouja.
Ljoc. Ap to jerhma BolzanoWeierstrass, kje fragmnh akolouja qei sugklnousa upakolouja.

7.
An h (an ) den enai fragmnh, tte den qei fragmnh upakolouja.
Ljoc. Jewrste thn akolouja (an ) me a2k = k kai a2k1 = 1 gia kje k N. H
(an ) den enai fragmnh, mwc h upakolouja (a2k1 ) enai stajer (ra, fragmnh).
8.
'Estw (an ) axousa akolouja. Kje upakolouja thc (an ) enai axousa.
Swst. Jewrste mia upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ). An n N tte kn < kn+1 .
H (an ) enai axousa, ra: an s, t N kai s < t tte as at (exhgste giat).
Parnontac s = kn kai t = kn+1 sumperanoume ti akn akn+1 .
An h (an ) enai axousa kai gia kpoia upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) qoume
akn a, tte an a.
9.
Swst. Upojtoume ti h (an ) enai axousa kai ti uprqei upakolouja (akn ) thc
(an ) h opoa sugklnei ston a R.
Afo akn a, h (akn ) enai fragmnh. Sunepc, uprqei M R ttoioc ste:
gia kje n N isqei akn M . Ja dexoume ti: gia kje n N isqei an M .
Tte, h (an ) enai axousa kai nw fragmnh, ra sugklnei.
Jewrste tuqnta n N. Afo n kn kai h (an ) enai axousa, qoume
an akn M .
10.
An an 0 tte uprqei upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) ste n2 akn 0.
Swst. Ja brome epagwgik k1 < < kn < kn+1 < ste |akn | < n13 . Tte,
gia thn upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) ja qoume n2 akn 0 (exhgste giat).
Afo an 0, mporome na brome k1 N ste |ak1 | < 1. Ac upojsoume
ti qoume bre k1 < < km ste |akj | < j13 gia kje j = 1, . . . , m. Jtoume
1
1
= (m+1)
3 > 0. Afo an 0, mporome na brome n0 N ste |an | < (m+1)3
1
gia kje n n0 . Eidiktera, uprqei km+1 > km ste |akm+1 | < (m+1)
3 . Aut
oloklhrnei to epagwgik bma.
Omda B'
'Estw (an ) mia akolouja. Dexte ti an a an kai mno an oi upakoloujec

(a2k ) kai (a2k1 ) sugklnoun sto a.
11.
Updeixh. Upojtoume ti oi upakoloujec (a2k ) kai (a2k1 ) sugklnoun ston a.

'Estw > 0. Uprqei n1 N me thn idithta: gia kje k n1 isqei |a2k a| <
. Epshc, uprqei n2 N me thn idithta: gia kje k n2 isqei |a2k1 a| < .
An jsoume n0 = max{2n1 , 2n2 1} tte gia kje n n0 isqei |an a| < .
[Prgmati, parathrste ti an o n enai rtioc tte n = 2k gia kpoion k n1 en
an o n enai perittc tte n = 2k 1 gia kpoion k n2 .]
Afo to > 0 tan tuqn, petai ti an a.
To antstrofo enai apl: qoume dei ti an mia akolouja (an ) sugklnei ston
a R tte kje upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) sugklnei ston a.
'Estw (an ) mia akolouja. Upojtoume ti oi upakoloujec (a2k ), (a2k1 ) kai
(a3k ) sugklnoun. Dexte ti:
(a) lim a2k = lim a2k1 = lim a3k .
12.
(b) H (an ) sugklnei.

Updeixh. Ac upojsoume ti a2k x, a2k1 y kai a3k z . Parathrste ti:
(i) H (a6k ) enai tautqrona upakolouja thc (a2k ) kai upakolouja thc (a3k ). 'Ara,
h (a6k ) sugklnei kai x = lim a2k = lim a6k = lim a3k = z .
k

(ii) H (a6k3 ) enai tautqrona upakolouja thc (a2k1 ) kai upakolouja thc (a3k ).
'Ara, h (a6k3 ) sugklnei kai y = lim a2k1 = lim a6k3 = lim a3k = z .
k
'Epetai ti x = y = z . Afo oi (a2k ) kai (a2k1 ) qoun to dio rio, h 'Askhsh 11

deqnei ti h (an ) sugklnei.
'Estw (an ) mia akolouja. Upojtoume ti a2n a2n+2 a2n+1 a2n1
gia kje n N kai ti lim (a2n1 a2n ) = 0. Tte h (an ) sugklnei se kpoion
n
pragmatik arijm a pou ikanopoie thn a2n a a2n1 gia kje n N.
13.
Updeixh. Deqnoume diadoqik ta exc:

(a) H (a2n ) enai axousa kai nw fragmnh ap ton a1 en h (a2n1 ) enai fjnousa
kai ktw fragmnh ap ton a2 . Prgmati, ap thn upjesh qoume ti h (a2n ) enai
axousa kai h (a2n1 ) enai fjnousa. Eidiktera,
a2 a2n a2n1 a1
gia kje n N.
(b) Uprqoun a, b R ttoioi ste a2n a kai a2n1 b. Aut enai meso ap
to gegonc ti h (a2n ) enai axousa kai h (a2n1 ) enai fjnousa (gnwrzoume ti
kje montonh kai fragmnh akolouja sugklnei).
(g) a = b: aut prokptei ap thn upjesh ti a2n1 a2n 0. Afo a2n a
kai a2n1 b, qoume
b a = lim a2n1 lim a2n = lim (a2n1 a2n ) = 0.

n
(d) an a = b: sto (g) edame ti
a = lim a2n = lim a2n1 = b.

n
Ap thn 'Askhsh 11 petai ti h (an ) sugklnei kai
lim an = a = b.
(e) a2n a a2n1 gia kje n N. Aut enai faner afo h (a2n ) enai axousa,
h (a2n1 ) enai fjnousa kai o a enai to koin touc rio. Gnwrzoume ti
a = sup{a2n : n N} = inf{a2n1 : n N}.

'Estw (an ) mia akolouja kai stw (xk ) akolouja oriakn shmewn thc (an ).
Upojtoume oti xk x. Dexte oti o x enai oriak shmeo thc (an ).
14.
Updeixh. Smfwna me ton qarakthrism tou oriako shmeou akoloujac, arke na

dexoume ti gia kje > 0 uprqoun peiroi roi thc (an ) pou ikanopoion thn
|an x| < .
'Estw > 0. Afo xk x, uprqei k N ste |xk x| < 2 (gia thn akrbeia,
loi telik oi roi thc (xk ) qoun aut thn idithta). Stajeropoiome ton xk kai
qrhsimopoiome to gegonc ti o xk enai oriak shmeo thc (an ): uprqoun peiroi
roi thc (an ) pou ikanopoion thn |an xk | < 2 . Gia louc autoc touc rouc
blpoume ti

|an x| |an xk | + |xk x| < + = .
2 2
5
Dexte ti h akolouja (an ) den sugklnei ston pragmatik arijm a, an kai
mno an uprqoun > 0 kai upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) ste |akn a| gia kje
n N.
15.
Updeixh. Dexte tic isodunamec (1) (2) (3) (4):

(1) H akolouja (an ) den sugklnei ston a.
(2) Uprqei > 0 ste peiroi roi am thc (an ) na ikanopoion thn |am a| .
(3) Uprqoun > 0 kai fusiko arijmo k1 < k2 < < kn < ste: gia kje
n N isqei |akn a| .
(4) Uprqoun > 0 kai upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) ste: gia kje n N isqei
|akn a| .
'Estw (an ) akolouja pragmatikn arijmn kai stw a R. Dexte ti an a
an kai mno an kje upakolouja thc (an ) qei upakolouja pou sugklnei sto a.
16.
Updeixh. (=) Upojste prta ti an a. An (akn ) enai mia upakolouja thc

(an ) tte akn a. 'Ara, lec oi upakoloujec thc (akn ) sugklnoun ki autc ston
a.
(=) Me apagwg se topo: upojste ti h (an ) den sugklnei ston a. Ap thn

'Askhsh 15, uprqoun > 0 kai upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) ste: gia kje n N
isqei |akn a| . Tte, an proume opoiadpote upakolouja thc (akn ), loi oi
roi thc ja enai -makri ap ton a. Dhlad, h (akn ) den qei upakolouja pou na
sugklnei ston a.
17.
Orzoume mia akolouja (an ) me a1 > 0 kai
an+1 = 1 +
2
.
1 + an
Dexte ti oi upakoloujec (a2k ) kai (a2k1 ) enai montonec kai fragmnec. Brete,
an uprqei, to lim an .
n
Updeixh. Dexte prta ti h (an ) orzetai kal kai an > 0 gia kje n N. Epshc,
dexte ti an an x tte x = 3.
(i) Upojste ti 0 < a1 < 3. Dexte diadoqik ta exc:
(a) a2 > 3.
(b) Gia kje n N isqei h an+2 =
3+2an
2+an .
(g) Gia kje k N isqoun oi a2k1 < 3 kai a2k1 < a2k+1 .
(d) Gia kje k N isqoun oi a2k > 3 kai a2k+2 < a2k .
Qrhsimopointac thn 'Askhsh 13 dexte ti oi (a2k1 ) kai (a2k ) sugklnoun. Qrhsimopointac thn anadromik sqsh anmesa ston an+2 kai ton an dexte ti lim a2k =
k
lim a2k1 = 3. Ap thn 'Askhsh 11 petai ti an 3.

k
(ii) Exetste me ton dio trpo thn perptwsh a1 > 3.
(iii) Tloc, dexte ti an a1 = 3 tte qoume an = 3 gia kje n N.
18.
Brete to antero kai to kattero rio twn akoloujin

1
an = (1)n+1 1 +
,
n
n
1
+
,
bn = cos
3
n+1
n2 ((1)n + 1) + 2n + 1
n =
.
n+1
Updeixh. (a) Parathrste ti 1 n1 an 1 + n1 gia kje n N. An

loipn jewrsoume opoiadpote sugklnousa upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ), tte to
kritrio parembolc deqnei ti 1 lim akn 1. 'Epetai ti lim inf an 1 kai
lim sup an 1.
1
1
Ap thn llh pleur, a2n = 1 2n
1 kai a2n1 = 1 + 2n1
1.
Dhlad, o 1 kai o 1 enai oriak shmea thc (an ). 'Epetai ti lim sup an = 1 kai
lim inf an = 1 (exhgste giat).
'Alloc trpoc: Dokimste na dexete ti 1 = lim sup an me ton qarakthrism tou
lim sup: prte tuqn > 0 kai dexte ti to {n : an > 1 } enai peiro (oi
peritto roi enai megalteroi ap 1) en to {n : an > 1 + } enai peperasmno
1
(gia na isqei an > 1 + ja prpei na qoume n = 2k 1 kai 2k1
> , dhlad

1
1
k < 2 1 + ).
(b) Parathrste ti, an {0, 1, . . . , 5} tte

(6k + )
cos
= cos 2k +
= cos
.
3
3
3
'Epetai ti
b6k
b6k+1
b6k+2
b6k+3
b6k+4
b6k+5
1
1
6k + 1
1
1
1
+
2 6k + 2
2
1
1
1
+
2 6k + 3
2
1
1 +
1
6k + 4
1
1
1
+
2 6k + 5
2
1
1
1
+
.
2 6k + 6
2
1+
Ap ta parapnw prokptei ti lim sup bn 1 (diti b6k 1) kai lim inf bn 1

(diti b6k+3 1). 'Estw tra (bkn ) tuqosa sugklnousa upakolouja thc (bn ).
Aut ja qei peirouc koinoc rouc me toulqiston ma ap tic xi upakoloujec
pou perigryame (exhgste giat). Dhlad, ja qei koin upakolouja (bkn ) me
kpoia ap tic xi upakoloujec parapnw. Anagkastik,

1 1
lim bkn = lim bkn 1, , , 1 .
2 2
7
Dhlad, to snolo twn oriakn shmewn thc (bn ) enai to K =
'Epetai ti lim sup bn = 1 kai lim inf bn = 1.

1, 21 , 12 , 1 .
+2n+1
(g) Parathrste ti 2n = 2n n+1
+ kai 2n1 = 2n+1
n+1 2. Me to
epiqerhma pou qrhsimopoisame gia to erthma (b) me opoiondpote llo trpo
dexte ti lim sup n = + kai lim inf n = 2.
19.
'Estw (an ), (bn ) fragmnec akoloujec. Dexte oti
lim inf an + lim inf bn
lim inf(an + bn )
lim sup(an + bn ) lim sup an + lim sup bn .
Updeixh. H mesaa anisthta isqei profanc. Deqnoume th dexi anisthta (h

arister apodeiknetai me anlogo trpo).
'Estw (akn + bkn ) upakolouja thc (an + bn ) me akn + bkn lim sup(an + bn ).
H (akn ) enai fragmnh, ra qei peraitrw upakolouja (akn ) h opoa sugklnei:
akn x R. O x enai oriak shmeo thc (an ), ra
x = lim akn lim sup an .

Tte,
bkn = (akn + bkn ) akn lim sup(an + bn ) x.

O lim sup(an + bn ) x enai oriak shmeo thc (bn ), ra
lim sup(an + bn ) x lim sup bn .

'Epetai ti
lim sup(an + bn ) x + lim sup bn lim sup an + lim sup bn .

'Estw an > 0, n N.
(a) Dexte oti
20.
an+1
an+1
.
lim inf n an lim sup n an lim sup
an
an
= x, tte n an x.
lim inf
(b) An lim aan+1
n
Updeixh. H mesaa anisthta isqei profanc. Deqnoume thn dexi anisthta (h

arister apodeiknetai me anlogo trpo).
mporome na upoGia thn apdeixh thc anisthtac lim sup n an lim sup aan+1
n
an+1
jsoume ti lim sup an = x < + (allic, den qoume tpota na dexoume). 'Estw
> 0. Ap ton qarakthrism tou lim sup, uprqei k N ste gia kje n k na
isqei aan+1
< x + . 'Epetai ti: gia kje n > k isqei
n
an < an1 (x + ) < an2 (x + )2 < < ak (x + )nk =

Jtontac M = ak /(x + )k , qoume
an M (x + )n gia kje n > k.
ak
(x + )n .
(x + )k
Qrhsimopoiome aut thn anisthta wc exc: jewrome upakolouja ( sn asn ) thc
n
( an ) gia thn opoa
n
sn a
an .
sn lim sup
Lgw thc sn n, gia kje n > k qoume sn > k . 'Ara,
sn
sn a
M (x + ).
sn
'Omwc,
sn
M 1. 'Ara,
lim sup
an = lim
sn
asn x + .
To > 0 tan tuqn, ra
lim sup
21.
an x = lim sup
an+1
.
an
'Estw (an ) fragmnh akolouja. Dexte oti
lim sup(an ) = lim inf an kai
lim inf(an ) = lim sup an .
Updeixh. Deqnoume thn prth isthta. H deterh apodeiknetai me ton dio trpo
an jsoume sthn prth pou an thn an .
Jtoume x = lim sup(an ) kai y = lim inf an . Uprqei upakolouja (akn ) thc
(an ) me akn x. Tte, x = lim akn , ra
x y = lim inf an .
Omowc, uprqei upakolouja (an ) thc (an ) me an y . Tte, y = lim(an ),
ra
y x = lim sup(an ),
dhlad y x.
'Epetai ti y = x.
22.
'Estw (an ) fragmnh akolouja. An
X = {x R : x an gia peirouc n N},

dexte ti sup X = lim sup an .
Updeixh. Jtoume s = sup X . Ja qrhsimopoisoume ton qarakthrism tou lim sup an :
(a) 'Estw > 0. Afo s = sup X , uprqei x X ste s < x. Ap ton orism
tou sunlou X , isqei h anisthta x an gia peirouc n N. Dhlad, isqei h
anisthta s < an gia peirouc n N. 'Eqoume loipn dexei ti: gia kje > 0
to snolo {n N : an > s } enai peiro.
(b) 'Estw > 0. An h anisthta s + < an sque gia peirouc n N, tte ap
ton orism tou sunlou X ja eqame s + X . Aut den mpore na sumbanei,
diti s + > s = sup X . 'Eqoume loipn dexei ti: gia kje > 0 to snolo
{n N : an > s + } enai peperasmno.
Ap ta (a) kai (b) sumperanoume ti sup X = s = lim sup an .
23.
Qrhsimopointac thn anisthta
1
1
1
1
+
+ +
,
n+1 n+2
2n
2
dexte ti h akolouja an = 1 + 12 + + n1 den enai akolouja Cauchy. Sumpernate
ti an +.
Updeixh. Parathrste ti: gia kje n N,
1
1
1
1
1
n
1
+
+ +
+ +
=
= .
n+1 n+2
2n
2n
2n
2n
2
Ac upojsoume ti h akolouja an = 1 + 12 + + n1 enai akolouja Cauchy.
Tte, parnontac = 41 > 0, mporome na brome n0 N me thn idithta: gia kje
m, n n0 isqei |am an | < 41 .
Prte n n0 kai m = 2n > n n0 . Tte, |a2n an | < 41 . Aut den mpore na
isqei, diti

1
1
1
1
1
1
|a2n an | =
1 + + + +
+ +
1 + + +
2
n n+1
2n
2
n
1
1
1
1
=
+
+ +
.
n+1 n+2
2n
2
Exhgste tra ta exc:
(a) Afo h (an ) den enai akolouja Cauchy, h (an ) den sugklnei se pragmatik
arijm.
(b) Afo h (an ) enai axousa kai den sugklnei, h (an ) den enai nw fragmnh.
(g) Afo h (an ) enai axousa kai den enai nw fragmnh, anagkastik an
+.
24.
'Estw 0 < < 1 kai akolouja (an ) gia thn opoa isqei
|an+1 an | |an an1 |,
n 2.
Dexte ti h (an ) enai akolouja Cauchy.

Updeixh. 'Estw a = a1 kai b = a2 . Ap thn |an+1 an | |an an1 | petai
(exhgste giat) ti: gia kje n 2 isqei
|an+1 an | n1 |a2 a1 | = |b a| n1 .
An loipn m, n N kai m > n, tte
|am an |
|am am1 | + + |an+1 an |

|b a| n1 + + m2
= |b a| n1
|b a|n1
1
|b a|
n .
(1 )
1 mn
1

|ba|
Jewrste > 0 kai brete n0 N pou ikanopoie thn (1)
n0 < . Ttoioc n0
n
uprqei giat 0 tan n . Tte, an m > n n0 ,
|am an |
|b a|
|b a|
n
n0 < .
(1 )
(1 )
Dhlad, h (an ) enai akolouja Cauchy.

Orzoume a1 = a, a2 = b kai an+1 =
akolouja Cauchy.
25.
an +an1
,
2
n 2. Exetste an h (an ) enai
Updeixh. Parathrste ti: gia kje n 2 isqei
an+1 an =
an + an1
an an1
an =
,
2
2
dhlad
1
|an an1 |.
2
Ap thn 'Askhsh 24, h (an ) enai akolouja Cauchy.
|an+1 an |
Omda G'
'Estw m N. Brete mia akolouja (an ) h opoa na qei akribc m diaforetikc

upakoloujec.
26.
Updeixh. An m = 1, jewrome th stajer akolouja an = 1. Parathrste ti

kje upakolouja thc (an ) enai stajer akolouja me louc touc rouc thc souc
me 1, dhlad sumpptei me thn (an ).
'Estw m > 1. Jewrome thn akolouja (an ) pou orzetai wc exc: an = 0
an n < m kai an = 1 an n m. Parathrste ti kje upakolouja thc (an )
enai telik stajer kai sh me 1, mpore de na qei ap kannan wc m 1 prtouc
rouc souc me 0 (aut exarttai ap to psouc ap touc m 1 prtouc rouc
thc (an ) qei san rouc h upakolouja). Sunepc, to pljoc twn diaforetikn
upakoloujin thc (an ) enai akribc m.
'Estw (an ) mia akolouja. An sup{an : n N} = 1 kai an 6= 1 gia kje n N,
tte uprqei gnhswc axousa upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) ste akn 1.
27.
Updeixh. Jtoume A = {an : n N}. Ap ton basik qarakthrism tou supremum, gia kje > 0 uprqei x = x() A ste 1 < x 1. Afo 1
/ A,
qoume thn isqurterh anisthta 1 < x < 1.
Qrhsimopointac to parapnw, ja brome epagwgik k1 < < kn < kn+1 <
ste ak1 < < akn < akn+1 < kai 1 n1 < akn < 1. Tte, gia thn gnhswc
axousa upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) ja qoume akn 1.
Efarmzontac ton qarakthrism tou supremum me = 1, brskoume ak1 A
pou ikanopoie thn 0 < ak1 < 1.
Ac upojsoume ti qoume bre k1 < < km ste ak1 < < akm kai
1
1 1j < akj < 1 gia kje j = 1, . . . , m. Jtoume s = max{1 m+1
, a1 , a2 , . . . , akm }.
Afo s < 1 (exhgste giat), mporome na brome akm+1 A pou ikanopoie thn
1
s < akm+1 < 1. Tte, km+1 > km , akm < akm+1 kai 1 m+1
< akm+1 < 1. Aut
oloklhrnei to epagwgik bma.
11
'Estw (an ) akolouja jetikn arijmn. Jewrome to snolo A = {an : n N}.
An inf A = 0, dexte ti h (an ) qei fjnousa upakolouja pou sugklnei sto 0.
28.
Updeixh. Ac upojsoume ti qoume bre fusikoc k1 < < km pou ikanopoion

ta exc:
1
0 < akm < akm1 < < ak1 kai 0 < akm < .
m

1
> 0. Afo inf(A) = inf{an : n N} = 0
Jtoume m+1 = min a1 , . . . , akm , m+1
kai m+1 > 0, uprqei km+1 N ste akm+1 < m+1 . Ap ton orism tou m+1
petai ti (exhgste giat):
(a) km < km+1 ,
(b) akm+1 < akm ,
(g) akm+1 <
1
.
m+1
'Etsi orzetai epagwgik mia gnhswc fjnousa upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) h opoa
sugklnei sto 0.
29.
Orzoume mia akolouja wc exc:
a0 = 0,
a2n+1 =
1
a2n1
+ a2n , a2n =
.
2
2
Brete la ta oriak shmea thc (an ).

Updeixh. An gryete touc dka prtouc rouc thc akoloujac (an ) ja mantyete
ti
1
1
1
a2n = n+1
kai
a2n+1 = 1 n+1 ,
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2 2
2
Douleontac pwc sthn 'Askhsh 18, dexte ti lim inf an =
1
2
kai lim sup an = 1.
'Estw (xn ) akolouja me thn idithta xn+1 xn 0. An a 0 kai n1 N ste a < y < y + m > n0 ste
xm < y
kai y + < xs .
H epilog tou m > n0 enai dunat diti o a enai oriak shmeo thc (xn ) kai
a < y , en h epilog tou s > m enai dunat diti o b enai oriak shmeo thc
(xn ) kai y + < b.
Mporome tra na brome m n < s ste xn y kai xn+1 y . Arke
na proume san n ton megaltero fusik ap touc m, m + 1, . . . , s 1 gia ton
opoo xn y .
'Omwc tte,
xn+1 xn (y + ) (y ) = 2,

to opoo enai topo, diti n m > n0 n2 (ja prepe na isqei |xn+1 xn | < 2).
Katalxame se topo, ra kje y (a, b) enai oriak shmeo thc (xn ). Aut
apodeiknei to zhtomeno, afo oi a, b enai epshc oriak shmea thc (xn ).
(a) 'Estw A arijmsimo uposnolo tou R. Dexte ti uprqei akolouja (an )
ste kje x A na enai oriak shmeo thc (an ).
(b) Dexte ti uprqei akolouja (xn ) ste kje x R na enai oriak shmeo thc
(xn ).
31.
Updeixh. (a) An A = {xs : s N}, mporete na jewrsete thn akolouja (an ) pou
orzetai wc exc:
b1 , b 1 , b 2 , b 1 , b 2 , b 3 , b 1 , b 2 , b 3 , b 4 , . . . , b 1 , b 2 , . . . , b n , . . .
Gia kje s N uprqei upakolouja (akn ) h opoa enai stajer kai sh me xs (diti
peiroi roi thc (an ) enai soi me xs ). 'Ara, gia kje s N o xs enai oriak shmeo
thc (an ).
(b) Prte san A to Q sto (a). Afo to Q enai arijmsimo, uprqei akolouja (an )
ste kje q Q na enai oriak shmeo thc (an ). H (an ) ikanopoie to zhtomeno:
gia kje x R uprqei akolouja (qk ) sto Q ste qk x. Afo kje qk enai
oriak shmeo thc (an ), h 'Askhsh 14 deqnei ti kai o x enai oriak shmeo thc (an ).
32.
'Estw (an ) mia akolouja. Orzoume
bn = sup{|an+k an | : k N}.
Dexte ti h (an ) sugklnei an kai mno an bn 0.
Updeixh. 'Estw > 0 kai stw n0 N. Dexte ti ta exc enai isodnama:
(a) Gia kje m, n n0 isqei |am an | .
(b) Gia kje m > n n0 isqei |am an | .
(g) Gia kje n n0 kai kje k N isqei |an+k an | .
(d) Gia kje n n0 isqei bn := sup{|an+k an | : k N} .
Qrhsimopointac thn isodunama twn (a) kai (d) dexte ti h (an ) enai akolouja
Cauchy (isodnama, sugklnei) an kai mno an bn 0.
33.
'Estw a, b > 0. Orzoume akolouja (an ) me a1 = a, a2 = b kai
an+2 =
4an+1 an
,
3
n = 1, 2, . . .
Exetste an h (an ) sugklnei kai an nai, brete to ri thc.

Updeixh. Parathrste ti
an+2 an+1 =
4an+1 an
4an+1 an 3an+1
an+1 an
an+1 =
=
.
3
3
3
'Epetai ti
|an+2 an+1 |
1
|an+1 an |.
3
13
Ap thn 'Askhsh 24, h (an ) enai akolouja Cauchy. Sunepc, sugklnei.
Gia na brome to rio, parathrome ti
an+1 an =
an an1
an1 an2
a2 a1
ba
=
= = n1 = n1 .
2
3
3
3
3
'Ara,
an
ba
ba ba
= an2 + n3 + n2 =
3n2
3
3
n2
X
X 1
1
3(b a)
3b a
= a1 + (b a)
a
+
(b
a)
=a+
=
.
k
k
3
3
2
2
= an1 +
k=0
k=0
Keflaio 2
Seirc pragmatikn arijmn

A' Omda.
Erwtseic katanhshc
'Estw (ak ) mia akolouja pragmatikn arijmn. Exetste an oi paraktw protseic

enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc thn apnthsh sac).
1.
An ak 0 tte h akolouja sn = a1 + + an enai fragmnh.
Ljoc. H akolouja ak = k1 0, mwc h akolouja sn = 1 +

fragmnh (tenei sto +).
2.
1
2
+ +
An h akolouja sn = a1 + + an enai fragmnh tte h seir
1
n
den enai
ak sugklnei.
k=1
Ljoc. An jewrsoume thn akolouja ak = (1)k1 , tte qoume sn = 1 an o n

enai perittc kai sn = 0 an o n enai rtioc. Dhlad, h akolouja sn = a1 + + an
P
(1)k1 apoklnei, diti ak 6 0.
enai fragmnh. 'Omwc, h seir
k=1
3.
An |ak | 0, tte h seir
ak sugklnei apoltwc.
k=1
Ljoc. Jewrste thn ak = k1 . Tte, |ak | =

sto +, dhlad h
1
k
0 kai h
|ak | =
k=1
P
k=1
1
k
apoklnei
ak den sugklnei apoltwc.
k=1
4.
An h seir
|ak | sugklnei, tte h seir
k=1
ak sugklnei.
k=1
Swst. Apodexame (sth jewra) ti an mia seir sugklnei apoltwc tte sugklnei.
5.
An ak > 0 gia kje k N kai an 0 <
ak+1
ak
< 1 gia kje k N, tte h seir
ak sugklnei.
k=1
Ljoc. Jewrste thn ak =
1
k.
Tte, ak > 0 gia kje k N kai
P
1
gia kje k N. 'Omwc, h seir
k apoklnei.
k=1
ak+1
ak
k
k+1
<1
16 Seirs pragmatikn arijmn
6.
ak+1
k ak
An ak > 0 gia kje k N kai an lim
k2
2
(k+1)
k
7.
ak apoklnei.
k=1
Tte, ak > 0 gia kje k N kai lim aak+1

=
k
k
P
1
= 1. 'Omwc, h seir
k2 sugklnei.
lim
= 1, tte h seir
1
k2 .
k=1
An ak > 0 gia kje k N kai an
ak+1
ak
+, tte h h seir
ak apoklnei.
k=1
Swst. An aak+1
+, uprqei N N ste aak+1
1 gia kje k N . Afo
k
k
h (ak ) qei jetikoc rouc, sumperanoume ti 0 < aN aN +1 ak ,
P
dhlad ak 6 0. Sunepc, h seir
ak apoklnei.
k=1
8.
An ak 0, tte h seir
(1)k ak sugklnei.
k=1
Ljoc. An jewrsoume thn ak =
P
k=1
9.
1
k
(1)k
k ,
tte ak 0. 'Omwc, h seir
apoklnei.

sugklnei. 'Omwc, h seir
1
k2 .
An h seir
P
k=1
1
k
11.
k=1
P
k=1
An h seir
seir
1
k2
a2k sugklnei.
P
k=1
1
k
apoklnei.
Ljoc. Ap to kritrio tou Dirichlet, h seir
k=1
ak
k=1
k=1
ak sugklnei, tte h seir
k=1
Tte, ak > 0 gia kje k N kai h seir
ak =
k=1
a2k =
k=1
sugklnei.
(1)k ak =
k=1
An ak > 0 gia kje k N kai an h seir
10.
(1)k
sugklnei. 'Omwc, h seir
apoklnei.
ak sugklnei kai an (akn ) enai mia upakolouja thc (an ), tte h
k=1
akn sugklnei.
k=1
Ljoc. Smfwna me to kritrio Dirichlet, h seir

'Omwc, h seir
seir
P
k=1
a2k1 =
exhgste giat).
P
k=1
P
k=1
1
2k1
ak =
P
k=1
(1)k1
k
sugklnei.
apoklnei (sumperifretai san thn armonik
17
12.
An ak > 0 gia kje k N kai an h seir
k=1
sugklnei.
Swst. Afo h
P
k=1
a2k
ak sugklnei, qoume ak 0. 'Ara, uprqei m N ste: gia
k=1
kje k m, 0 ak 1. Tte, gia kje k m qoume 0 a2k ak . Ap to
P
a2k sugklnei.
kritrio sgkrishc, h seir
k=1
13.
H seir
P
k=1
246(2k)
k!
Ljoc. Jtoume ak =
sugklnei.
246(2k)
.
k!
Tte, ak > 0 kai
ak+1
[2 4 6 (2k)(2k + 2)]k!
2k + 2
= 2 2 > 1.
=
=
ak
[2 4 6 (2k)](k + 1)!
k+1
Ap to kritrio tou lgou, h seir
k=1
apoklnei.
k(1 + k 2 )p sugklnei an kai mno an p < 1.

p
2 p
)
Swst. Parathrome ti lim k(1+k
= lim 1 + k12
= 1 > 0. Ap to ori2p+1
k
k
k
P
ak kritrio sgkrishc, h seir
k(1 + k 2 )p sugklnei an kai mno an h seir
14.
P
k=1
H seir
246(2k)
k!
k=1
k=1
1
k(2p+1)
sugklnei. Aut sumbanei an kai mno an (2p + 1) > 1, dhlad an kai
mno an p < 1.
B' Omda
15.
Dexte ti an lim bk = b tte

k
(bk bk+1 ) = b1 b.
k=1
Updeixh. To n-ost merik jroisma thc seirc isotai me
sn = (b1 b2 ) + (b2 b3 ) + + (bn bn+1 ) = b1 bn+1 .

Afo lim bk = b, blpoume ti lim sn = b1 b. Sunepc,
n
16.
(bk bk+1 ) = b1 b.
k=1
Dexte ti
(a)
P
k=1
1
(2k1)(2k+1)
1
2
Updeixh. (a) Jtoume bk =
bk bk+1 =
(b)
P
k=1
1
2k1 .
2k +3k
6k
3
2
(g)
P
k=1
k+1 k
k2 +k
Parathrome ti
1
1
2
=
.
2k 1 2k + 1
(2k 1)(2k + 1)
= 1.

'Eqoume b1 = 1 kai bk 0. Ap thn 'Askhsh 15,
X
k=1
1
1X
2
1
1
=
= (b1 b) = .
(2k 1)(2k + 1)
2
(2k 1)(2k + 1)
2
2
k=1
(b) Gnwrzoume ti an 0 < x < 1, tte
xk = x
k=1
xk =
k=0
x
.
1x
Sunepc,
X
2k + 3k
k=1
6k
k
X
1
k=1
(g) Grfoume
X
k=1
k
X
1
k=1
1/3
1/2
1
3
+
= +1= .
1 (1/3) 1 (1/2)
2
2

k+1 k X 1
1

= 1 0 = 1,
=
k+1
k2 + k
k
k=1
qrhsimopointac thn 'Askhsh 15 gia thn bk =

17.
Upologste to jroisma thc seirc
P
k=1
1
k
0.
1
k(k+1)(k+2) .
Updeixh. Parathrome ti
(k + 2) k
1
1
1
=
=
.
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
2k(k + 1)(k + 2)
2k(k + 1) 2(k + 1)(k + 2)
Qrhsimopointac thn 'Askhsh 15 gia thn bk =
X
k=1
18.
1
2k(k+1)
0, sumperanoume ti
1
1
= b1 = .
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
4
Exetste gia poic timc tou pragmatiko arijmo x sugklnei h seir
P
k=1
1
.
1+xk
1
Updeixh. Parathrome ti: an |x| < 1 tte 1+x
k 1 6= 0, ra h seir apoklnei.
1
1
1
An x = 1, tte 1+x
=
=
6
0
,
ra
h
seir
apoklnei. An x = 1, o k -ostc
k
2
2
roc den orzetai sthn perptwsh pou o k enai perittc, ra den qei nhma na
exetsoume th sgklish thc seirc.
Upojtoume loipn ti |x| > 1. Tte, mporome na efarmsoume to oriak
P
1
kritrio sgkrishc, qrhsimopointac thn
(h opoa sugklnei wc gewmetrik
|x|k
seir me lgo
1
|x|
< 1). 'Eqoume
k=1

|1/(1 + xk )| xk
1
1.
=
=

k
k
k
1/|x|
1+x
(1/x) + 1
Sunepc, h seir
P
k=1
19.
1
1+xk
sugklnei apoltwc.
Efarmste ta kritria lgou kai rzac stic akloujec seirc:
19
(a)
(b)
k k xk
k=1
(e)
P
k=0
P
k=0
2k k
k! x
xk
k!
(st)
k=1
2k xk
k2
(g)
P
k=1
(z)
xk
k2
k=0
(d)
k 3 xk
k=0
k3 k
x
3k
(h)
P
k=1
k10 xk
k! .
An gia kpoiec timc tou x R kanna ap aut ta do kritria den dnei apnthsh,
exetste th sgklish apklish thc seirc me llo trpo.
Updeixh. Exetzoume merikc ap autc:
P
(a)
k k xk : Me to kritrio tou lgou. An x 6= 0, qoume
k=1

k
1
(k + 1)k+1 |x|k+1
= (k + 1) 1 +
|x| +.
k k |x|k
k
Sunepc, h seir apoklnei. H seir sugklnei mno an x = 0.
Sto dio sumprasma
ja katalgate an qrhsimopoiosate to kritrio thc rzac:
p
parathrste ti k k k |x|k = k|x| + an x 6= 0.
P
xk
(b)
k! : Me to kritrio tou lgou. An x 6= 0, qoume
k=0
|x|
|x|k+1 /(k + 1)!
=
0 < 1.
|x|k /k!
k+1
Sunepc, h seir sugklnei apoltwc. H seir sugklnei gia kje x R.
k k
P
2 x
(st)
k2 : Me to kritrio tou lgou. An x 6= 0, qoume
k=1
2k+1 |x|k+1 /(k + 1)2

k2
= 2|x|
2|x|.
k
k
2
2 |x| /k
(k + 1)2
Sunepc, h seir sugklnei apoltwc an |x| < 1/2 kai apoklnei an |x| > 1/2.
Exetzoume th sgklish qwrist stic periptseic x = 1/2. Parathrntac ti oi
P
P
(1)k
1
seirc
kai
k2
k2 sugklnoun, sumperanoume telik ti h seir sugklnei
k=1
k=1
an kai mno an |x| 1/2.

20.
Exetste an sugklnoun apoklnoun oi seirc
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ +
+ 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 +
2 3 22
3
2
3
2
3
kai
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
+1+ + +
+
+
+
+ .
2
8 4 32 16 128 64
Updeixh. (a) Parathrste ti to (2n)-ost merik jroisma thc seirc
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ +
+ 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 +
2 3 22
3
2
3
2
3
isotai me
s2n =
n
n
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
3
+
+
=1+ = .
k
k
k
k
2
3
2
3
2
2
k=1
k=1
k=1
k=1

Afo h seir qei jetikoc rouc kai s2n
(exhgste giat).
3
2
gia kje n, petai ti h seir sugklnei
(b) Parathrste ti to (2n)-ost merik jroisma thc seirc
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
+1+ + +
+
+
+
+
2
8 4 32 16 128 64
isotai me
s2n =
2n1
X
k=0
X 1
1
<
= 2.
k
2
2k
k=0
Afo h seir qei jetikoc rouc kai s2n 2 gia kje n, petai ti h seir sugklnei.
Na breje ikan kai anagkaa sunjkh gia thn akolouja (an )
sugklnei h seir
a1 a1 + a2 a2 + a3 a3 + .
21.
ste na
Updeixh. Parathrome ti s2n = 0 gia kje n N. Epshc,
s1 = a1 ,
s3 = a2 ,
s5 = a3 ,
s7 = a4 ,
kai genik, s2n1 = an . 'Epetai ti h seir sugklnei an kai mno an an 0.

Prgmati, an h seir sugklnei kai an s enai to jroism thc, tte s = lim s2n = 0
kai an = s2n1 s = 0. Antstrofa, an an 0 tte s2n = 0 0 kai s2n1 =
an 0, ra sn 0.
22.
Exetste an sugklnei apoklnei h seir
ak stic paraktw periptseic:
n=1
(a) ak =
(g) ak =
k+1
k+1 k
k
(b) ak = 1 + k 2 k
(d) ak = ( k k 1)k .
Updeixh. (a) An ak = k + 1 k , tte sn = a1 + + an = n + 1 1 +,

ra h seir apoklnei.
ak
1
k
= 1+k
. Parathrome ti 1/k
(b) 'Eqoume ak = 1 + k 2 k = 1+k

2 +k
2 +k
P
P
1
1
ak apoklnei ap to oriak kritrio
2 > 0. Afo h
k apoklnei, h seir
k=1
sgkrishc.
k=1
k
1
= k(k+1+
. Parathrome ti 1/kak3/2 12 > 0. Afo
(g) 'Eqoume ak = k+1
k
k)
P
P
1
h
sugklnei, h seir
ak sugklnei ap to oriak kritrio sgkrishc.
k3/2
k=1
k=1
(d) Qrhsimopoiome to kritrio thc rzac: qoume k ak = k k 1 0 < 1, ra h

seir sugklnei.
23.
Exetste an sugklnoun apoklnoun oi seirc
X
X
X
cos2 k
k+ k
k
k
1),
,
,
(
k2
2k 3 1
k=1
k=1
k=1
X
k!
.
kk
k=1
21
Updeixh. (a)
k=1
k+ k
3
2k 1 :
parathrome ti
k3 + k2 k
ak
1
=
> 0.
1/k 2
2k 3 1
2
Afo h
P
k=1
(b)
sugklnei, h seir
1
k2
ak sugklnei ap to oriak kritrio sgkrishc.
k=1
P
( k k 1): jtoume k = k k 1 0. Tte, k = (1 + k )k . Parathrome ti,
k=1
gia kje k 3,
'Ara, k >
aut.
P
(g)
k=1
1
1+
k
k
< e < 3 k = (1 + k )k .
gia kje k 3. Afo h
1
k
k=1
cos2 k
k2 :
parathrome ti |ak |
1
k2 .
1
k
apoklnei, h seir
k apoklnei ki
k=1
Afo h
P
k=1
1
k2
sugklnei, h seir
ak
k=1
sugklnei ap to kritrio sgkrishc.
P
k!
(d)
: qrhsimopoiome to kritrio lgou. 'Eqoume
kk
k=1
ak+1
(k + 1)!k k
kk
1
1
=
=
=
k < 1,
k+1
k
1
ak
k!(k + 1)
(k + 1)
e
1+ k
ra h seir sugklnei.
Exetste wc proc th sgklish tic paraktw seirc. 'Opou emfanzontai oi
parmetroi p, q, x R na brejon oi timc touc gia tic opoec oi antstoiqec seirc
sugklnoun.
k2
P
P
P
1
(a)
1 + k1
(b)
pk k p (0 < p)
(g)
kp kq (0 < q < p)
24.
k=1
(d)
P
k=1
(z)
P
k=1
k=1
(e)
1
1
k1+ k
kp
1
k
P
k=1
1
k+1
1
pk q k
k=2
(0 < q < p)
(h)
(st)
P
k=1
kp
2+(1)k
2k
k+12 k+

k1 .
k=1
k2
P
(a)
1 + k1
: qrhsimopoiome to kritrio thc rzac.
k=1
k
1
k a
1e < 1, ra h seir sugklnei.
k = 1+ k
P
(b)
pk k p : qrhsimopoiome to kritrio tou lgou. 'Eqoume
Updeixh.
'Eqoume
k=1
ak+1
(k + 1)p
=p
p,
ak
kp
ra h seir sugklnei an 0 1. Gia p = 1 parnoume th
P
seir
k , h opoa apoklnei (k 6 0 tan k !).
k=1

(g)
P
k=2
1
kp kq :
jewrome thn bk = 1/k p . Afo q < p, qoume
ak
bk
1
1k(pq)
1 > 0. Ap to oriak kritrio sgkrishc, h seir mac sugklnei an kai mno an h
P
1
kp sugklnei, dhlad an kai mno an p > 1 (kai 0 < q < p).
k=1
(d)
1
1
1+
k=1 k k
: jewrome thn bk = 1/k . 'Eqoume
ak
bk
oriak kritrio sgkrishc, h seir apoklnei (diti h

(e)
P
k=1
1
:
pk q k
k
k k
P 1
k
k=1
k
k
1 > 0. Ap to
apoklnei).
jewrome thn bk = 1/pk . Afo 0 < q < p, qoume
ak
bk
1
1(q/p)k
1 > 0 (diti (p/q)k 0 afo 0 < p/q < 1). Ap to oriak kritrio sgkrishc, h
P
1
seir mac sugklnei an kai mno an h
sugklnei, dhlad an kai mno an p > 1
pk
k=1
(kai 0 < q < p).
P
2+(1)k
(st)
: parathrome ti 0 < ak
2k
k=1
3
.
2k
Afo h
P
k=1
sugklnei ap to kritrio sgkrishc.

P
1
(z)
k p 1k k+1
: parathrome ti
1
2k
sugklnei, h
ak
k=1
k=1
k+1 k
kp
.
ak = k
=
k k+1
k k + 1( k + 1 + k)
p
Jewrome thn bk = kk3/2 kai parathrome ti abkk
P
P
sgkrishc, h
ak sugklnei an kai mno an h
k=1
k=1
1
2
> 0. Ap to oriak kritrio
1
k(3/2)p
sugklnei. Dhlad, an
p > 1, to opoo isqei an p < 12 .

P
(h)
kp
k + 1 2 k + k 1 : parathrome ti, gia k 2,
3
2
k=1
ak
= k p ( k + 1 k + k 1 k)

1
1

= kp
k k+1
k k1
1
1
= 2k p 2
.
k 1 k + 1( k + 1 + k 1)
Dhlad, h (ak )k2 qei arnhtikoc rouc. 'Ara, sugklnei an kai mno an h
(ak )
k=2
ak
bk
sugklnei (exhgste giat). Jewrome thn bk = kk2 kai parathrome ti
P
0. Ap to oriak kritrio sgkrishc, h
k=1
k=1
sugklnei. Dhlad, an 2 p > 1, to opoo isqei an p < 1.
25.
'Estw ti ak 0 gia kje k N. Dexte ti h seir
P
k=1
ak
1+k2 ak
sugklnei.
1>
1
k2p
23
ak
Updeixh. Parathrste ti 0 1+k
k12 gia kje k N. Aut enai faner an
2a
k
ak = 0, en an ak > 0 mporete na gryete
ak
1
ak
< 2 = 2.
2
1 + k ak
k ak
k
0<
Afo h seir
P
k=1
1
k2
sugklnei, to sumprasma prokptei ap to kritrio sgkrishc.
Orzoume mia akolouja (ak ) wc exc: an o k enai tetrgwno fusiko arijmo

jtoume ak = k1 kai an o k den enai tetrgwno fusiko arijmo jtoume ak = k12 .
P
Exetste an sugklnei h seir
ak .
26.
k=1
Updeixh. H seir qei jetikoc rouc. Arke na dexete ti h akolouja twn

merikn ajroismtwn enai nw fragmnh. Parathrste ti gia kje m N qoume
2
sm2 =
m
X
ak
k=1
m
X
ak2 +
ak
km2
k6=s2
k=1
m
m
X
X
1
1
+
2
k
k2
k=1
k=1
k=1
1
= M < +.
k2
An n N, tte sn sn2 M . Dhlad, h (sn ) enai nw fragmnh.

27.
Exetste an sugklnei apoklnei h seir
P
k=1
Updeixh. An p > 0, tte h seir
P
k=1
(1)k k1p , pou p R.
(1)k k1p sugklnei ap to kritrio tou Dirich-
let. An p 0, tte (1)k k1p 6 0, ra h seir apoklnei.

28.
'Estw {ak } fjnousa akolouja pou sugklnei sto 0. Orzoume
s=
(1)k1 ak .
k=1
Dexte ti 0 (1) (s sn ) an+1 .

n
Updeixh. Grfoume (1)n (ssn ) = (1)n
k=n+1
Parathrste ti: gia kje m N,

n+2m
X
(1)k1 ak =
(1)n+k1 ak .
k=n+1
(1)n+k1 ak = (an+1 an+2 ) + + (an+2m1 an+2m ) 0,
k=n+1
ra
(1)n (s sn ) = lim
n+2m
X
k=n+1
(1)n+k1 an 0.

Epshc,
n+2m+1
X
(1)n+k1 ak = an+1 (an+2 an+3 ) (an+2m an+2m+1 ) an+1 ,
k=n+1
ra
(1)n (s sn ) = lim
n+2m+1
X
29.
(1)n+k1 an an+1 .
k=n+1
'Estw (ak ) fjnousa akolouja jetikn arijmn. Dexte ti: an h
ak
k=1
sugklnei tte kak 0.

Updeixh. 'Estw > 0. Afo h
ak sugklnei, h (sn ) enai akolouja Cauchy.
k=1
'Ara, uprqei n0 N ste: an n > m n0 tte
am+1 + + an = |sn sm | <
.
2
Eidiktera, an n 2n0 , parnontac m = n0 kai qrhsimopointac thn upjesh ti h

(an ) enai fjnousa, qoume
nan
> an0 +1 + + an (n n0 )an

,
2
2
diti n n0
30.
n
2.
Dhlad, an n 2n0 qoume nan < . 'Epetai ti lim (nan ) = 0.

n
'Estw ti ak > 0 gia kje k N. An h
ak sugklnei, dexte ti oi
k=1
a2k ,
k=1
k=1
ak
,
1 + ak
X
k=1
a2k
1 + a2k
sugklnoun epshc.
Updeixh. (a) Afo h
ak sugklnei, qoume ak 0. 'Ara, uprqei m N ste:
k=1
gia kje k m, 0 ak 1. Tte, gia kje k m qoume 0 a2k ak . Ap to
P
kritrio sgkrishc, h seir
a2k sugklnei.
k=1
ak
(b) Parathrste ti 0 1+a
ak gia kje k N. Ap to kritrio sgkrishc, h
k
P
ak
seir
1+ak sugklnei.
k=1
(g) Parathrste ti 0
31.
a2k
1+a2k
a2k gia kje k N.
Upojtoume ti ak 0 gia kje k N kai ti h seir
ti h seir

P
k=1
ak sugklnei. Dexte
k=1
ak ak+1 sugklnei. Dexte ti, an h {ak } enai fjnousa, tte isqei
kai to antstrofo.
25
k+1
Updeixh. Parathrste ti 0 ak ak+1 ak +a
gia kje k N kai efarmste
2
to kritrio sgkrishc.
Me thn upjesh ti h (ak ) enai fjnousa, parathrste ti 0 ak+1 ak ak+1

gia kje k N kai efarmste to kritrio sgkrishc.
32.
ti h seir
P
k=1
ak sugklnei. Dexte
k=1
ak
k
sugklnei.
Updeixh. Ap thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz, gia kje n N qoume

n
X
ak
k=1
n
X
k=1
pou
M1 =
ak
n
X
1
k2
!1/2
M1 M2 ,
k=1
ak < + kai M2 =
k=1
33.
!1/2
X
1
< +.
k2
k=1
ak apoklnei. Dexte
k=1
ti
X
k=1
ak
= 1.
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )
Updeixh. An b0 = 1 kai
bk =
1
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )
gia k N, dexte ti
ak
= bk1 bk
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )
gia kje k N, ra
n
X
k=1
ak
= b0 b n = 1 b n .
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )
Parathrntac ti
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + an ) > a1 + + an +
dexte ti
n
X
k=1
ak
= 1 bn 1.
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )
G' Omda
34.
'Estw (ak ) fjnousa akolouja jetikn arijmn me ak 0. Dexte ti: an h
ak apoklnei tte
k=1
X
k=1

1
min ak ,
= +.
k
Updeixh. Upojtoume ti h seir

min ak , k1 sugklnei. Afo h (ak ) fjnei
k=1

proc to 0, to dio isqei gia thn min{ak , k1 } (exhgste giat). Ap to kritrio
sumpknwshc, h seir
X
k=1

X

1
2k min a2k , k =
min 2k a2k , 1
2
k=1

sugklnei. Eidiktera, min 2k a2k , 1 0, ra telik qoume min 2k a2k , 1 =
2k a2k (exhgste giat).
P
'Epetai ti h seir
2k a2k sugklnei. Qrhsimopointac xan to kritrio

k=1
sumpknwshc, aut th for gia th seir
ak , blpoume ti h
k=1
Aut enai topo ap thn upjesh.

35.
k=1
ak apoklnei. Jtoume
k=1
sn = a1 + a2 + + an .
ak sugklnei.
k=1
Upojtoume ti ak > 0 gia kje k N kai ti h
(a) Dexte ti h
apoklnei.
ak
1+ak
(b) Dexte ti: gia 1 m < n,
am+1
an
sm
+ +
1
sm+1
sn
sn
kai sumpernate ti h
P
k=1
(g) Dexte ti
an
s2n
1
sn1
Updeixh. (a) 'Estw ti h
k=1
ak
0
1 + ak
1
sn
ak
sk
apoklnei.
kai sumpernate ti h
ak
1+ak
k=1
ak
s2k
sugklnei.
sugklnei. Tte,
1
ak
=1
1
1 + ak
1 + ak
Sunepc, uprqei m N ste: 1 + ak <

3 ak
2 1+ak
1 + ak 1.
gia kje k m. 'Epetai ti 0 ak
P
ak sugklnei, topo.
gia kje k m. Ap to kritrio sgkrishc, h
3
2
k=1
27
(b) Parathrste ti h (sn ) enai axousa. 'Ara, an 1 m < n qoume
an
am+1
+ +
sm+1
sn
am+1
an
am+1 + + an
+ +
=
sn
sn
sn
sm
sn sm
=1
.
sn
sn
ak
sk sugklnei.
k=1
n0 N ste: an n
Ac upojsoume ti h
mporome na brome
Ap to kritrio Cauchy, gia =
1
2
> 0,
> m n0 tte
am+1
an
1
+ +
< ,
sm+1
sn
2
dhlad
1
sm
<
sn
2
sm
1
> .
sn
2
Stajeropoiste m n0 kai afste to n . Afo h
sn . 'Ara,
lim sm
n sn
ak apoklnei, qoume
k=1
= 0, to opoo odhge se topo.
(g) Parathrste ti
an
sn sn1
sn sn1
1
1
=
=
.
s2n
s2n
sn sn1
sn1
sn
An tn enai to n-ost merik jroisma thc
P
k=1
a1
a2
an
1
tn = 2 + 2 + + 2
+
s1
s2
sn
s1
H (tn ) enai nw fragmnh, ra h
P
k=1
36.
rn =
ak
s2k
ak
,
s2k
1
1
s1
s2
tte

+ +
sn1
sn
2
.
s1
sugklnei.
Upojtoume ti ak > 0 gia kje k N kai ti h
ak sugklnei. Jtoume
k=1
ak .
k=n
(a) Dexte ti: gia 1 m < n,
am
an
rn+1
+ +
1
rm
rn
rm
kai sumpernate ti h
P
k=1
(b) Dexte ti
an
rn
Updeixh. Afo h
enai fjnousa.
<2
P
k=1
ak
rk
rn
apoklnei.

P
rn+1 kai sumpernate ti h
k=1
ak
rk
sugklnei.
ak sugklnei, qoume rn 0. Parathrste epshc ti h (rn )

(a) An 1 m < n,
am
an
+ +
rm
rn
Ac upojsoume ti h
k=1
am
an
am + + an
+ +
rm
rm
rm
rm rn+1
rn+1
rn
=1
1
.
rm
rm
rm
sugklnei. Ap to kritrio Cauchy uprqei n0 N
ak
rk
ste: gia kje n > m n0 ,
am
an
1
rn
+ +
< .
rm
rm
rn
2
Stajeropointac m n0 kai afnontac to n katalxte se topo.

(b) Parathrste ti
rn
rn+1 =
rn rn+1
an
an
=
.
rn + rn+1
rn + rn+1
2 rn
'Ara, gia kje n N,

n
X
ak
2 r1 r2 + r2 r3 + + rn rn+1 2 r1 .
rk
k=1
'Epetai ti h
P
k=1
37.
ak
rk
sugklnei.
'Estw (ak ) akolouja pragmatikn arijmn. Dexte ti an h seir
lnei tte kai h seir
ak apok-
k=1
kak apoklnei.
k=1
Updeixh. Jtoume bk = kak . Tte, jloume na dexoume ti: an h seir

apoklnei tte kai h seir
Parathrste ti an h
P
k=1
k=1
1
k
bk sugklnei, tte qei fragmna merik ajrosmata.
fjnei proc to 0, to kritrio Dirichlet deqnei ti h
P
k=1
P
k=1
opoo enai topo.

38.
bk
k
bk apoklnei.
k=1
Afo h
bk
k
sugklnei, to
'Estw (ak ) akolouja jetikn pragmatikn arijmn. Dexte ti an h seir
k
P
ak sugklnei, tte kai h
akk+1 sugklnei.
k=1
k
k+1
Updeixh. Grfoume ak
ak
1
akk+1
kai diakrnoume do periptseic:
(a) An ak > 1/2k+1 tte akk+1 > 1/2. Sunepc,

k
akk+1 2ak .
29
(b) An ak 1/2k+1 tte
k
k+1
ak
k
k+1
Se kje perptwsh,
k
akk+1 2ak +
'Omwc, h
ak sugklnei, ra h
k=1
1
.
2k
(2ak + 2k ) sugklnei. To zhtomeno petai ap
k=1
to kritrio sgkrishc.
39.
1
.
2k
2k+1
'Estw (ak ) h akolouja pou orzetai ap tic
a2k1 =
Exetste an h seir
1
k
kai a2k =
1
.
2k
(1)k1 ak sugklnei.
k=1
Updeixh. Parathrome ti

s2n =
1

=
1+

1+

1
1
1
1
1
+
2 + +
n
2
2 2
n 2

1
1
1
1
1
+ +
+ 2 + + n
2
n
2 2
2

1
1
+ +
1.
2
n
Afo 1 + 21 + + n1 + tan n , blpoume ti s2n +. 'Ara, h seir

apoklnei (kai mlista sto + exhgste giat).
40.
Upojtoume ti ak 0 gia kje k N. Orzoume
bk =
2k
1 X
am .
k
m=k+1
Dexte ti h
k=1
bk sugklnei.
k=1
Updeixh. 'Estw sn kai tn ta merik ajrosmata twn seirn

tstoiqa. Ja sugkrnoume ta s2n kai tn . 'Eqoume
P
k=1
ak kai
bk an-
k=1
1
1
1
tn = b1 + b2 + + bn = a2 + (a3 + a4 ) + (a4 + a5 + a6 ) + + (an+1 + + a2n ).
2
3
n
Dexte ti sto tn emfanzontai mno oi a2 , . . . , a2n kai ti o suntelestc kajenc ak
sto tn enai mikrteroc soc tou 1. 'Epetai ti tn s2n gia kje n N. Sunepc,
P
P
an h
ak sugklnei tte h
bk sugklnei.
k=1
k=1

Ap thn llh pleur, jewrste to merik jroisma t2n , kai dexte ti kje ak ,
1
1
2 k n, emfanzetai eke me suntelest k = m
+ + 2m1
an o k enai rtioc,
1
1
kai suntelest k = m+1 + + 2m an o k enai perittc. Se kje perptwsh,
k 21 . 'Ara,
sn = a1 + a2 + + an a1 + 2t2n .
P
P
'Epetai ti, an h
bk sugklnei tte h
ak sugklnei.
k=1
41.
k=1
'Estw (ak ) akolouja jetikn pragmatikn arijmn. Jewrome thn akolouja
bk =
Dexte ti: an h
a1 + 2a2 + + kak
.
k(k + 1)
k=1
bk sugklnei kai ta ajrosmata
k=1
twn do seirn enai sa.
Updeixh. An sn = a1 + + an kai tn = b1 + + bn , tte
tn
n
X
k=1
n
X
bk =
n X
k
X
k=1 s=1
sas
k(k + 1)
n
X
1
k(k
+ 1)
s=1
k=s

n
n
X
X
1
1
=
sas
k k+1
s=1
k=s

n
X
1
1
=
sas
s n+1
s=1
=
n
X
s=1
sas
as
a1 + 2a2 + + nan
n+1
= sn nbn .
Ja dexoume ti
a1 + 2a2 + + nan
0.
n+1
Me bsh to Lmma tou Abel, grfoume
nbn =
n
X
kak =
k=1
n1
X
k=1
sk (k (k + 1)) + nsn 1 =
n1
X
sk + nsn 1.
k=1
'Ara,
n
nbn =
1 X
n 1 s1 + + sn1
nsn
1
kak =
s + s 0 = 0,
n+1
n+1
n1
n+1 n+1
k=1
pou s = lim sn =
ak (ed qrhsimopoiome to gegonc ti an sn s tte
k=1
s1 +s2 ++sn1
n1
s). Afo nbn 0, ap thn tn = sn nbn blpoume ti tn s.
31
Dhlad,
bk =
k=1
42.
ak .
k=1
'Estw (ak ) akolouja jetikn arijmn ste
ak = + kai ak 0. Dexte
k=1
ti an 0 < tte uprqoun fusiko m n ste
<
n
X
ak < .
k=m
Updeixh. Afo ak 0, uprqei m N ste: an k m tte
ak < .
Afo
ak = +, uprqei elqistoc fusikc ` m ste
k=1
am + + a` .
(a) Dexte ti ` > m.
(b) An n = ` 1, parathrste ti n m kai
am + + an < ,
en
am + + an a` > ( ) = .
43.
Dexte ti an 0 < tte uprqoun fusiko m n ste
<
1
1
1
+
+ + < .
m m+1
n
Updeixh. Efarmste thn prohgomenh skhsh gia thn ak = k1 .
Keflaio 3
Omoimorfh sunqeia
Omda A'
Dexte to jerhma mgisthc kai elqisthc timc gia mia suneq sunrthsh
f : [a, b] R qrhsimopointac to jerhma BolzanoWeiertstrass.
1.
Updeixh. Deqnoume prta ti uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x)| M gia kje x [a, b],
me apagwg se topo. An aut den isqei, mporome na brome xn [a, b] ste
|f (xn )| > n, n = 1, 2, . . .. H (xn ) qei upakolouja (xkn ) ste xkn x0 [a, b].
Afo h f enai suneqc sto x0 , ap thn arq thc metaforc qoume f (xkn ) f (x0 ),
ra
|f (xkn )| |f (x0 )|.
'Omwc, |f (xkn )| > kn n. 'Ara, |f (xkn )| +, to opoo enai topo.
Edame ti h f enai fragmnh, ra
M := sup{f (x) : x [a, b]} < .

Tte, mporome na brome xn [a, b] ste f (xn ) M (genik, an s = sup(A) tte
uprqei akolouja (an ) sto A ste an s). H (xn ) qei upakolouja (xkn ) ste
xkn x0 [a, b]. Afo f (xn ) M , qoume f (xkn ) M . Ap thn arq thc
metaforc,
f (x0 ) = lim f (xkn ) = M.
n
Aut apodeiknei ti h f parnei mgisth tim (sto x0 ).

Ergazmenoi moia, deqnoume ti h f parnei elqisth tim.
'Estw X R. Lme ti mia sunrthsh f : X R ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz
an uprqei M 0 ste: gia kje x, y X ,
2.
|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|.

Dexte ti an h f : X R ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz tte enai omoimorfa
suneqc. Isqei to antstrofo?
34 Omoimorfh sunqeia
Updeixh. (a) 'Estw > 0. Epilgoume = () = M

> 0. An x, y X kai
|x y| < , tte
|f (x) f (y)| M |x y| < M = .
'Ara, h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
(b) H sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x enai suneqc sto kleist disthma

[0, 1], ra enai omoimorfa suneqc. 'Omwc, h f den ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz
sto [0, 1]. Ja uprqe M > 0 ste: gia kje 0 < x < 1 na isqei
| x 0| M |x 0|, dhlad 1 M x.
Aut odhge se topo tan x 0+ .
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc, paragwgsimh sto (a, b). Dexte ti h f ikanopoie
sunjkh Lipschitz an kai mno an h f 0 enai fragmnh.
3.
Updeixh. 'Estw ti h f ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz, dhlad uprqei M > 0 ste

|f (x) f (y)| M |x y| gia kje x, y [a, b]. Jewrome x0 (a, b). Tte,
(x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim f (x)f
. 'Omwc, an x 6= x0 sto (a, b), qoume
xx0
xx0
|f (x) f (x0 )|
M
|x x0 |
ra |f 0 (x0 )| = lim
xx0
|f (x) f (x0 )|
M.
|x x0 |
Dhlad, h f 0 enai fragmnh.

Antstrofa, ac upojsoume ti uprqei M > 0 ste |f 0 ()| M gia kje
(a, b). 'Estw x < y sto [a, b]. Ap to jerhma mshc timc uprqei (x, y)
ste
|f (x) f (y)| = |f 0 ()| |x y| M |x y|.
Dhlad, h f enai Lipschitz suneqc.
'Estw n N, n 2 kai f (x) = x1/n , x [0, 1]. Dexte ti h sunrthsh f den
ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz. Enai omoimorfa suneqc?
4.
Updeixh. 'Eqoume f 0 (x) =
1
1 n
1
nx
gia x (0, 1). Afo
1
n
1 < 0, qoume
lim f 0 (x) = +,
x0+
dhlad h f 0 den enai fragmnh. Ap thn 'Askhsh 3, h f den ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz. Enai mwc omoimorfa suneqc wc suneqc sunrthsh se kleist disthma.
5.
Exetste an oi paraktw sunartseic ikanopoion sunjkh Lipschitz:
(a) f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x sin x1 an x 6= 0 kai f (0) = 0.

(b) g : [0, 1] R me g(x) = x2 sin x1 an x 6= 0 kai g(0) = 0.
Updeixh. Ap thn 'Askhsh 3 arke na exetsete an kajema ap tic f kai g qei
fragmnh pargwgo sto (0, 1). Elgxte ti: h f den qei fragmnh pargwgo sto
(0, 1), en h g qei fragmnh pargwgo sto (0, 1).
'Estw A, B mh ken uposnola tou R kai stw f : A B kai g : B R
omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic. Dexte ti h g f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
6.
35
Updeixh. 'Estw > 0. Afo h g enai omoimorfa suneqc, uprqei = () > 0
ste an u, v B kai |u v| < tte |g(u) g(v)| < .
H f enai omoimorfa suneqc, ra uprqei = () > 0 ste an x, y A kai
|x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < . Parathrste ti to exarttai mno ap to ,
afo to exarttai mno ap to .
Jewrste x, y A me |x y| < . Tte, ta u = f (x) kai v = f (y) ankoun sto
B kai |u v| = |f (x) f (y)| < . 'Ara,
|(g f )(x) (g f )(y)| = |g(u) g(v)| < .

'Epetai ti h g f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
7.
'Estw f, g : I R omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic. Dexte ti
(a) h f + g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I .

(b) h f g den enai anagkastik omoimorfa suneqc sto I , an mwc oi f, g upotejon
kai fragmnec tte h f g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I .
Updeixh. (a) 'Estw > 0. Afo h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I , uprqei
1 > 0 ste an x, y I kai |x y| < 1 tte |f (x) f (y)| < 2 . Omowc, afo h g
enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I , uprqei 2 > 0 ste an x, y I kai |x y| < 2
tte |g(x) g(y)| < 2 .
Orzoume = min{1 , 2 } > 0. Tte, an x, y I kai |x y| < , qoume
|(f + g)(x) (f + g)(y)| = |(f (x) f (y)) + (g(x) g(y))|

|f (x) f (y)| + |g(x) g(y)|

<
+ = .
2 2
'Epetai ti h f + g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I .
(b) An oi f, g enai omoimorfa suneqec sto I tte h f g den enai anagkastik
omoimorfa suneqc sto I : jewrste tic f, g : [0, +) R me f (x) = g(x) = x.
Autc enai omoimorfa suneqec sto [0, +), mwc h (f g)(x) = x2 den enai
omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +).
An mwc oi omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic f, g : I R upotejon kai fragmnec, tte h f g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I . Uprqoun M, N > 0 ste
|f (x)| M kai |g(x)| N gia kje x I . 'Estw > 0. Ap thn omoimorfh
sunqeia twn f kai g mporome na brome > 0 ste an x, y I kai |x y| <
tte
|f (x) f (y)| <

kai |g(x) g(y)| <
.
M +N
M +N
Tte, an x, y I kai |x y| < qoume
|f (x)g(x) f (y)g(y)|
|f (x)| |g(x) g(y)| + |g(y)| |f (x) f (y)|
< M
+N
= .
M +N
M +N
'Estw f : R R suneqc sunrthsh me thn exc idithta: gia kje > 0

uprqei M = M () > 0 ste an |x| M tte |f (x)| < . Dexte ti h f enai
omoimorfa suneqc.
8.
Shmewsh: H upjesh, isodnama, mac lei ti
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0.
x+
Updeixh. 'Estw > 0. Ap thn upjesh, uprqei M = M () > 0 ste an |x| M

tte |f (x)| < /3. Epshc, h f enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [M, M ], opte
enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [M, M ]. 'Ara, uprqei = () > 0 me < M , ste
an x, y [M, M ] kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < /3.
Ja dexoume ti an x, y R kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < . Diakrnoume
tic exc periptseic:
(i) x, y (, M ]: tte, |f (x) f (y)| |f (x)| + |f (y)| <
< .
(ii) x, y [M, +): tte, |f (x) f (y)| |f (x)| + |f (y)| <
< .
(iii) x, y [M, M ]: tte, ap thn epilog tou qoume |f (x) f (y)| <
< .
(iv) x < M < y : tte, x [M, M ] (diti < M ) kai |x M | < |x y| < ,
ra |f (x) f (M )| < 3 . Epshc, M, y M ra |f (M )| < 3 kai |f (y)| < 3 .
Sunepc,
|f (x) f (y)| |f (x) f (M )| + |f (M ) f (y)|

|f (x) f (M )| + |f (M )| + |f (y)|

<
+ + = .
3 3 3
(v) x < M < y : moia me thn prohgomenh perptwsh.
To > 0 tan tuqn, ra h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
'Estw a R kai f : [a, +) R suneqc sunrthsh me thn exc idithta:
uprqei to lim f (x) kai enai pragmatikc arijmc. Dexte ti h f enai omoimorfa
9.
suneqc.
x+
Updeixh. 'Estw ` :=
lim f (x). Jewrome th sunrthsh g : [a, +) R me
x+
g(x) = f (x)`. Tte, lim g(x) = 0. 'Ara, gia kje > 0 uprqei M = M () > a
x+
ste an x M tte |g(x)| < . To epiqerhma thc 'Askhshc 8 deqnei ti h g enai

omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, +). Afo h stajer sunrthsh h(x) = ` enai epshc
omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, +), petai ti h f = g + h enai omoimorfa suneqc
sto [a, +).
'Estw f : R R omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti uprqoun A, B > 0
ste |f (x)| A|x| + B gia kje x R.
10.
Updeixh. Afo h f : R R enai omoimorfa suneqc, gia = 1 mporome na

brome > 0 ste: an x, y R kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < 1.
'Estw x > 0. Jewrome ton elqisto fusik n = nx gia ton opoo nx 2 > x
(autc uprqei, ap thn Arqimdeia idithta kai ap thn arq tou elaqstou). Tte,
()
(nx 1)
x < nx .
2
2
37
Jewrome ta shmea: x0 = 0, x1 = 2 , . . . , xn = n 2 . 'Eqoume |xk+1 xk | < gia
kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 kai |x xn | < . 'Ara,
|f (x) f (0)| |f (x) f (xn )| + + |f (x1 ) f (x0 )| < n + 1 = nx + 1 <
2
x+2
ap thn (). Dhlad, gia kje x > 0.
|f (x)|
2
x + 2 + |f (0)|.
Douleontac me ton dio trpo gia x < 0 dexte ti
|f (x)|
2
|x| + 2 + |f (0)|
gia kje x R. Epomnwc, to zhtomeno isqei me A =
kai B = |f (0)| + 2.
'Estw n N, n > 1. Qrhsimopointac thn prohgomenh 'Askhsh dexte ti h

sunrthsh f (x) = xn , x R den enai omoimorfa suneqc.
11.
Updeixh. 'Estw n > 1. Upojtoume ti h sunrthsh f (x) = xn , x R enai

omoimorfa suneqc. Ap thn 'Askhsh 10 uprqoun A, B > 0 ste xn Ax + B
gia kje x > 0. Tte,
B
xn1 A +
x

n1
gia kje x > 0. Afo n > 1, qoume lim x
= +. 'Omwc, lim A + B
x =
A. Aut odhge se topo.
x+
x+
(a) 'Estw f : [0, +) R suneqc sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti uprqei a > 0

ste h f na enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, +). Dexte ti h f enai omoimorfa
suneqc sto [0, +).
(b) Dexte ti h f (x) = x enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +).

12.
Updeixh. (a) 'Eqoume upojsei ti uprqei a > 0 ste h f na enai omoimorfa

suneqc sto [a, +). Epshc, h f enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [0, a], ra
enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, a]. Dexte ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto
[0, +) qrhsimopointac thn teqnik thc 'Askhshc 8 (diakrnontac periptseic).
(b) H f (x) = x enai suneqc sto [0, +). An x, y [1, +), tte
|x y|
1
|f (x) f (y)| = | x y| =
|x y|,
2
x+ y
dhlad h f ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz sto [1, +). Sunepc, h f enai omoimorfa
suneqc sto [1, +). Tra, mporete na efarmsete to (a).
'Estw f : (a, b) R omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti uprqei
suneqc sunrthsh f : [a, b] R ste f(x) = f (x) gia kje x (a, b).
13.
Updeixh. Edame (sth jewra) ti an h f : (a, b) R enai omoimorfa suneqc

sunrthsh, tte uprqoun ta
lim f (x) = ` kai
xa+
lim f (x) = m
xb
kai enai pragmatiko arijmo. An epektenoume thn f sto [a, b] orzontac f(a) = `,
f(b) = m kai f(x) = f (x) gia x (a, b), tte h f : [a, b] R enai suneqc sto
[a, b].
14.
Exetste an oi paraktw sunartseic enai omoimorfa suneqec.
(i) f : R R me f (x) = 3x + 1.
(ii) f : [2, +) R me f (x) = x1 .
(iii) f : (0, ] R me f (x) =
1
x
sin2 x.
(iv) f : (0, ) R me f (x) = sin x1 .

(v) f : (0, ) R me f (x) = x sin x1 .
(vi) f : (0, ) R me f (x) =
(vii) f : (1, ) R me f (x) =
(viii) f : R R me f (x) =
(ix) f : R R me f (x) =
sin x
x .
cos(x3 )
.
x
1
x2 +4 .
x
1+|x| .
(x) f : [2, 0] R me f (x) =
x
x2 +1 .
(xi) f : R R me f (x) = x sin x.

(xii) f : [0, +) R me f (x) =
cos(x2 )
x+1 .
Updeixh. 'Olec oi sunartseic enai suneqec sto pedo orismo touc.

(i) f : R R me f (x) = 3x + 1. H f enai omoimorfa suneqc: enai Lipschitz
suneqc me stajer 3. Gia thn akrbeia,
|f (x) f (y)| = 3|x y|

gia kje x, y R.
(ii) f : [2, +) R me f (x) =
suneqc, afo
1
x.
H f enai omoimorfa suneqc: enai Lipschitz
|f 0 (x)| =
1
1
2
x
4
sto [2, +).

(iii) f : (0, ] R me f (x) = x1 sin2 x. H f orzetai sto hmianoikt disthma (0, ]
kai
sin x
lim f (x) = lim+
sin x = 1 0 = 0.
x
x0+
x0
Sunepc, h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
(iv) f : (0, ) R me f (x) = sin x1 . H f den enai omoimorfa suneqc, diti den
uprqei to
1
lim sin .
x
x0+
(v) f : (0, ) R me f (x) = x sin x1 . Epektenoume thn f se suneq sunrthsh sto
[0, +), jtontac
1
f (0) = lim f (x) = lim x sin = 0.
+
+
x
x0
x0
39
Gia kje x > 0 qoume
1
1
1
cos .
x x
x
f 0 (x) = sin
An x 1 tte

|f 0 (x)| sin

1
1 1
+
cos
2.
x x
x
Sunepc, h f enai Lipschitz suneqc, ra kai omoimorfa suneqc, sto [1, +).
Afo enai kai suneqc sto [0, +), enai omoimorfa suneqc (ap thn 'Askhsh
12(a)).
sin x
x .
(vi) f : (0, ) R me f (x) =

[0, +), jtontac
Epektenoume thn f se suneq sunrthsh sto
f (0) = lim+ f (x) = lim+

x0
x0
sin x
= 1.
x
Afo
sin x
= 0,
x+ x
lim f (x) = lim
x+
h f enai omoimorfa suneqc ap thn 'Askhsh 9.

cos(x3 )
.
x
(vii) f : (1, ) R me f (x) =

sto [1, +), jtontac
Epektenoume thn f se suneq sunrthsh
f (0) = lim+ f (x) = lim+

x0
x1
cos(x3 )
= cos(1).
x
Afo
cos(x3 )
= 0,
x+
x
lim f (x) = lim
x+
h f enai omoimorfa suneqc ap thn 'Askhsh 9.

(viii) f : R R me f (x) =
1
x2 +4 .
Afo lim
1
2
x x +4
= 0, h f ikanopoie thn upjesh
thc 'Askhshc 8. Sunepc, h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.

(ix) f : R R me f (x) =
x
1+|x| .
Afo lim f (x) = 1, h f enai omoimorfa suneqc

x+
sto [0, +), ap thn 'Askhsh 9. Afo
lim f (x) = 1, h f enai omoimorfa
suneqc sto (, 0], pli ap thn 'Askhsh 9. 'Epetai ti enai omoimorfa suneqc
sto R (qrhsimopoiste thn teqnik thc 'Askhshc 8).
(x) f : [2, 0] R me f (x) = x2x+1 . Kje suneqc sunrthsh orismnh se kleist
disthma enai omoimorfa suneqc, ra h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
(xi) f : R R me f (x) = x sin x. H f den enai omoimorfa suneqc. Parathrome
ti h f 0 (x) = x cos x + sin x den enai fragmnh kai ti parnei meglec timc sta
shmea thc morfc 2n pou n megloc fusikc. Orzoume xn = 2n kai yn =
2n + n1 . Tte, yn xn = n1 0, all

sin(1/n) sin(1/n)
f (yn )f (xn ) = 2n+(1/n) sin(1/n) = 2
+
21+0 = 2 6= 0
1/n
n
tan n . Ap ton qarakthrism thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac msw akoloujin
petai ti h f den enai omoimorfa suneqc.
(xii) f : [0, +) R me f (x) =
cos(x2 )
x+1 .
Afo lim f (x) = 0, h f enai omoimorfa
suneqc sto [0, +), ap thn 'Askhsh 9.

Omda B'. Erwtseic
x+
katanhshc
Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc

thn apnths sac).
15.
H sunrthsh f (x) = x2 +
1
x
enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, 1).
Ljoc. An mia sunrthsh f : (0, 1) R enai omoimorfa suneqc, tte uprqoun

ta lim f (x) kai lim f (x) (kai enai pragmatiko arijmo). Gia thn f (x) = x2 + x1
x0+
x1
qoume f (x) + tan x 0+ .

16.
H sunrthsh f (x) =
1
x1
enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, 1).
Ljoc. An mia sunrthsh f : (0, 1) R enai omoimorfa suneqc, tte uprqoun

1
ta lim f (x) kai lim f (x) (kai enai pragmatiko arijmo). Gia thn f (x) = x1
x1
x0+
qoume f (x) tan x 1 .

An h sunrthsh f den enai fragmnh sto (0, 1), tte h f den enai omoimorfa
suneqc sto (0, 1).
17.
Swst. 'Estw ti h sunrthsh f : (0, 1) R enai omoimorfa suneqc. Tte,

uprqoun ta lim f (x) kai lim f (x) (kai enai pragmatiko arijmo). 'Epetai (dete
x0+
x1
thn 'Askhsh 13) ti uprqei suneqc sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R ste f(x) = f (x)
gia kje x (0, 1). H f enai fragmnh (wc suneqc sunrthsh orismnh se kleist disthma). Sunepc, h f enai epshc fragmnh (wc periorismc fragmnhc
sunrthshc).
An h (xn ) enai akolouja Cauchy kai h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R, tte
h (f (xn )) enai akolouja Cauchy.
18.
Swst. Apodeqjhke sth jewra.

An h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, 1), tte to lim f n1 uprqei.
n

Swst. H akolouja n1 n2 enai akolouja Cauchy sto (0, 1). Afo h f enai

omoimorfa suneqc, h akoloujaf n1 enai akolouja Cauchy (ap to prohgomeno erthma). Sunepc, h f n1 sugklnei.
19.
Jewrome tic f (x) = x kai g(x) = sin x. Oi f kai g enai omoimorfa suneqec
sto R, mwc h f g den enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R.
20.
Swst. Oi f kai g qoun fragmnh pargwgo, ra enai Lipschitz suneqec (me

stajer 1, exhgste giat). Sunepc, enai omoimorfa suneqec sto R. 'Omwc, h
(f g)(x) = x sin x den enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R: dete thn 'Askhsh 14(xi).
H sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = x an x > 0 kai f (x) = 2x an x 0, enai
omoimorfa suneqc sto R.
21.
41
Swst. H f eqei fragmnh pargwgo (sh me 1) sto (0, +), ra enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +). Omowc, h f qei fragmnh pargwgo (sh me 2) sto
(, 0), ra enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (, 0]. Qrhsimopointac th mjodo
thc 'Askhshc 8, mporete na dexete ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R.
Shmewsh: Mporete na elgxete apeujeac ti
|f (x) f (y)| 2|x y|

gia kje x, y R, diakrnontac tic periptseic (a) x, y 0, (b) x, y 0, (g)
x < 0 < y . Afo h f enai sunrthsh Lipschitz me stajer 2, sumperanoume ti
enai omoimorfa suneqc.
22.
Kje fragmnh kai suneqc sunrthsh f : R R enai omoimorfa suneqc.
Ljoc. H sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = cos(x2 ) enai fragmnh

kai suneqc, mwc
den enai omoimorfa suneqc. Gia tic akoloujec xn = n + kai yn = n

qoume xn yn 0, all |f (xn ) f (yn )| = 2 2 6= 0 tan n .
Omda G'
Dexte ti h sunrthsh f : (0, 1) (1, 2) R me f (x) = 0 an x (0, 1) kai

f (x) = 1 an x (1, 2) enai suneqc all den enai omoimorfa suneqc.
23.
Updeixh. H sunrthsh f : (0, 1) (1, 2) R me f (x) = 0 an x (0, 1) kai

f (x) = 1 an x (1, 2) enai suneqc: stw x0 (0, 1) kai stw > 0. Epilgoume
= (x0 ) > 0 (den exarttai ap to > 0) ste (x0 , x0 + ) (0, 1). An x
(0, 1) (1, 2) kai |x x0 | < , tte x (0, 1). 'Ara, |f (x) f (x0 )| = |0 0| = 0 < .
Dhlad, h f enai suneqc sto x0 .
Me ton dio trpo mporete na dexete ti h f enai suneqc se kje x0 (1, 2).
'Ara, h f enai suneqc sto (0, 1) (1, 2).
1
'Omwc, h f den enai omoimorfa suneqc. Jewrste tic akoloujec xn = 1 n+1
2
1
kai yn = 1 + n+1
. 'Eqoume xn (0, 1), yn (1, 2) kai yn xn = n+1
0. 'Omwc,
f (yn ) f (xn ) = 1 0 = 1 6 0. Ap ton qarakthrism thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac
msw akoloujin petai to sumprasma.
Shmewsh: To dio pardeigma deqnei ti an oi periorismo f |A kai f |B miac sunrthshc f se do uposnola A kai B tou pedou orismo thc enai omoimorfa suneqec
sunartseic, den petai anagkastik ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto A B
(exhgste giat).
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh kai stw > 0. Dexte ti mporome
na qwrsoume to [a, b] se peperasmna to pljoc diadoqik upodiastmata tou idou
mkouc tsi ste: an ta x, y ankoun sto dio upodisthma, tte |f (x) f (y)| < .
24.
Updeixh. 'Estw > 0. H f enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [a, b], ra enai
omoimorfa suneqc. Uprqei > 0 ste an x, y [a, b] kai |x y| < tte
|f (x) f (y)| < . Epilgoume fusik arijm n ste ba
n < kai qwrzoume to [a, b]
sta diadoqik upodiastmata

(b a)
ba
[xk , xk+1 ] = a + k
, a + (k + 1)
, k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
n
n
An ta x, y ankoun sto dio upodisthma [xk , xk+1 ], tte |x y| xk+1 xk =
ba
n < . 'Ara, |f (x) f (y)| < .
'Estw f : R R suneqc, fragmnh kai montonh sunrthsh. Dexte ti h f
enai omoimorfa suneqc.
25.
Updeixh. Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac upojtoume ti h f enai axousa.

Afo h f : R R enai fragmnh kai axousa sunrthsh, uprqoun ta
lim f (x) = ` = sup{f (x) : x R}
x+
kai
lim f (x) = m = inf{f (x) : x R}.
Afo h f enai suneqc kai
lim f (x) = ` R, h 'Askhsh 9 deqnei ti h f
x+
enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +). To dio akribc epiqerhma deqnei ti h f
enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (, 0]. Tloc, mporete na dexete thn omoimorfh
sunqeia sto R me thn teqnik thc 'Askhshc 8 (diakrnontac periptseic).
'Estw f : R R suneqc kai periodik sunrthsh. Dhlad, uprqei T > 0
ste f (x + T ) = f (x) gia kje x R. Dexte ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
26.
Updeixh. H f enai suneqc sto [0, 2T ], ra enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, 2T ].
'Estw > 0. Uprqei 0 < = () < T ste an x, y [0, 2T ] kai |x y| < tte
|f (x) f (y)| < 2 .
Dexte ti an x, y R kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < : mporete na
upojsete ti x < y . Uprqei m Z ste mT x (m + 1)T . Tte, y < x + <
(m + 1)T + T = mT + 2T . Parathrste ti x mT, y mT [0, 2T ] kai ti
|f (x) f (y)| = |f (x mT ) f (y mT )|
ap thn periodikthta thc f . Afo
|(x mT ) (y mT )| = |x y| < ,
qoume |f (x mT ) f (y mT )| < kai petai to zhtomeno.
'Estw X R fragmno snolo kai f : X R omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh.
Dexte ti h f enai fragmnh: uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x)| M gia kje x X .
27.
Updeixh. Uprqei kleist disthma [a, b] ste X [a, b]. Gia = 1 uprqei > 0
ste an x, y X kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < 1. Epilgoume diamrish
P = {a = t0 < t1 < < tn = b}

tou [a, b] ste tk+1 tk < gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. Jtoume
Xk = [tk , tk+1 ] X
gia kje
An orsoume F = {k : Xk 6= }, qoume
X=
[
kF
Xk .
k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
43
Gia kje k F epilgoume tuqn xk Xk kai jtoume
= max{|f (xk )| : k F }.
Parathrste ti an x X tte uprqei k F ste x Xk . Tte, |x xk |
tk+1 tk < , ra
|f (x)| |f (x) f (xk )| + |f (xk )| < 1 + .

Dhlad, |f (x)| M := 1 + gia kje x X .
28.
'Estw A mh ken uposnolo tou R. Orzoume f : R R me
f (x) = inf{|x a| : a A}
(f (x) enai h {apstash} tou x ap to A). Dexte ti
(a) |f (x) f (y)| |x y| gia kje x, y R.
(b) h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
Updeixh. (a) 'Estw x, y R. Gia kje a A qoume f (x) |x a| kai |x a|
|x y| + |y a| ap thn trigwnik anisthta. 'Ara,
f (x) |x y| + |y a|.
Afo
f (x) |x y| |y a| gia kje
a A,
sumperanoume ti
f (x) |x y| inf{|y a| : a A} = f (y).

Dhlad,
f (x) f (y) |x y|.

Me ton dio trpo deqnoume ti f (y) f (x) |y x| = |x y|. 'Epetai ti
|f (x) f (y)| |x y|.
(b) Ap to (a) h f enai Lipschitz suneqc me stajer 1, ra enai omoimorfa
suneqc.
Keflaio 4
Oloklrwma Riemann
Omda A'. Erwtseic katanhshc
'Estw f : [a, b] R. Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec

(aitiologste plrwc thn apnths sac).
1.
An h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, tte h f enai fragmnh.
Swst. Ap ton orism tou oloklhrmatoc Riemann: exetzoume an h f : [a, b] R

enai oloklhrsimh mno an h f enai fragmnh.
2.
An h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, tte parnei mgisth tim.
Ljoc. H sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (0) = 0 kai f (x) = 1 x an 0 < x 1 den

parnei mgisth tim, enai mwc oloklhrsimh: gia kje 0 < b < 1, h f enai suneqc
sto [b, 1], ra enai oloklhrsimh sto [b, 1]. Ap thn 'Askhsh 9 (blpe paraktw)
h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1].
3.
An h f enai fragmnh, tte enai Riemann oloklhrsimh.
Ljoc. H f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = 1 an x Q kai f (x) = 1 an x

/ Q enai
fragmnh, all den enai oloklhrsimh: gia kje diamrish P tou [0, 1] qoume
U (f, P ) = 1 kai L(f, P ) = 1, ra
Z
f (x) dx = 1 < 1 =
4.
f (x) dx.
0
An h |f | enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, tte h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh.
Ljoc. Gia th sunrthsh f tou prohgomenou erwtmatoc qoume |f (x)| = 1 gia

kje x [0, 1]. 'Ara, h |f | enai oloklhrsimh, en h f den enai oloklhrsimh.
5.
Rb
a
An h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, tte uprqei c [a, b] ste f (c)(b a) =

f (x) dx.
Ljoc. H f : [0, 2] R me f (x) = 1 an x [0, 1] kai f (x) = 1 an x (1, 2] enai

R2
oloklhrsimh kai 0 f (x) dx = 0 (exhgste giat). 'Omwc, den uprqei c [0, 2]
46 Oloklrwma Riemann
ste 2f (c) =
[0, 2].
R2
0
f (x) dx. Ja eqame f (c) = 0, en h f den mhdenzetai poujen sto
An h f enai fragmnh kai an L(f, P ) = U (f, P ) gia kje diamrish P tou [a, b],
tte h f enai stajer.
6.
Swst. 'Estw ti h f den enai stajer. Tte, uprqoun y, z [a, b] ste f (y) <
f (z). Jewrste th diamrish Q = {a, b} tou [a, b] (pou periqei mno ta kra a kai
b tou diastmatoc [a, b]). Tte,
U (f, Q) L(f, Q) = (M0 m0 )(b a)

pou
m0 = inf{f (x) : x [a, b]} f (y) < f (z) sup{f (x) : x [a, b]} = M0 .
'Ara, M0 m0 > 0 opte U (f, Q)L(f, Q) > 0. Aut enai topo: ap thn upjesh
qoume L(f, P ) = U (f, P ) gia kje diamrish P tou [a, b].
'Ara, h f enai stajer: uprqei c R ste f (x) = c gia kje x [a, b], kai to
oloklrwma thc f sto [a, b] isotai me c(b a).
An h f enai fragmnh kai an uprqei diamrish P ste L(f, P ) = U (f, P ), tte
h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh.
7.
Swst. Mporome mlista na dexoume ti h f enai stajer. 'Estw P = {a = x0 <

x1 < < xn = b} diamrish tou [a, b] ste U (f, P ) = L(f, P ). Aut shmanei ti
n1
X
(Mk mk )(xk+1 xk ) = U (f, P ) L(f, P ) = 0,
k=0
kai, afo mk Mk gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, sumperanoume ti
mk = inf{f (x) : x [xk , xk+1 ]} = sup{f (x) : x [xk , xk+1 ]} = Mk

gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. Dhlad, h f (x) = mk = Mk gia kje x [xk , xk+1 ].
Parathrste tra ti: x1 [x0 , x1 ], ra f (x1 ) = m0 = M0 . 'Omwc, x1
[x1 , x2 ], ra f (x1 ) = m1 = M1 . Dhlad, m0 = M0 = m1 = M1 .
Suneqzontac me ton dio trpo (gia ta epmena upodiastmata), sumperanoume
ti uprqei R ste
= m0 = M0 = m1 = M1 = = mk = Mk = = mn1 = Mn1 .
'Epetai ti f (x) = gia kje x [a, b]. Dhlad, h f enai stajer.
An h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh kai an f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b] Q,
tte
Z b
f (x)dx = 0.
8.
Swst. Jewrste tuqosa diamrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} tou [a, b].
Se kje upodisthma [xk , xk+1 ] uprqei rhtc arijmc qk . Ap thn upjesh qoume
f (qk ) = 0, ra mk 0 Mk . 'Epetai ti
L(f, P ) =
n1
X
k=0
mk (xk+1 xk ) 0
n1
X
k=0
Mk (xk+1 xk ) = U (f, P ).
47
'Ara, sup L(f, P ) 0 kai inf U (f, P ) 0. H f enai oloklhrsimh, ra
P
f (x)dx = sup L(f, P ) 0 kai
f (x)dx = inf U (f, P ) 0.
Dhlad,
f (x)dx = 0.
a
Omda B'
'Estw f : [0, 1] R fragmnh sunrthsh me thn idithta: gia kje 0 0 ste |f (x)| A gia kje

x [0, 1]. Ja dexoume ti h f enai oloklhrsimh qrhsimopointac to kritrio tou
Riemann. 'Estw > 0. Epilgoume 0 < b < 1 arket mikr ste na ikanopoietai h
2Ab <
.
2
Ap thn upjesh, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto disthma [b, 1], ra uprqei diamrish
Q tou [b, 1] me thn idithta
U (f, Q) L(f, Q) <
.
2
Jewrome th diamrish P = {0} Q tou [0, 1]. Tte,
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) = b(M0 m0 ) + U (f, Q) L(f, Q) < b(M0 m0 ) + ,

2
pou
M0 = sup{f (x) : 0 x b} A kai m0 = inf{f (x) : 0 x b} A.

Ap tic teleutaec anisthtec parnoume M0 m0 2A, ra
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < 2Ab +

< + = .
2
2 2
Ap to kritrio tou Riemann, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1].

Apodexte ti h sunrthsh f : [1, 1] R me f (x) = sin x1 an x 6= 0 kai
f (0) = 2 enai oloklhrsimh.
10.
Updeixh. Deqnoume prta ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1]. Parathrste ti

h f enai fragmnh sto [0, 1] kai, gia kje 0 < b < 1, h f (x) = sin x1 enai suneqc
sto [b, 1], ra oloklhrsimh sto [b, 1]. Ap thn 'Askhsh 9, h f enai oloklhrsimh
sto [0, 1].
Omowc deqnoume ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [1, 0]. 'Ara, h f enai oloklhrsimh
sto [1, 1].
'Estw g : [a, b] R fragmnh sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti h g enai suneqc
panto, ektc ap na shmeo x0 (a, b). Dexte ti h g enai oloklhrsimh.
11.
Updeixh. Akribc pwc sthn prohgomenh 'Askhsh, dexte ti h f enai oloklhrsimh

sto [a, x0 ] kai sto [x0 , b].
Shmewsh. To dio akribc epiqerhma deqnei ti an mia fragmnh sunrthsh f :
[a, b] R qei peperasmna to pljoc shmea asunqeiac sto [a, b], tte h f enai
oloklhrsimh.
Qrhsimopointac to kritrio tou Riemann apodexte ti oi paraktw sunartseic enai oloklhrsimec:
(a) f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x.
(b) f : [0, /2] R me f (x) = sin x.
12.
Updeixh. (a) f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x. H f enai axousa. Jewrste th diamrish

Pn tou [0, 1] se n sa upodiastmata mkouc 1/n. Dexte ti
U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) =
f (1) f (0)
1
= 0.
n
n
Ap to kritrio tou Riemann, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1].

(b) f : [0, /2] R me f (x) = sin x. H f enai axousa. Jewrste th diamrish Pn
tou [0, /2] se n sa upodiastmata mkouc /(2n). Dexte ti
U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) =
(f (/2) f (0))
=
0.
2n
2n
Ap to kritrio tou Riemann, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, /2].

Exetste an oi paraktw sunartseic enai oloklhrsimec sto [0, 2] kai upologste to oloklrwma touc (an uprqei):
(a) f (x) = x + [x].
(b) f (x) = 1 an x = k1 gia kpoion k N, kai f (x) = 0 allic.
13.
Updeixh. (a) f (x) = x + [x]. H f enai axousa sto [0, 2], ra enai oloklhrsimh.
Mporete na gryete
Z
f (x)dx =
Z
xdx +
[x]dx.
0
To prto oloklrwma enai so me 2 kai to detero so me 1 (exhgste giat).

(b) f (x) = 1 an x = k1 gia kpoion k N, kai f (x) = 0 allic. H f enai
oloklhrsimh sto [0, 2]. Dexte diadoqik ta exc:
(i) H f enai fragmnh.

(ii) An 0 < b < 2, tte h f qei peperasmna to pljoc shmea asunqeiac sto
[b, 2] (enai akribc tsa soi enai oi fusiko k gia touc opoouc 1/k b).
(iii) An 0 < b < 2, tte h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [b, 2] (ap thn shmewsh met
thn 'Askhsh 3).
(iv) H f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 2] (ap thn 'Askhsh 9).
49
14.
ti
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh me f (x) 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Dexte
b
f (x)dx = 0
a
an kai mno an f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].

Rb
Updeixh. 'Estw ti a f (x)dx = 0. Upojtoume ti h f den enai tautotik mhdenik. Tte, uprqei x0 [a, b] ste f (x0 ) > 0. Lgw sunqeiac, h f parnei
jetikc timc se mia (arket mikr) perioq tou x0 , mporome loipn na upojsoume
ti a < x0 0 kai efarmzoume ton orism thc sunqeiac: mporome na brome > 0 (kai an qreizetai na to mikrnoume) ste a < x0 <
x0 + 
f (x0 )
.
2
Afo h f enai mh arnhtik panto sto [a, b], qoume
x0
Z
f (x)dx =
x0 +
Z
f (x)dx +
x0
x0 +
0+
f (x)dx +
f (x)dx + 0 2
x0
f (x)dx
x0 +
f (x0 )
= f (x0 ) > 0.
2
Katalxame se topo, ra f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b]. O antstrofoc isqurismc

isqei profanc.
15.
'Estw f, g : [a, b] R suneqec sunartseic ste
Z
f (x)dx =
g(x)dx.
a
Dexte ti uprqei x0 [a, b] ste f (x0 ) = g(x0 ).

Updeixh. Jewrntac thn h = f g blpoume ti arke na dexoume to exc: an
Rb
h : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh kai a h(x)dx = 0, tte uprqei x0 [a, b] ste
h(x0 ) = 0.
Ac upojsoume ti h(x) 6= 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Tte, ete h(x) > 0 panto sto
[a, b] h(x) < 0 panto sto [a, b] (an h h pairne kai arnhtikc kai jetikc timc
sto [a, b] tte, ap to jerhma endimeshc timc, ja uprqe shmeo sto opoo ja
mhdeniztan).
'Estw loipn ti h(x) > 0 gia kje x [a, b]. H h parnei elqisth jetik tim
sto [a, b]: uprqei y [a, b] ste h(x) h(y) > 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Tte,
h(x)dx h(y)(b a) > 0,

a
to opoo enai topo. Omowc katalgoume se topo an upojsoume ti h(x) < 0

gia kje x [a, b].
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh me thn idithta: gia kje suneq
sunrthsh g : [a, b] R isqei
16.
f (x)g(x)dx = 0.
a
Dexte ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].

Updeixh. Ap thn upjesh, gia kje suneq sunrthsh g : [a, b] R isqei
Rb
f (x)g(x)dx = 0. H f enai suneqc, mporome loipn na efarmsoume thn upa
Rb
jesh gia thn g = f . Tte, a f 2 (x)dx = 0. H f 2 enai suneqc kai mh arnhtik.
Ap thn 'Askhsh 14 sumperanoume ti f 2 (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b], ra f (x) = 0
gia kje x [a, b].
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh me thn idithta: gia kje suneq
sunrthsh g : [a, b] R pou ikanopoie thn g(a) = g(b) = 0, isqei
17.
f (x)g(x)dx = 0.
a
Dexte ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].

Updeixh. Upojtoume ti h f den enai tautotik mhdenik. Tte, qwrc periorism
thc genikthtac, mporome na upojsoume ti uprqei x0 (a, b) ste f (x0 ) > 0.
'Opwc sthn 'Askhsh 6, mporome na brome > 0 ste a < x0 < x0 + f (x0 )/2 > 0 gia kje x [x0 , x0 + ].
Orzoume mia suneq sunrthsh g : [a, b] R wc exc: jtoume g(x) = 0 sta
[a, x0 ] kai [x0 + , b], orzoume g(x0 ) = f (x0 ), kai epektenoume grammik sta
[x , x0 ] kai [x0 , x0 + ]. Afo g(a) = g(b) = 0, ap thn upjesh prpei na isqei
R b0
f (x)g(x)dx = 0. 'Omwc,
a
b
Z
0=
x0 +
f (x)g(x)dx =
f (x)g(x)dx
x0
kai h f g enai mh arnhtik sto [x0 , x0 +]. Ap thn 'Askhsh 14, qoume f (x)g(x) =
0 gia kje x [x0 , x0 + ]. Eidiktera, 0 = f (x0 )g(x0 ) = f 2 (x0 ), to opoo enai
topo.
'Estw f, g : [a, b] R oloklhrsimec sunartseic. Dexte thn anisthta
Cauchy-Schwarz:
18.
!2
f (x)g(x)dx
b
2
f (x)dx
b
2
g (x)dx .
a
Updeixh. Jewrste th sunrthsh P : R R pou orzetai ap thn
Z
P (t) =
a
(tf (x) + g(x))2 dx.
51
H P orzetai kal: afo oi f, g enai oloklhrsimec, h tf + g (ra kai h (tf + g)2 )
enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] gia kje t R. Parathrste ti h P enai polunumo
deutrou bajmo:
!
!
!
Z
Z
Z
b
P (t) = t2
f 2 (x)dx
+ 2t
f (x)g(x)dx
g 2 (x)dx .
Afo P (t) 0 gia kje t R, h diakrnousa enai mh arnhtik:
Z
4
!2
Z
4
f (x)g(x)dx
f (x)dx
19.
b
2
g (x)dx
0.
'Estw f : [0, 1] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte ti
Z
2 Z
f (x)dx
f 2 (x)dx.
Isqei to dio an antikatastsoume to [0, 1] me tuqn disthma [a, b]?

Updeixh. Efarmste thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz gia thn f kai th stajer
sunrthsh g 1:
Z
0
2 Z
f (x) 1 dx
Z
f (x)dx
2
Z
1 dx =
2
f 2 (x)dx.
H dia anisthta isqei an antikatastsoume to [0, 1] me opoiodpote disthma [a, b]

pou qei mkoc mikrtero so tou 1 (an mwc prete san [a, b] to [0, 2] kai san f
th stajer sunrthsh f (x) = 1, tte h anisthta parnei th morf 4 2, topo).
20.
'Estw f : [0, +) R suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti

Z
1 x
f (t)dt = f (0).
lim+
x0 x 0
Updeixh. 'Estw > 0. H f enai suneqc sto 0, ra uprqei > 0 ste: an

0 t < tte |f (t) f (0)| < . 'Estw x (0, ). Tte, gia kje t [0, x] qoume
0 t x < , ra |f (t) f (0)| < . Mporome loipn na gryoume
Z x

Z x

Z
1

1

1 x

f (t)dt f (0) =
f (t)dt
f (0)dt
x
x 0
x 0
0
Z

1 x
=
(f (t) f (0))dt
x 0
Z
1 x
|f (t) f (0)| dt
x 0
Z x
1
x
dt =
= .
x 0
x
'Epetai ti
1
lim
+
x0 x
f (t)dt = f (0).
0
21.
'Estw f : [0, 1] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte ti h akolouja

n
an =
1X
f
n
k=1
sugklnei sto
R1
0

k
n
f (x)dx.

Updeixh. Jewrome thn akolouja diamersewn P (n) = 0 < n1 < n2 < < 1 kai

thn epilog shmewn (n) = n1 , n2 , . . . , 1 . Afo to pltoc thc diamrishc P (n)
enai kP (n) k = n1 0, ap ton orism tou Riemann qoume
n
1X
f
an =
n
k=1
22.
X
Z b

k
(n)
(n)
=
f, P ,
f (x) dx.
n
a
Dexte ti
lim
1+
2 + +
n n
2
.
3
Updeixh. Efarmzontac
to sumprasma thc prohgomenhc 'Askhshc gia thn oloklhrsimh
sunrthsh f (x) = x sto [0, 1], parnoume
Z 1
n r
1 + 2 + + n
1X k
2
x dx = .
n
n
3
n n
0
k=1
'Estw f : [0, 1] R suneqc sunrthsh. Orzoume mia akolouja (an ) jtontac

R1
an = 0 f (xn )dx. Dexte ti an f (0).
23.
Updeixh. H f enai suneqc, ra uprqei M > 0 ste |f (y)| M gia kje

y [0, 1]. 'Estw 0 < < 1. Ap th sunqeia thc f sto 0, uprqei 0 < < 1 ste:
an 0 y tte
|f (y) f (0)| < .

2
Epilgoume n0 N me thn idithta: gia kje n n0 isqei

n
1
< .
4M + 1
Tte, gia kje n n0 mporome na gryoume (parathrste ti an 0 < x < 1 4M+1
tte |f (xn ) f (0)| < /2)
Z

Z 1
1 4M+1

n
n
|an f (0)| =
(f (x ) f (0))dx +
(f (x ) f (0))dx
0

1 4M +1
Z 1
Z 1 4M+1
|f (xn ) f (0)| dx +
(|f (xn )| + |f (0)|) dx
1 4M+1
<
1
.
4M + 1
+
2M
2 4M + 1
53
'Ara, an f (0).
24.
Dexte ti h akolouja n = 1 +
Updeixh. H f (x) =
1
x
1
2
1
3
1
n
+ +
Rn
1
dx
1 x
sugklnei.
enai fjnousa sto [1, +), ra
k+1
k+1
1
1
dx
x
k
gia kje k N. 'Epetai ti
n+1
n+1 n =
n+1
1
dx 0,
x
dhlad h (n ) enai fjnousa. Epshc,

Z n
Z 2
Z 3
Z n
1
1
1
1
1
1
dx =
dx +
dx + +
dx 1 + + +
,
x
x
x
x
2
n
1
1
1
2
n1
ra
1
1
1
n = 1 + + +
+
2
n1 n
Z
1
1
1
dx > 0
x
n
gia kje n N. Afo h (n ) enai fjnousa kai ktw fragmnh ap to 0, sugklnei.

25.
'Estw f : [0, 1] R Lipschitz suneqc sunrthsh ste
|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|
gia kje x, y [0, 1]. Dexte ti
Z 1

n

1X
k M

f
f (x)dx

n
n 2n
0
k=1
gia kje n N.
Updeixh. Parathrste ti
Z 1
X
n
n Z k/n

1X
k

f (x)dx
f
|f (x) f (k/n)|dx.

n
n
0
(k1)/n
k=1
Sto disthma
k1
n
k
n
k=1
qoume

|f (x) f (k/n)| M

k
x ,
n
ra
k/n
k/n
|f (x) f (k/n)| M
(k1)/n
(k1)/n
'Ara,
1X
f (x)dx
f
n
k=1

Z 1/n
k
M
x dx = M
y dy = 2 .
n
2n
0
X
n
k
M
M
=
.

2
n
2n
2n
k=1
Omda G'
26.
'Estw f : [a, b] R gnhswc axousa kai suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti

b
f (b)
f 1 (x)dx.
f (x)dx = bf (b) af (a)

a
f (a)
Updeixh. Kje diamrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xk < xk+1 < < xn = b}
tou [a, b] orzei me fusiologik trpo mia diamrish tou [f (a), f (b)]: thn
Q = {f (a) = f (x0 ) < f (x1 ) < < f (xk ) < f (xk+1 ) < < f (xn ) = f (b)}.
H f enai axousa, ra
L(f, P ) =
n1
X
f (xk )(xk+1 xk ).
k=0
H f 1 enai epshc axousa, ra
U (f
, Q) =
n1
X
(f (xk+1 ))(f (xk+1 ) f (xk )) =
k=0
n1
X
xk+1 (f (xk+1 ) f (xk )).
k=0
Prosjtontac, parnoume
()
L(f, P ) + U (f 1 , Q) =
n1
X
(xk+1 f (xk+1 ) xk f (xk )) = bf (b) af (a).
k=0
Oi f kai f 1 enai suneqec, ra oloklhrsimec. Ap thn () parnoume
bf (b) af (a) = L(f, P ) + U (f
f (b)
, Q) L(f, P ) +
f 1 (x)dx
f (a)
kai, afo h P tan tuqosa, parnontac supremum wc proc P qoume
bf (b) af (a)
f (b)
f (x)dx +
a
f 1 (x)dx.
f (a)
Me anlogo trpo dexte ti gia tic diamerseic P kai Q isqei
U (f, P ) + L(f 1 , Q) = bf (b) af (a).
()
Tte,
f (b)
f 1 (x)dx U (f, P ) + L(f 1 , Q) = bf (b) af (a),
U (f, P ) +
f (a)
kai parnontac infimum wc proc P qoume
f (b)
f (x)dx +
a
f (a)
f 1 (x)dx bf (b) af (a).
55
'Ara,
f (b)
f 1 (x)dx = bf (b) af (a).
f (x)dx +
a
f (a)
'Estw f : [0, +) [0, +) gnhswc axousa, suneqc kai ep sunrthsh me

f (0) = 0. Dexte ti, gia kje a, b > 0,
27.
ab
f 1 (x)dx
f (x)dx +
0
me isthta an kai mno an f (a) = b.

Updeixh. Upojtoume prta ti f (a) b. An b = f (y) tte y a (diti h f
enai axousa) kai ap thn prohgomenh 'Askhsh (ja qreiastete thn upjesh ti
f (0) = 0) qoume
Z
yb = yf (y) =
f (x)dx +
0
f 1 (x)dx.
Gia na dexoume ti
Z
ab
f 1 (x)dx
f (x)dx +
0
arke na elgxoume (exhgste giat) ti

a
Z
b(a y)
f (x)dx.
y
'Omwc, h f enai gnhswc axousa kai suneqc sto [y, a], ra

Z a
f (x)dx f (y)(a y) = b(a y)
y
me isthta mno an a = y , dhlad an f (a) = b.

Exetste thn perptwsh f (a) b me ton dio trpo.
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh me thn exc idithta: uprqei M > 0
ste
Z x
|f (x)| M
|f (t)|dt
28.
gia kje x [a, b]. Dexte ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].
Updeixh. H f enai suneqc, ra uprqei A > 0 ste |f (t)| A gia kje t [a, b].
Aut deqnei ti
Z x
Z x
|f (x)| M
|f (t)|dt M
A dt = M A(x a)
a
gia kje x [a, b]. Eisgontac aut thn ektmhsh pli sthn upjesh, parnoume
Z x
Z x
M 2A
2
|f (x)| M
|f (t)|dt M A
(t a) dt =
(x a)2
2
a
a
gia kje x [a, b], kai epagwgik,
M nA
(x a)n
n!
|f (x)|
gia kje x [a, b] kai gia kje n N. 'Omwc,
M nA
(x a)n = 0,
n n!
lim
ra f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].

'Estw a R. Dexte ti den uprqei jetik suneqc sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R
ste
Z 1
Z 1
Z 1
f (x)dx = 1,
xf (x)dx = a kai
x2 f (x)dx = a2 .
29.
Updeixh. 'Estw ti uprqei jetik suneqc sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R pou ikanopoie

tic
Z 1
Z 1
Z 1
f (x)dx = 1,
xf (x)dx = a kai
x2 f (x)dx = a2 .
0
Tte,
(x a)2 f (x)dx =
x2 f (x)dx 2a
0
2
xf (x)dx + a2
f (x)dx
0
= a 2a a + a2 1 = 0.
Afo h (x a)2 f (x) enai mh arnhtik kai suneqc, ap thn 'Askhsh 14 blpoume
ti (x a)2 f (x) = 0 gia kje x [0, 1]. 'Omwc h f enai panto jetik, ra x = a
gia kje x [0, 1]. Aut enai topo.
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc, mh arnhtik sunrthsh.
max{f (x) : x [a, b]}. Dexte oti h akolouja
30.
!1/n
n =
Jtoume M =
[f (x)] dx
a
sugklnei, kai limn n = M .

Updeixh. 'Estw > 0. Parathrste ti
Z
n =
!1/n
b
n
[f (x)] dx
!1/n
b
n
M dx
= M (b a)1/n
kai M (b a)1/n M tan n , ra uprqei n1 N ste
n < M +
gia kje
n n1 .
Afo h f enai suneqc sto [a, b], parnei th mgisth tim thc: uprqei x0 [a, b]
ste f (x0 ) = M . Afo h f enai suneqc sto x0 , uprqei kpoio disthma J [a, b]
57
me mkoc > 0 kai x0 J , ste f (x) > M 2 gia kje x J . Epshc, afo
1/n 1, uprqei n2 N ste: gia kje n n2 ,
!1/n
b
n
[f (x)] dx
a
1/n
1/n
[f (x)] dx
M
> M .
2
J
Z
Tte, gia kje n n0 = max{n1 , n2 } qoume

!1/n
Z b

n

|n M | =
[f (x)] dx
M < .
a

Dhlad, n M .
Shmewsh. Qrhsimopointac ta lim sup n kai lim inf n mporome na aploustesoume (kpwc) to epiqerhma. Ap thn anisthta n M (b a)1/n pou dexame
parapnw kai ap thn M (b a)1/n M sumperanoume ti lim sup n M . Ap
thn anisthta n M 2 1/n pou dexame parapnw kai ap thn 1/n 1
sumperanoume ti lim inf n M 2 gia tuqn > 0, sunepc, lim inf n M .
'Epetai ti lim sup n = lim inf n = M , ra n 1.
'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Skopc autc thc skhshc
enai na dexoume ti h f qei poll shmea sunqeiac.
31.
(a) Uprqei diamrish P tou [a, b] ste U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < b a (exhgste giat).
Dexte ti uprqoun a1 < b1 sto [a, b] ste b1 a1 < 1 kai
sup{f (x) : a1 x b1 } inf{f (x) : a1 x b1 } < 1.

(b) Epagwgik orste kibwtismna diastmata [an , bn ] (an1 , bn1 ) me mkoc
mikrtero ap 1/n ste
sup{f (x) : an x bn } inf{f (x) : an x bn } <
1
.
n
(g) H tom autn twn kibwtismnwn diasthmtwn periqei akribc na shmeo.

Dexte ti h f enai suneqc se aut.
(d) Tra dexte ti h f qei peira shmea sunqeiac sto [a, b] (den qreizetai perissterh doulei!).
Updeixh. (a) Afo h f enai oloklhrsimh, mporome na brome diamrish P1 =
{a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} tou [a, b] ste U (f, P1 )L(f, P1 ) < ba. Pernntac
an qreiaste se eklptunsh thc P1 mporome na upojsoume ti to pltoc thc P1
enai mikrtero ap 1. Afo
n1
X
k=0
(Mk mk )(xk+1 xk ) < b a =
n1
X
(xk+1 xk ),
k=0
uprqei k {0, 1, . . . , n1} ste Mk mk < 1. An jsoume a1 = xk kai b1 = xk+1 ,

blpoume ti a1 < b1 , a1 , b1 [a, b], b1 a1 < 1 kai
sup{f (x) : a1 x b1 } inf{f (x) : a1 x b1 } = Mk mk < 1.
(b) Me ton dio trpo dexte ti uprqei [a2 , b2 ] (a1 , b1 ) me mkoc mikrtero ap
1/2 ste
1
sup{f (x) : a2 x b2 } inf{f (x) : a2 x b2 } < .
2
Gia na petqete ton egkleism [a2 , b2 ] (a1 , b1 ) xekinste ap na upodisthma
[c, d] tou [a1 , b1 ] me a1 < c < d < b1 (h f enai oloklhrsimh kai sto [c, d]). Brete
diamrish P2 tou [c, d] me U (f, P2 ) L(f, P2 ) < dc
2 kai pltoc mikrtero ap 1/2
kai suneqste pwc prin.
Epagwgik mporete na brete [an , bn ] (an1 , bn1 ) ste bn an < 1/n kai
sup{f (x) : an x bn } inf{f (x) : an x bn } <
1
.
n
(g) H tom twn kibwtismnwn diasthmtwn [an , bn ] periqei akribc na shmeo x0 .

Ja dexoume ti h f enai suneqc sto x0 : stw > 0. Epilgoume n N me
1
n < . Afo x0 [an+1 , bn+1 ], qoume x0 (an , bn ). Uprqei > 0 ste
(x0 , x0 + ) (an , bn ). Tte, gia kje x (x0 , x0 + ) qoume
|f (x) f (x0 )| sup{f (x) : an x bn } inf{f (x) : an x bn } <
1
< .
n
Aut deqnei th sunqeia thc f sto x0 .

(d) Ac upojsoume ti h f qei peperasmna to pljoc shmea sunqeiac sto [a, b].
Tte, uprqei disthma [c, d] [a, b] sto opoo h f den qei kanna shmeo sunqeiac (exhgste giat). Aut enai topo ap to prohgomeno bma: h f enai
oloklhrsimh sto [c, d], ra qei toulqiston na shmeo sunqeiac se aut.
Gia thn akrbeia, to epiqerhma pou qrhsimopoisame deqnei kti isqurtero:
an h f enai oloklhrsimh tte qei toulqiston na shmeo sunqeiac se kje
upodisthma tou [a, b]. Me lla lgia, to snolo twn shmewn sunqeiac thc f enai
pukn sto [a, b].
'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh (qi anagkastik suneqc) sunrthsh me
f (x) > 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Dexte ti
32.
f (x)dx > 0.
a
Updeixh. Ap thn prohgomenh 'Askhsh, afo h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b],
uprqei x0 [a, b] sto opoo h f enai suneqc. Afo f (x0 ) > 0, uprqei disthma
J [a, b] me mkoc > 0 ste: gia kje x J isqei f (x) > f (x0 )/2. Suneqste
pwc sthn 'Askhsh 14.
Keflaio 5
Pargwgoc kai Oloklrwma

Omda A'
1.
'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte ti uprqei s [a, b] ste
f (t)dt =
f (t)dt.
Mporome pnta na epilgoume na ttoio s sto anoikt disthma (a, b)?

Updeixh. Jewrste th sunrthsh g : [a, b] R me
s
Z
g(s)
f (t)dt
Z
f (t)dt
f (t)dt
a
Z
f (t)dt
f (t)dt
f (t)dt =
f (t)dt.
Afo h f enai oloklhrsimh, h g enai suneqc. Parathrste ti
Z
g(a) =
f (t)dt
kai
g(b) =
Afo g(a)g(b) =
ttoio s isqei h
R
b
a
f (t)dt.
a
2
f (t)dt 0, uprqei s [a, b] ste g(s) = 0. Gia kje
Z
Z
f (t)dt =
f (t)dt.
s
Rb
Mporome na epilxoume na ttoio s sto anoikt disthma (a, b) an a f (t)dt 6= 0
(exhgste giat). An mwc prete thn f (x) = x sto [1, 1], tte ta mna shmea
s [1, 1] gia ta opoa g(s) = 0 enai ta s = 1 (se aut to pardeigma, to
oloklrwma thc f sto [1, 1] isotai me mhdn).
R1
'Estw f : [0, 1] R oloklhrsimh kai jetik sunrthsh ste 0 f (x)dx = 1.
Dexte ti gia kje n N uprqei diamrish {0 = t0 < t1 < < tn = 1} ste
R tk+1
f (x)dx = n1 gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
tk
2.
60 Pargwgos kai Oloklrwma

Rt
Updeixh. Jewrste th sunrthsh F : [0, 1] R me F (t) = 0 f (x)dx. Afo h
f enai oloklhrsimh kai jetik, h F enai suneqc kai axousa sto [0, 1]. Afo
R1
f (x)dx = 1, qoume F (0) = 0 kai F (1) = 1.
0
'Estw n N. Ap to jerhma endimeshc timc, gia kje k = 1, . . . , n 1
uprqei tk [0, 1] ste F (tk ) = nk . Jtoume t0 = 0 kai tn = 1: tte F (t0 ) = 0 = n0
kai F (tn ) = 1 = nn . Parathrste ti tk < tk+1 gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. An gia
kpoio k eqame tk tk+1 , tte ja parname
Z tk
Z tk+1
Z tk
Z tk+1
k
k+1
=
f (x)dx =
f (x)dx +
f (x)dx
f (x)dx =
,
n
n
0
0
tk+1
0
to opoo enai topo. 'Ara, 0 = t0 < t1 < < tn = 1 kai
Z tk+1
Z tk+1
Z tk
1
k+1 k
f (x)dx =
f (x)dx
=
f (x)dx =
n
n
n
tk
0
0
gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
3.
'Estw f : [0, 1] R suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti uprqei s [0, 1] ste

Z 1
f (s)
.
f (x)x2 dx =
3
0
Updeixh. Smfwna me to jerhma mshc timc tou Oloklhrwtiko Logismo, an

h f : [0, 1] R enai suneqc kai h mh arnhtik sunrthsh g : [0, 1] R enai
oloklhrsimh, uprqei s [0, 1] ste
Z 1
Z 1
f (x)g(x)dx = f (s)
g(x)dx.
0
Efarmste to parapnw gia thn g(x) = x .

2
4.
Upojtoume ti h f : [0, 1] R enai suneqc kai ti

Z x
Z 1
f (t)dt =
f (t)dt
0
gia kje x [0, 1]. Dexte ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x [0, 1].
Updeixh. Ap thn upjesh petai ti
Z x
Z
2
f (t)dt =
0
f (t)dt
Rx
gia kje x [0, 1]. Dhlad, h sunrthsh F : [0, 1] R me F (x) = 0 f (t)dt enai
stajer. Afo h f enai suneqc, h F enai paragwgsimh kai F 0 (x) = f (x) gia
kje x [0, 1]. Afo h F enai stajer, qoume F 0 0. 'Ara, f (x) = 0 gia kje
x [0, 1].
'Estw f, h : [0, +) [0, +). Upojtoume ti h h enai suneqc kai h f enai
paragwgsimh. Orzoume
Z f (x)
F (x) =
h(t)dt.
5.
61
Dexte ti F 0 (x) = h(f (x)) f 0 (x).
Ry
Updeixh. Afo h h enai suneqc, h sunrthsh G(y) = 0 h(t)dt enai paragwgsimh
sto [0, +) kai G0 (y) = h(y). Parathrste ti F (x) = G(f (x)) = (Gf )(x). Afo
h f enai paragwgsimh, efarmzontac ton kanna thc alusdac parnoume
F 0 (x) = G0 (f (x)) f 0 (x) = h(f (x)) f 0 (x).
6.
'Estw f : R R suneqc kai stw > 0. Orzoume
x+
g(x) =
f (t)dt.
x
Dexte ti h g enai paragwgsimh kai brete thn g 0 .

Updeixh. Grfoume
x+
g(x) =
x+
f (t)dt
f (t)dt =
x
pou
f (t)dt = H1 (x) H2 (x),

0
x+
H1 (x) =
f (t)dt
kai
H2 (x) =
f (t)dt.
0
To epiqerhma thc prohgomenhc 'Askhshc deqnei ti oi H1 , H2 enai paragwgsimec,

H10 (x) = f (x + ) kai H20 (x) = f (x ) (an 0 > x + 0 > x , to sumprasma
Ra
Rb
exakolouje na isqei: jumhjete th smbash b f = a f ). 'Epetai ti g 0 (x) =
f (x + ) f (x ).
7.
'Estw g, h : R R paragwgsimec sunartseic. Orzoume

g(x)
t2 dt.
G(x) =
h(x)
Dexte ti h G enai paragwgsimh sto R kai brete thn G0 .

Updeixh. Grfoume
g(x)
G(x) =
h(x)
t2 dt =
Z
0
g(x)
t2 dt
h(x)
t2 dt.
Afo oi g, h enai paragwgsimec kai h f (t) = t2 enai suneqc, h G enai paragwgsimh sto R (dete tic prohgomenec do Askseic) kai G0 (x) = g 2 (x)g 0 (x)
h2 (x)h0 (x).
8.
'Estw f : [1, +) R suneqc sunrthsh. Orzoume

Z x
x
dt.
f
F (x) =
t
1
Brete thn F 0 .

Updeixh. Jtoume u = xt . Tte, dt = ux2 du kai
F (x) =
x
'Ara,
F (x) =
1
9.
(u)
du =
u2
x
1
(u)
du = x
u2
(u)
(x)
du + x 2 =
u2
x
Z
1
(u)
du.
u2
(x)
(u)
du +
.
u2
x
'Estw f : [0, a] R suneqc. Dexte ti, gia kje x [0, a],

Z x
Z x Z u
f (u)(x u)du =
f (t)dt du.
0
Updeixh. Jewrste tic sunartseic

Z x
Z
f (u)(x u)du = x
F (x) =
0
f (u)u du
kai
Z
G(x) =
0
Z
f (u)du
0
x

Z
f (t)dt du =
R(u)du,
pou
Z
R(u) =
f (t)dt.
0
Afo h f enai suneqc sto [0, a], to prto jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko
Logismo deqnei ti oi F, G kai R enai paragwgsimec. Epshc,
Z x
Z x
0
F (x) =
f (u)du + xf (x) f (x)x =
f (u)du
0
kai
G0 (x) = R(x) =
Z
f (t)dt =
f (u)du.
0
'Ara,
(G F )0 (x) = G0 (x) F 0 (x) =
Z
f (u)du
f (u)du = 0.
0
'Epetai ti h G F enai stajer sto [0, a]. Parathrntac ti F (0) = G(0) = 0,

sumperanoume ti G F sto [0, a]. Dhlad,

Z x
Z x Z u
f (u)(x u)du =
f (t)dt du
0
gia kje x [0, a].

'Estw a, b R me a < b kai f : [a, b] R suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh.
An P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} enai diamrish tou [a, b], dexte ti
10.
n1
X
k=0
Z
|f (xk+1 ) f (xk )|
a
|f 0 (x)| dx.
63
Updeixh. Gia kje k = 0, . . . , n 1, h f enai suneqc paragwgsimh sto [xk , xk+1 ].
Ap to detero jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo (gia th suneq
sunrthsh f 0 ) qoume
Z xk+1
Z xk+1

|f (xk+1 ) f (xk )| =
f 0 (x) dx
|f 0 (x)| dx.
xk
xk
'Ara,
n1
X
|f (xk+1 ) f (xk )|
k=0
n1
X Z xk+1
|f 0 (x)| dx =
xk
k=0
|f 0 (x)| dx.
'Estw f : [0, +) [0, +) gnhswc axousa, suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh

me f (0) = 0. Dexte ti, gia kje x > 0,
11.
f (x)
f 1 (t) dt = xf (x).
f (t) dt +
0
Updeixh. Jewrome tic sunartseic L, R : [0, +) [0, ) me

x
Z
L(x) =
f (x)
f 1 (t) dt kai R(x) = xf (x).
f (t) dt +
0
Oi L, R enai paragwgsimec (exhgste giat) kai L(0) = 0 = R(0). Parathrste

ti
L0 (x) = f (x) + f 1 (f (x)) f 0 (x) = f (x) + xf 0 (x) = R0 (x)
gia kje x 0. 'Epetai ti L(x) = R(x) gia kje x 0.
Omda B'
'Estw f : [0, 1] R suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh me f (0) = 0. Dexte ti

gia kje x [0, 1] isqei
12.
Z
1/2
1
0
|f (x)|
|f (t)| dt
Updeixh. H f 0 enai suneqc, ra enai oloklhrsimh. Qrhsimopointac thn f (0) =

0, to detero jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo kai thn anisthta CauchySchwarz, gia kje x [0, 1] grfoume
Z x
Z x

0

|f (x)| = |f (x) f (0)| =
f (t)dt
|f 0 (t)| 1 dt
0
Z
1/2 Z
|f (t)| dt
0
Z
0
1
0
|f (t)| dt
0
1/2
.
1/2 Z
2
1 dt
=
0
x
0
|f (t)| dt
1/2

'Estw f : [0, +) R suneqc sunrthsh me f (x) 6= 0 gia kje x > 0, h
opoa ikanopoie thn
Z x
2
f (x) = 2
f (t)dt
13.
gia kje x 0. Dexte ti f (x) = x gia kje x 0.

Updeixh. An upojsoume ti h f enai paragwgsimh, tte paragwgzontac ta do
mlh thc
Z x
()
f (x)2 = 2
f (t)dt
0
parnoume
2f (x)f 0 (x) = 2f (x)
gia kje x > 0, kai qrhsimopointac thn upjesh ti f (x) 6= 0 gia kje x > 0
sumperanoume ti f 0 (x) = 1 gia kje x > 0. Ap thn () blpoume (jtontac
x = 0) ti f (0) = 0, ra
Z x
Z x
f (x) = f (0) +
f 0 (t)dt =
dt = x
0
gia kje x 0. Mnei na dexoume ti h Rf enai paragwgsimh. Ap thn () kai thn

x
f (x) 6= 0 qoume: gia kje x > 0 isqei 0 f (t)dt > 0 kai
f (x) = g(x) :=
sZ
f (t)dt
sZ
f (x) = h(x) := 2
f (t)dt.
Afo h f enai suneqc kai den mhdenzetai sto (0, +), to jerhma endimeshc
timc deqnei ti ete f g sto [0, +) f h sto [0, +). H deterh
perptwsh
Rx
apokleetai, afo h h parnei arnhtikc timc sto (0, +) kai 0 f (t)dt > 0 gia
kje x > 0. 'Ara,
sZ
x
f (t)dt
f (x) = g(x) := 2
0
gia kje x 0. Afo h f enai suneqc, petai ti h g (dhlad, h f ) enai paragwgsimh.

14.
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Dexte ti
Z
lim
f (x) cos(nx)dx = 0 kai
Z
lim
f (x) sin(nx)dx = 0.
a
Updeixh. Afo h f 0 enai suneqc, mporome na efarmsoume oloklrwsh kat

mrh:
Z
f (x) cos(nx)dx =

f (x)
sin(nx)
n
0
dx
f (b) sin(nb) f (a) sin(na)

1
n
n
Z
a
f 0 (x) sin(nx)dx.
65
H f 0 enai suneqc sto [a, b], ra uprqei M > 0 ste |f 0 (x)| M gia kje
x [a, b]. 'Epetai ti

f (b) sin(nb) f (a) sin(na) |f (a)| + |f (b)|

0

n
n
kai
Z

Z
1 b

M (b a)
1 b 0

0
f
(x)
sin(nx)dx
|f (x)|dx
0

n a
n a
n
kajc to n . Sunepc,
Z
lim
15.
kai moia,
f (x) cos(nx)dx = 0,
lim
Exetste wc proc th sgklish tic akoloujec

Z
Z
an =
sin(nx)dx kai bn =
0
f (x) sin(nx)dx = 0.
a
| sin(nx)|dx.
Updeixh. Grfoume
Z
an =
sin(nx)dx =
0
cos(nx)
n
0
dx =
cos 0 cos(n)
.
n
'Ara, |an | 2/n gia kje n N. 'Epetai ti an 0 kajc to n . Gia thn

(bn ) knoume thn antikatstash y = nx:
Z
Z
1 n
bn =
| sin(nx)| dx =
| sin y| dy.
n 0
0
Parathrste ti
(k+1)
Z
| sin y| dy =
| sin y| dy
0
gia kje k Z (knte thn antikatstash y = k + u). 'Ara,
bn
n1 Z
1 X (k+1)
| sin y| dy
n
0
k=0 k
Z
n1 Z
1X
=
| sin y| dy =
| sin y| dy
n
0
k=0 0
Z
=
sin y dy = cos(0) cos() = 2
1
n
| sin y| dy =
gia kje n N. 'Epetai ti bn 2.

'Estw f : [0, +) R suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Dexte ti uprqoun
suneqec, axousec kai jetikc sunartseic g, h : [0, +) R ste f = g h.
16.

Updeixh. Ja qrhsimopoisoume to exc: an g, h : [0, +) R enai suneqec
sunartseic tte oi max{g, h} kai min{g, h} enai suneqec. Aut petai ap tic
max{g, h} =
g + h + |g h|
2
kai
g + h |g h|
.
2
min{g, h} =
H f : [0, +) R enai suneqc paragwgsimh, ra oi sunartseic

kai
g := max{f 0 , 0}
h := min{f 0 , 0}
enai suneqec kai mh arnhtikc sto [0, +). Epshc,
g h = max{f 0 , 0} + min{f 0 , 0} = f 0 .
Orzoume
Z
G1 (x) =
kai
g(t)dt
Z
H1 (x) =
h(t)dt.
0
Afo oi g, h enai suneqec kai mh arnhtikc, oi G1 , H1 enai paragwgsimec, axousec

kai G1 (0) = H1 (0) = 0. Ap ton trpo orismo touc kai ap to detero jemelidec
jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo blpoume ti
Z x
Z x
G1 (x) H1 (x) =
(g(t) h(t)) dt =
f 0 (t)dt = f (x) f (0)
0
gia kje x 0. Orzoume
G(x) = 1 + |f (0)| + G1 (x)
kai
H(x) = 1 + |f (0)| f (0) + H1 (x).
Tte, oi G, H enai paragwgsimec, axousec, jetikc kai
G(x) H(x) = G1 (x) H1 (x) + f (0) = f (x)

gia kje x 0. Dhlad, h f grfetai san diafor do suneqn, auxousn kai
jetikn sunartsewn sto [0, +).
Keflaio 6
Teqnikc Oloklrwshc
Omda A'
1.
Upologste ta aklouja oloklhrmata:

Z
Z
2x
2x2 + x + 1
dx
,
dx ,
x2 + 2x + 2
(x + 3)(x 1)2
Updeixh. (a) Grfoume

Z
2x
dx =
x2 + 2x + 2
3x2 + 3x + 1
dx.
x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1
2x
dx
(x + 1)2 + 1
kai qrhsimopoiome thn antikatstash y = x + 1.

(b) Anlush se apl klsmata. Zhtme a, b, c R ste
a
b
c
2x2 + x + 1
=
+
+
.
2
(x + 3)(x 1)
x + 3 x 1 (x 1)2
Elgxte ti a = 1, b = 1 kai c = 1.
(g) Parathrome ti x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)(x2 + x + 1) kai knoume anlush
se apl klsmata.
2.

Z
Z
Z
dx
dx
dx
,
,
,
3
4
x +1
x+ x
x x2 1
dx
.
1 + ex
Updeixh. (a) Parathrome ti x4 +1 = (x2 +1)2 2x2 = (x2 + 2x+1)(x2 2x+1)

kai knoume anlush se apl klsmata.
(b) Me thn antikatstash u = 6 x prokptei to oloklrwma

Z
Z
6u5
6u3
du
=
du
u3 + u2
u+1
to opoo upologzetai ekola (mporete na knete th na antikatstash y = u + 1).
68 Teqniks Oloklrwshs
u du
(g) Me thn antikatstash u = x2 1 qoume dx
x = u2 +1 , opte prokptei to
oloklrwma
Z
p
du
= arctan( x2 1) + c.
2
u +1
x
2
1
(d) Me thn antikatstash u = 1 + ex qoume du = 2e1+ex dx = u 2u
dx, opte
R 2du
prokptei to oloklrwma u2 1 , to opoo upologzetai ekola me anlush se apl
klsmata.
Z
Z
Z
3
3
2
cos x dx ,
cos x sin x dx ,
tan2 x dx ,
3.
dx
,
cos4 x
tan x dx .

Z
Z
Z
cos3 x dx = cos2 x cos x dx = (1 sin2 x)(sin x)0 dx
kai jtoume u = sin x.
(b) Grfoume
Z
Z
3
2
cos x sin x dx = cos2 x(1 cos2 x)(1)(cos x)0 dx
kai jtoume u = cos x.
(g) Grfoume
Z
Z
tan2 x dx =

1
1
dx = tan x x + c.
cos2 x
(d) Grfoume

0
Z
Z
Z
1
tan x
1
1
0
dx
=
(tan
x)
dx
=
tan
x
dx
cos4 x
cos2 x
cos2 x
cos2 x
Z
Z
tan x
2 sin x
tan x
2(1 cos2 x)
=
tan
x
dx
=
dx
2
3
2
cos x
cos x
cos x
cos4 x
Z
Z
tan x
1
1
=
2
dx + 2
dx.
2
4
cos x
cos x
cos2 x
'Epetai ti
Z
tan x
1
tan x
1
dx
=
+
2
dx =
+ tan x + c.
4
2
2
cos x
cos x
cos x
cos2 x
(e) Me thn antikatstash u = tan x parnoume

Z
1
1
1
u4 + 1
2
(tan
x
+
1)
dx
=
du =
dx
=
dx,
2u
2 tan x cos2 x
2 tan x
opte jewrome to
2u2
du,
u4 + 1
69
to opoo upologzetai me anlush se apl klsmata.
4.
Qrhsimopointac oloklrwsh kat mrh, dexte ti: gia kje n N,

Z
Z
dx
1
x
2n 1
dx
=
+
.
2
n+1
2
n
2
(x + 1)
2n (x + 1)
2n
(x + 1)n
Updeixh. Grfoume
Z
Z
Z
dx
1
x
x2
0
In =
=
(x)
dx
=
+
2n
dx
2
n
2
n
2
n
2
(x + 1)
(x + 1)
(x + 1)
(x + 1)n+1
Z
x
x2 + 1 1
=
+
2n
dx
2
n
(x + 1)
(x2 + 1)n+1
Z
Z
x
1
1
=
+
2n
dx
2n
dx
2
n
2
n
2
(x + 1)
(x + 1)
(x + 1)n+1
x
=
+ 2nIn 2nIn+1 .
2
(x + 1)n
'Epetai ti
In+1 =
5.
1
x
2n 1
+
In .
2n (x2 + 1)n
2n

Z
Z
Z
x2
1
dx
,
dx
,
x log x dx
(x2 4)(x2 1)
(1 + x)(1 + x2 )
Z
Z
Z
x
x cos x dx ,
e sin x dx ,
x sin2 x dx
Z
Z
Z
1
x+4
log(x + x) dx ,
dx
dx ,
2 + 1)(x 1)
2
(x
x 1x
Z
Z
Z
x
cos3 x
dx
dx ,
dx ,
.
2
2 + 2x + 2)2
1 + sin x
(x
sin x
Updeixh. (a) Anlush se apl klsmata.

(b) Anlush se apl klsmata.
(g) Oloklrwsh kat mrh:
Z
Z
Z
1
x2 log x 1
x2 log x x2
2 0
x log x dx =
(x ) log x dx =
x dx =
+ c.
2
2
2
2
4
(d) Oloklrwsh kat mrh:
Z
Z
Z
x cos x dx = x(sin x)0 dx = x sin x sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + c.
(e) Oloklrwsh kat mrh:
Z
Z
Z
x
x 0
x
I = e sin x dx =
(e ) sin x dx = e sin x ex cos x dx
Z
Z
= ex sin x (ex )0 cos x dx = ex sin x ex cos x + ex (cos x)0 dx
Z
= ex (sin x cos x) ex sin x dx = ex (sin x cos x) I.
'Epetai ti
ex sin x dx =
ex (sin x cos x)
+ c.
2
(st) Qrhsimopointac thn tautthta sin2 x = 1cos(2x)

parnoume
2
Z
Z
Z
x
cos(2x)
x sin2 x dx =
dx x
dx.
2
2
Gia to detero oloklrwma, qrhsimopoiste thn antikatstash u = 2x kai oloklrwsh kat mrh pwc sto (d).
(z) Me oloklrwsh kat mrh parnoume

Z
Z
Z
x
1
1+
dx.
log(x+ x) dx = (x)0 log(x+ x) dx = x log(x+ x)
x+ x
2 x
Katpin, efarmste thn antikatstash u = x.
udu
(h) Me thn antikatstash u = 1 x2 blpoume ti dx
x = u2 1 , opte katalgoume
sto
Z
1
du
u2 1
(j) Anlush se apl klsmata.
2y
2
(i) Jtoume y = tan x2 . Elgxte ti dx = 1+y
2 dy kai sin x = 1+y 2 . Anagmaste
tsi sto oloklrwma
Z
Z
1
2
1
2 arctan y
dy
=
4
arctan y
dy
2y 1 + y 2
(1
+
y)2
1 + 1+y
2

0
Z
1
= 4 arctan y
dy
1+y
Z
arctan y
1
= 4
+4
dy.
1+y
(1 + y 2 )(1 + y)
To teleutao oloklrwma upologzetai me anlush se apl klsmata.
(k) Grfoume
Z
Z
cos3 x
1 sin2 x
dx =
(sin x)0 dx
2
sin x
sin2 x
kai knoume thn antikatstash u = sin x.
(l) Antikatstash y = x + 1.
6.
Upologste ta oloklhrmata
Z
sin(log x) dx ,
1
log(1 x) dx.
x x
Updeixh. (a) An jsoume u = log x, tte dx = eu du kai katalgoume sto oloklrwma

Z
eu sin u du,
71
to opoo upologzetai me oloklrwsh kat mrh.
(b) Grfoume
0
Z
Z
1
1
log(1 x) dx = 2
log(1 x) dx
x
x x
Z
1
2 log(1 x)
1
dx.
2
=
x1x
x
To teleutao oloklrwma upologzetai me thn antikatstash u = x.

7.
Z
x arctan x
dx ,
(1 + x2 )2

Z
x arctan x
dx
(1 + x2 )2
xex
dx.
(1 + x)2
0
Z
1
1
arctan x dx
2
1 + x2
Z
1 arctan x 1
1
=
+
dx.
2 1 + x2
2
(1 + x2 )2
=
Gia to teleutao oloklrwma qrhsimopoiome ton anagwgik tpo thc 'Askhshc 4.

(b) Grfoume
0
Z
Z
xex
1
dx
=
xex dx
(1 + x)2
1+x
Z
xex
1
=
+
(xex )0 dx
1+x
1+x
Z
xex
1
=
+
(1 + x)ex dx
1+x
1+x
xex
=
+ ex + c.
1+x
8.
Z
ex
dx ,
1 + e2x
log(tan x)
dx.
cos2 x
Updeixh. (a) Me thn antikatstash u = ex anagmaste ston upologism tou

oloklhrmatoc rhtc sunrthshc.
(b) Me thn antikatstash u = tan x anagmaste ston upologism tou
Z
log u du = u log u u + c.
9.
Z 4
Z 4
x
tan3 x
dx
,
dx
cos2 x
cos3 x
0
4
Z 5
Z 4
p

2
x log
1 + x dx ,
x tan2 x dx.
0
Updeixh. Upologste prta ta arista oloklhrmata:
(a) Grfoume
Z
x
dx = x tan x
cos2 x
Z
tan x dx = x tan x + log(cos x) + c.
(b) Grfoume
tan3 x
dx =
cos3 x
(1 cos2 x) sin x
dx
cos6 x
kai knoume thn antikatstash u = cos x.
(g) Me thn antikatstash u = 1 + x2 anagmaste ston upologism tou

Z
u log u du,
to opoo upologzetai me oloklrwsh kat mrh.
(d) Grfoume
x tan2 x dx =
Z
x
1
dx
cos2 x
Z
x dx.
To prto oloklrwma upologsthke sto (a).

10.
Upologste ta aklouja embad:
(a) Tou qwrou pou brsketai sto prtotetarthmrio kai frssetai ap tic grafikc
parastseic twn sunartsewn f (x) = x, g(x) = x 2 kai ap ton x-xona.
(b) Tou qwrou pou frssetai ap tic grafikc parastseic twn sunartsewn f (x) =
cos x kai g(x) = sin x sto disthma [ 4 , 5
4 ].
Updeixh. (a) To embadn enai so me
Z
x dx +
( x x + 2) dx.
Exhgste giat kai upologste to.

(b) To embadn enai so me
5/4
(sin x cos x) dx.

/4
Exhgste giat kai upologste to.

Omda B'
11.
Z
Z
Z
Z
1 + sin x
1
x
1
dx
,
dx
dx ,
dx ,
2
2
1 cos x
sin x
(1 + x )
x 1 x2
Z
Z
Z
Z p
1
x
dx ,
x arctan x dx ,
dx ,
x2 1 dx.
(1 + x2 )2
x2 + 1
73
Updeixh. (a) Jtoume y = tan x2 . Elgxte ti dx =
2y
sin x = 1+y
2 . Anagmaste tsi sto oloklrwma
2
1+y 2 dy ,
cos x =
1y 2
1+y 2
kai
(1 + y)2
dy,
y 2 (1 + y 2 )

(b) Grfoume
Z
Z
1
sin x
dx =
dx
sin x
1 cos2 x
R
kai knontac thn antikatstash u = cos x anagmaste sto u211 du, to opoo
upologzetai me anlush se apl klsmata.
(g) Me thn antikatstash u = x2 + 1 anagmaste ston upologism tou
Z
1
du
1
=
+ c.
2
u2
2u
(d) Me thn antikatstash x = sin u anagmaste ston upologism tou
Z
1
du,
sin u
to opoo upologsthke sto (b).
(e) Qrhsimopoiome ton anagwgik tpo thc 'Askhshc 4.
(st) Me oloklrwsh kat mrh parnoume
Z
Z
x2
1
x2
x2
x 1
x arctan x dx =
arctan x
dx
=
arctan x + arctan x + c.
2
2
2
x +1
2
2 2
Gia thn teleutaa isthta parathrste ti
Z 2
Z
Z
Z
x +11
1
x2
dx =
dx = dx
dx.
x2 + 1
x2 + 1
x2 + 1
(z) Me thn antikatstash u = x2 + 1 anagmaste ston upologism tou
Z
du
= u + c.
2 u
2
+1
(h) Jtoume x2 1 = (x t)2 . Isodnama, x = t 2t
. Tte, dx =
2
1t
x t = 2t , opte anagmaste ston upologism tou
(t2 1)2
dt.
4t3
12.
Upologste to oloklrwma
Z
0
x sin x
dx.
1 + cos2 x
t2 1
2t2
dt kai
Updeixh. Me thn antikatstash y = x parnoume
Z
Z
Z
x sin x
( y) sin y
sin y
I=
dx
=
dy
=
dy I,
2x
2y
1
+
cos
1
+
cos
1
+
cos2 y
0
0
0
dhlad
Z

sin y
x sin x
dx =
dy.
2
2 0 1 + cos2 y
0 1 + cos x
To teleutao oloklrwma upologzetai me thn antikatstash u = cos y .
Z
13.
Z
sin x
dx.
sin x + cos x
Updeixh. H antikatstash y = 2 x dnei (exhgste giat)

Z 2
Z 0
Z /2
cos y
cos x
sin x
dx =
dy =
dx.
sin
x
+
cos
x
cos
y
+
sin
y
sin
x
+ cos x
/2
0
0
Afo
sin x
dx +
sin x + cos x
cos x
dx =
sin x + cos x
sumperanoume ti
sin x + cos x
dx = ,
sin x + cos x
2
sin x
dx = .
sin x + cos x
4
0
14.
Z
log(1 + tan x) dx.

0
Updeixh. H antikatstash y = 4 x dnei

Z /4
Z /4
I=
log(1 + tan x) dx =
log(1 + tan(/4 y)) dy.
0
Parathrste ti
tan
1 tan y
y =
,
4
1 + tan y
ra,
1 + tan

4

y =
2
.
1 + tan y
Sunepc,
Z
I=
/4
/4
log(1 + tan x) dx =
0

log
2
1 + tan y
dy
/4
(log 2 log(1 + tan y)) dy
=
0
(log 2)
I.
4
75
'Epetai ti
(log 2)
.
8
I=
15.
Dexte ti to genikeumno oloklrwma

Z
xp dx
0
den enai peperasmno gia kanna p R.

Updeixh. Diakrnoume trec periptseic: an p > 1 tte
Z
Z M
M p+1 1
p
x dx = lim
xp dx = lim
= +.
M + 1
M +
p+1
1
An p < 1 tte
Z
0
x dx = lim+
0
Tloc, an p = 1 tte
Z
xp dx =
xp dx = lim+
0
1 p+1
= +.
p+1
1
dx = lim log M = +.
M +
M + 1
x
1
R
Se kje perptwsh, petai ti to genikeumno oloklrwma 0 xp dx apeirzetai.
16.
lim
Upologste ta aklouja genikeumna oloklhrmata:
xex dx ,
dx
,
1 x2
log x dx .
0
Updeixh. (a) Gia kje M > 0 qoume
x2
xe
0
M
2
1 eM
1 x2
dx = e
=
.

2
2
0
'Epetai ti
xex dx = lim
1 eM
1
= .
M
2
2
xex dx = lim
(b) Gia kje s (0, 1) qoume

s
Z s

dx
= arcsin x = arcsin s arcsin 0 = arcsin s.

1 x2
0
0
'Epetai ti
Z 1
0
dx
= lim
s1
1 x2
Lgw summetrac,
dx
= lim arcsin s = arcsin 1 = .
2
s1
1 x2
dx
= .
1 x2
(g) Gia kje (0, 1) qoume
'Epetai ti
Z
1

log x dx = x log x x = 1 log + .
log x dx = lim ( log + 1) = 1.
log x dx = lim
0+
17.
0+
Dexte ti, gia kje n N,
ex xn dx = n!
Updeixh. Me epagwg: gia n = 0 qoume

= 1.
dx = e
An n N, tte, gia kje M > 0 qoume
ex xn dx =
M
Z

(ex )0 xn dx = ex xn + n
ex xn1 dx.
Afnontac to M blpoume ti
Z
Z
In =
ex xn dx = n
ex xn1 dx = nIn1 .
An loipn upojsoume ti In1 = (n 1)!, tte In = n (n 1)! = n!.

18.
Brete ta ria
3 x6
x3
lim x e
1
lim
x0+ x4
t2
e dt ,
x+
x2
et sin t dt.
Updeixh. (a) Me thn antikatstash y = x3 blpoume ti arke na upologsoume to

Z y
2
2
lim yey
et dt.
y+
Efarmzoume ton kanna tou L Hospital:
R
y
0
et dt
0
(ey2 /y)0
2ey2
ey
1
1
=
2 y 2
2
ey2 /y 2
tan y +. 'Ara,
3 x6
lim x e
x+
x3
et dt =
1
.
2
77
(a) Me thn antikatstash y = x2 blpoume ti arke na upologsoume to
Z y
1
lim+ 2
et sin t dt.
y0 y
0
Efarmzoume ton kanna tou L Hospital:
Ry
0
et sin t dt
(y 2 )0
tan y 0+ . 'Ara,
1
lim
x0+ x4
Z
0
0
=
ey sin y
1
2y
2
x2
et sin t dt =
1
.
2
Keflaio 7
Jerhma Taylor
'Estw p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn polunumo bajmo n kai stw a R. Dexte
ti uprqoun b0 , b1 , , bn R ste
1.
p(x) = b0 + b1 (x a) + + bn (x a)n
gia kje x R.
Dexte ti
bk =
p(k) (a)
,
k!
k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
Updeixh. Me epagwg. Gia n = 1 mporome na gryoume p(x) = a0 + a1 x =

a0 + a1 a + a1 (x a) = p(a) + a1 (x a) kai na jsoume b0 = p(a), b1 = a1 .
Gia to epagwgik bma parathrste ti p(x) p(a) = (a1 x + + an xn ) (a1 a +
+ an an ) = (x a)p1 (x), pou p1 polunumo bajmo n 1. To p1 grfetai
sth morf b1 + b2 (x a) + + bn (x a)n1 (ap thn epagwgik upjesh) opte
p(x) = p(a) + (x a)p1 (x) = b0 + b1 (x a) + + bn (x a)n , me b0 = p(a).
Pn
Paragwgzontac blpoume ti p(k) (x) = s=k s(s 1) (s k + 1)bs (x a)sk ,
opte p(k) (a) = [k(k 1) 1]bk = k!bk .
Gryte kajna ap ta paraktw polunuma sth morf b0 + b1 (x 3) + +
bn (x 3)n :
2.
p1 (x) = x2 4x 9,
p2 (x) = x4 12x3 + 44x2 + 2x + 1,
p3 (x) = x5 .
Gia kje ma ap tic paraktw sunartseic, na breje to polunumo Taylor Tn,f,a

pou upodeiknetai.
3.
(T3,f,0 )
(T2n+1,f,0 )
(Tn,f,0 )
(T4,f,0 )
(T6,f,0 )
(T5,f,1 )
:
:
:
:
:
:
f (x) = exp(sin x).

f (x) = (1 + x2 )1 .
f (x) = (1 + x)1 .
f (x) = x5 + x3 + x.
f (x) = x5 + x3 + x.
f (x) = x5 + x3 + x.
80 Jerhma Taylor
'Estw n 1 kai f, g : (a, b) R sunartseic n forc paragwgsimec sto
x0 (a, b) ste f (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) = = f (n1) (x0 ) = 0, g(x0 ) = g 0 (x0 ) = =
g (n1) (x0 ) = 0 kai g (n) (x0 ) 6= 0. Dexte ti
4.
lim
xx0
f (x)
f (n) (x0 )
= (n)
.
g(x)
g (x0 )
f (n) (x0 )
(xx0 )n kai Tn,g,x0 (x)
n!
Rn,g,x0 (x)
lim
= 0. Sunepc,
n
xx0 (xx0 )
Updeixh. Parathrste ti Tn,f,x0 (x) =
x0 )n . Epshc, lim
xx0
Rn,f,x0 (x)
(xx0 )n
f (x)
lim
= lim
xx0 g(x)
xx0
f (n) (x0 )
n!
f (n) (x0 )
n!
Rn,f,x0 (x)
(xx0 )n
Rn,f,x0 (x)
(xx0 )n
g (n) (x0 )
(x
n!
f (n) (x0 )
.
g (n) (x0 )
'Estw n 2 kai f : (a, b) R sunrthsh n forc paragwgsimh sto x0 (a, b)

ste f (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) = = f (n1) (x0 ) = 0 kai f (n) (x0 ) 6= 0. Dexte ti:
5.
(a) An o n enai rtioc kai f (n) (x0 ) > 0, tte h f qei topik elqisto sto x0 .
(b) An o n enai rtioc kai f (n) (x0 ) < 0, tte h f qei topik mgisto sto x0 .
(g) An o n enai perittc, tte h f den qei topik mgisto ote topik elqisto sto
x0 , all to x0 enai shmeo kampc gia thn f .
Updeixh. Parathrste ti Tn,f,x0 (x) =
lim
xx0
f (n) (x0 )
(x
n!
x0 )n , sunepc,
f (x)
Tn,f,x0 (x) + Rn,f,x0 (x)
f (n) (x0 )
= lim
=
.
n
n
xx0
(x x0 )
(x x0 )
n!
(a) An f (n) (x0 ) > 0, tte h f kont sto x0 qei to dio prshmo me thn (x x0 )n kai
afo o n enai rtioc sumperanoume ti f (x) 0 kont sto x0 . Afo f (x0 ) = 0, h
f qei topik elqisto sto x0 .
(b) An f (n) (x0 ) < 0, tte h f kont sto x0 qei antjeto prshmo ap thn (x x0 )n
kai afo o n enai rtioc sumperanoume ti f (x) 0 kont sto x0 . Afo f (x0 ) = 0,
h f qei topik mgisto sto x0 .
(g) Upojtoume ti f (n) (x0 ) > 0. Douleontac pwc sta (a) kai (b), kai qrhsimopointac thn upjesh ti o n enai perittc, blpoume ti uprqei > 0 ste
f (x) < 0 sto (x0 ) kai f (x) > 0 sto (x0 , x0 + ). 'Ara, h f den qei topik
mgisto ote topik elqisto sto x0 .
To dio akribc isqei gia thn f 00 . Parathrste prta ti n 3 (enai perittc
kai megalteroc soc tou 2). Jewrntac thn g = f 00 blpoume ti g (n2) (x0 ) > 0
kai lec oi prohgomenec pargwgoi thc g mhdenzontai sto x0 . 'Ara, h g = f 00 qei
diaforetik prshmo se perioqc arister kai dexi tou x0 , to opoo shmanei ti to
x0 enai shmeo kampc gia thn f .
An f (x) = ln x, x > 0, brete thn plhsisterh eujea kai thn plhsisterh
parabol sto grfhma thc f sto shmeo (e, 1).
6.
Updeixh. Zhtme ta T1,f,e (x) kai T2,f,e (x). Afo f (e) = 1, f 0 (e) = 1e kai f 00 (e) =
x
x
1
2
e12 , sumperanoume ti T1,f,e (x) = 1 + xe
e = e kai T2,f,e (x) = e e2 (x e) .
81
7.
Brete to polunumo Taylor Tn,f,0 gia th sunrthsh

Z x
2
f (x) =
et dt,
(x R).
0
Updeixh. Ap to anptugma thc ekjetikc sunrthshc, gia kje x R qoume

n
X
(1)k t2k
et =
k!
k=0
pou
+ gn (t)
|gn (t)|
'Ara,
Z
f (x) =
et dt =
et
(t2 )n+1 .
(n + 1)!
Z
n
X
(1)k
k!
k=0
t2k dt +
gn (t)dt.
0
Parathrome ti
Z x

2
2

ex |x|2n+3
ex
2n+2

t
dt
.
gn (t) dt
(n + 1)! 0
(n + 1)!(2n + 3)
Jtoume
P2n+1 (x) =
Z
n
X
(1)k
k=0
k!
t2k dt =
n
X
(1)k x2k+1
k=0
k!(2k + 1)
Tte,

Z x
2

f (x) P2n+1 (x) 1
ex |x|2n+3

=

g
(t)
dt
n

x2n+2
|x|2n+2 (n + 1)!(2n + 3) 0
x2n+2
0
tan x 0. Ap ton qarakthrism tou poluwnmou Taylor Ts,f,0 petai ti
T2n+1,f,0 (x) = T2n+2,f,0 (x) = P2n+1 (x) =
n
X
(1)k x2k+1
k=0
k!(2k + 1)
Brete to polunumo Taylor Tn,f,0 gia th sunrthsh f : R R pou orzetai wc

exc: f (0) = 0 kai
2
f (x) = e1/x ,
x 6= 0.
8.
Updeixh. (a) Parathrste ti f 0 (x) =
f 0 (0) = lim
x0
2 1/x2
x3 e
kai
1 1/x2
y
e
= lim y2 = 0.
y
x
e
(b) H deterh pargwgoc thc f , all kai kje pargwgoc thc f enai thc morfc

2
1
(k)
f (x) = Pk
e1/x , x 6= 0
x
82 Jerhma Taylor
pou Pk polunumo. Dexte to me epagwg.
2
(g) Dexte ti limy P (y)ey = 0 gia kje polunumo P (y) kai, ap to (b),
sumpernate ti f (k) (0) = 0 gia kje k = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Prgmati,

2
2
1
1
(k+1)
e1/x = lim yPk (y)ey
f
(0) = lim Pk
y
x0 x
x
kai h sunrthsh y 7 yPk (y) enai polunumo.
(k)
Pn
'Epetai ti Tn,f,0 (x) = k=0 f k!(0) xk = 0 gia kje x R.
Qrhsimopointac to anptugma Taylor thc sunrthshc arctan x (1 x 1)
upologste to jroisma
X
1
(1)n n
.
3 (2n + 1)
n=0
9.
Updeixh. Gnwrzoume ti arctan x =
n x2n+1
n=0 (1) 2n+1
an 1 x 1. Sunepc,
X
1
1
1
arctan =
(1)n
.
n
2n
+1
3 n=0
3 3
'Epetai ti
1
1
3
(1) n
= 3 arctan =
.
3 (2n + 1)
6
3
n=0
'Estw f : R R peirec forc paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti

f 000 = f kai f (0) = 1, f 0 (0) = f 00 (0) = 0.
(a) 'Estw R > 0. Dexte ti uprqei M = M (R) > 0 ste: gia kje x [R, R]
kai gia kje k = 0, 1, 2, . . .,
|f (k) (x)| M.
10.
(b) Brete to polunumo Taylor T3n,f,0 kai, qrhsimopointac to (a) kai opoiondpote
tpo upolopou, dexte ti
X
x3k
f (x) =
(3k)!
k=0
gia kje x R.
Updeixh. (a) Ap thn upjesh ti f 000 = f blpoume ti, gia kje k = 0, 1, 2 . . ., h
f (k) enai kpoia ap tic f , f 0 , f 00 . Oi treic autc sunartseic enai paragwgsimec,
ra suneqec. Sunepc, an stajeropoisoume R > 0 tte kajema ap tic f , f 0 , f 00
enai fragmnh sto [R, R]. Dhlad, uprqei M = M (R) > 0 ste |f (x)| M ,
|f 0 (x)| M kai |f 00 (x)| M gia kje x [R, R]. 'Epetai ti, gia kje x
[R, R] kai gia kje k = 0, 1, 2, . . .,
|f (k) (x)| M.
(b) 'Eqoume f (3k) (0) = 1, f (3k+1) (0) = 0 kai f (3k+2) (0) = 0 gia kje k = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
'Ara,
3n
n
X
f (s) (0) s X 1 3k
T3n,f,0 (x) =
x =
x .
s!
(3k)!
s=0
k=0
83
'Estw x R. Stajeropoiome R > |x| kai jewrome thn stajer M = M (R) ap
to (a). Isqei
(3n+1)

f
() 3n+1

|R3n,f,0 (x)| =
x

(3n + 1)!
gia kpoio metax twn 0 kai x. Afo || |x| < R, qoume |f (3n+1) ()| M .
'Ara,
M
|R3n,f,0 (x)|
|x|3n+1 .
(3n + 1)!
Me to kritrio tou lgou blpoume ti h akolouja tou dexio mlouc sugklnei sto
0. 'Ara, R3n,f,0 (x) 0 tan n . 'Epetai ti
f (x) = lim T3n,f,0 (x) =

n
X
x3k
.
(3k)!
k=0
To x R tan tuqn, opte qoume to zhtomeno.

Brete proseggistik tim, me sflma mikrtero tou 106 , gia kajnan ap
touc arijmoc
1
sin 1, sin 2, sin , e, e2 .
2
11.
12.
kai
(a) Dexte ti
1
1
= arctan + arctan
4
2
3
1
1
= 4 arctan arctan
.
4
5
239
(b) Dexte ti = 3.14159 (me lla lgia, brete proseggistik tim gia ton
arijm me sflma mikrtero tou 106 ).
Keflaio 8
Kurtc kai kolec

sunartseic
Omda A'
'Estw f, fn : I R. Upojtoume ti kje fn enai kurt sunrthsh kai ti

fn (x) f (x) gia kje x I . Dexte ti h f enai kurt.
1.
Updeixh. 'Estw x, y I kai stw t [0, 1]. Ap thn upjesh qoume fn (x) f (x),
fn (y) f (y) kai fn ((1 t)x + ty) f ((1 t)x + ty) tan to n . Ap thn
kurtthta twn fn qoume
fn ((1 t)x + ty) (1 t)fn (x) + tfn (y)

gia kje n N. 'Ara,
f ((1 t)x + ty)
=
=
lim fn ((1 t)x + ty) lim ((1 t)fn (x) + tfn (y))
(1 t) lim fn (x) + t lim fn (y) = (1 t)f (x) + tf (y).

n
Afo ta x, y I kai t [0, 1] tan tuqnta, h f enai kurt.

'Estw {fn : n N} akolouja kurtn sunartsewn fn : I R. Orzoume
f : I R me f (x) = sup{fn (x) : n N}. An h f enai peperasmnh panto sto I ,
tte h f enai kurt.
2.
Updeixh. 'Estw x, y I kai stw t [0, 1]. Ap ton orism thc f kai thn kurtthta
twn fn , gia kje n N qoume
fn ((1 t)x + ty) (1 t)fn (x) + tfn (y) (1 t)f (x) + tf (y).
O arijmc (1 t)f (x) + tf (y) enai nw frgma tou sunlou {fn ((1 t)x + ty) :
n N}, ra
f ((1 t)x + ty) (1 t)f (x) + tf (y).
Afo ta x, y I kai t [0, 1] tan tuqnta, h f enai kurt.
'Estw f, g : R R kurtc sunartseic. Upojtoume akma ti h g enai axousa.
Dexte ti h g f enai kurt.
3.
86 Kurts kai koles sunartseis

Updeixh. 'Estw x, y R kai stw t [0, 1]. Afo h f enai kurt, qoume
f ((1 t)x + ty) (1 t)f (x) + tf (y).

H g enai axousa, ra
(g f )((1 t)x + ty) = g(f ((1 t)x + ty)) g((1 t)f (x) + tf (y)).
Afo h g enai kurt, qoume
g((1 t)f (x) + tf (y)) (1 t)g(f (x)) + tg(f (y)) = (1 t)(g f )(x) + t(g f )(y).
Sunduzontac tic do teleutaec anisthtec parnoume
(g f )((1 t)x + ty) (1 t)(g f )(x) + t(g f )(y).

Afo ta x, y R kai t [0, 1] tan tuqnta, h g f enai kurt.
4.
'Estw f : I R kurt sunrthsh. Dexte ti
f (x1 + ) f (x1 ) f (x2 + ) f (x2 )

gia kje x1 < x2 I kai > 0 gia to opoo x1 + , x2 + I .
Updeixh. Diakrnoume treic periptseic:
(a) x1 + < x2 : Efarmzontac to lmma twn trin qordn gia ta x1 < x1 + < x2
kai x1 + < x2 < x2 + , parnoume
f (x1 + ) f (x1 )
f (x2 ) f (x1 + )
f (x2 + ) f (x2 )
x2 x1
Sunepc, f (x1 + ) f (x1 ) f (x2 + ) f (x2 ).

(b) x2 < x1 + : Efarmzontac to lmma twn trin qordn gia ta x1 < x2 < x1 +
kai x2 < x1 + < x2 + , parnoume
f (x1 + ) f (x1 )
f (x1 + ) f (x2 )
f (x2 + ) f (x2 )
x1 + x2
Sunepc, f (x1 + ) f (x1 ) f (x2 + ) f (x2 ).

(g) x2 = x1 + : To zhtomeno petai mesa ap to lmma twn trin qordn gia ta
x1 < x2 = x1 + < x2 + .
'Estw f : [a, b] R kurt sunrthsh. Dexte me na pardeigma ti h f den enai
anagkastik sunrthsh Lipschitz se olklhro to [a, b], akma kai an upojsoume
ti h f enai fragmnh. Epshc, dexte ti h f den enai anagkastik suneqc sto
[a, b].
Updeixh. (a) H f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = 1 x enai kurt kai fragmnh sunrthsh.

Den enai mwc Lipschitz suneqc sto [0, 1]. Parathrste ti
5.
|f (x) f (0)|
1
= + kajc to x 0+ .
|x 0|
x
87
(b) Elgxte ti h f : [1, 1] R me f (x) = x2 tan 1 < x < 1 kai f (1) =
f (1) = 2 enai kurt sunrthsh. 'Omwc, den enai suneqc sta kra tou [1, 1].
'Estw f : (a, b) R kurt sunrthsh kai (a, b). Dexte ti:
(a) an h f qei olik mgisto sto tte h f enai stajer.
(b) an h f qei olik elqisto sto tte h f enai fjnousa sto (a, ) kai axousa
sto (, b).
(g) an h f qei topik elqisto sto tte qei olik elqisto sto .
(d) an h f enai gnhswc kurt, tte qei to pol na shmeo oliko elaqstou.
6.
Updeixh. (a) Upojtoume ti h f qei olik mgisto sto . Tte, f (x) f ()

gia kje x (a, b). Epilgoume tuqnta x1 , x2 (a, b) me x1 < < x2 . Yprqei
t (0, 1) ste = (1 t)x1 + tx2 . H f enai kurt, ra
f () (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ) (1 t)f () + tf () = f ().

Anagkastik, f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = f () (exhgste giat). 'Epetai ti f (x) = f () gia
kje x (a, b) (dhlad, h f enai stajer).
(b) Upojtoume ti h f qei olik elqisto sto . 'Estw a < x < y < . Uprqei
t (0, 1) ste y = (1 t)x + t . H f enai kurt kai f () f (y), ra
f (y) (1 t)f (x) + tf () (1 t)f (x) + tf (y),

ra (1 t)f (y) (1 t)f (x). Afo 0 < 1 t < 1, sumperanoume ti f (y) f (x).
Aut deqnei ti h f enai fjnousa sto (a, ). Me ton dio trpo elgqoume ti h f
enai axousa sto (, b).
(g) Upojtoume ti h f qei topik elqisto sto . Uprqei > 0 ste ( 2, +
2) (a, b) kai f (x) f () gia kje x ( 2, + 2).
Ac upojsoume ti gia kpoio y (, b) isqei f (y) < f (). Anagkastik,
qoume y + 2 . Uprqei t (0, 1) ste + = (1 t) + ty . Ap thn kurtthta
thc f parnoume
f () f ( + ) (1 t)f () + tf (y) < f ()

to opoo enai topo.
An upojsoume ti gia kpoio y (a, ) isqei f (y) < f (), katalgoume se
topo me ton dio trpo. 'Ara, h f qei olik elqisto sto .
(d) Upojtoume ti h f enai gnhswc kurt. 'Estw ti h f qei olik elqisto m
sta x < y . Tte,

x+y
f (x) + f (y)
m+m
<
=
=m
f
2
2
2
ap thn gnsia kurtthta thc f . Katalxame se topo, ra h f qei to pol na
shmeo oliko elaqstou.
'Estw f : R R kurt sunrthsh. An h f enai nw fragmnh, tte enai
stajer.
7.
Updeixh. 'Estw ti h f den enai stajer. Uprqoun x 6= y sto R me f (x) < f (y).
Diakrnoume do periptseic:

(a) x < y : 'Estw z > y . Tte,
f (z) f (y)
f (y) f (x)
,
yx
zy
dhlad
f (z) A(z) := f (y) +

Parathrste ti
f (y)f (x)
yx
> 0, ra
nw fragmnh.
(b) y < x: 'Estw z < y . Tte,
f (y) f (x)
(z y).
yx
lim A(z) = +. 'Epetai ti h f den enai
z+
f (x) f (y)
f (y) f (z)
,
yz
xy
dhlad
f (z) B(z) := f (y)

Parathrste ti
f (x)f (y)
xy
< 0, ra
nw fragmnh.
f (x) f (y)
(y z).
xy
lim B(z) = +. 'Epetai ti h f den enai
Dexte ti kje kurt sunrthsh orismnh se fragmno disthma enai ktw

fragmnh.
8.
Updeixh. 'Estw I na fragmno disthma kai stw f : I R kurt sunrthsh.

Jewrome tuqnta a < b sto eswterik tou I . Orzoume g : I R me
g(x) = f (a) +
f (b) f (a)
(x a).
ba
H g enai grammik kai sumpptei me thn f sta a kai b. Dexte diadoqik ta exc:
(i) H g enai ktw fragmnh sto I : uprqei m R ste g(x) m gia kje
x I.
(ii) An x I kai x < a x > b, tte f (x) g(x) m.
(iii) H f parnei elqisth tim m0 sto [a, b].
(iv) H f enai ktw fragmnh sto I : gia kje x I isqei h f (x) min{m, m0 }.
'Estw f : (0, +) R kolh, axousa, nw fragmnh kai paragwgsimh
sunrthsh. Dexte ti
lim xf 0 (x) = 0.
9.
x+
Updeixh. H f enai axousa kai nw fragmnh, ra uprqei to lim f (x) = ` R.

x+
'Epetai ti
lim
f (x) f
x
= 0.
2
Gia kje x > 0 efarmzoume to jerhma mshc timc sto [x/2, x]: uprqei x
(x/2, x) ste
x
x
f (x) f
= f 0 (x ) .
2
2
x+
89
Afo h f enai kolh, h f 0 enai fjnousa (kai mh arnhtik, giat h f enai axousa).
'Ara,
f 0 (x ) f 0 (x) 0.
Ap tic prohgomenec sqseic blpoume ti

x
0 xf 0 (x) 2 f (x) f
0.
2
'Ara, lim xf 0 (x) = 0.
x+
Omda B'
10.
tte
Dexte ti an h f : (0, +) R enai kurt kai x1 , . . . , xm , y1 , . . . , ym > 0,

(x1 + + xm )f
y1 + + ym
x1 + + xm
m
X

xi f
i=1
yi
xi

.
Dexte ti h f (x) = (1 + xp )1/p enai kurt sto (0, +) tan p 1, kai sumpernate
ti
m
X
1/p
((x1 + + xm )p + (y1 + + ym )p )
(xpi + yip )1/p .

i=1
Updeixh. Jtoume S = x1 + + xm kai efarmzoume thn anisthta tou Jensen

wc exc: afo h f enai kurt kai
y1 + + ym
x1 y1
xm ym
+ +
,
=
S
S x1
S xm
parnoume

f
y1 + + ym
x1 + + xm

=f
y1 + + ym
S

m
X
xi
yi
f
.
S
x
i
i=1
Pollaplasizontac ta do mlh autc thc anisthtac ep S parnoume to zhtomeno.

'Estw p 1. Tte, h f (x) = (1+xp )1/p enai kurt sto (0, +): aut prokptei
1
an paragwgsoume do forc. 'Eqoume f 0 (x) = xp1 (1 + xp ) p 1 kai
1
f 00 (x) = (p1)xp2 (1+xp ) p 1 (p1)x2p2 (1+xp ) p 2 = (p1)xp2 (1+xp ) p 2 0.

Parathrome ti
p 1/p
((x1 + + xm ) + (y1 + + ym ) )

= (x1 + + xm )f
y 1 + + ym
x1 + + xm

.
Efarmzontac thn anisthta tou prtou erwtmatoc blpoume ti h teleutaa posthta frssetai ap
m
X
i=1

xi f
yi
xi

=
m
X
i=1

xi
yp
1 + ip
xi
1/p
=
m
X
i=1
(xpi + yip )1/p .

Dexte ti h sunrthsh sin x enai kurt sto [0, ]. Qrhsimopointac to
dexte ti h mgisth permetroc n-gnou pou eggrfetai sto monadiao kklo enai
2n sin(/n).
11.
Updeixh. 'Eqoume ( sin x)00 = sin x 0 sto [0, ], ra h f (x) = sin x enai kurt
sto [0, ].
'Estw T na n-gwno pou eggrfetai sto monadiao kklo. An 1 , . . . , n enai
oi epkentrec gwnec pou antistoiqon stic pleurc tou kai `1 , . . . , `n enai ta mkh
twn pleurn tou, tte
i
2
`i = 2 sin
gia kje i = 1, . . . , n.
'Ara, h permetroc P tou T isotai me
P =2
n
X
sin
i=1
Pn
i
.
2
Pn
'Omwc, i=1 i = 2 , ra i=1 2i = . H g(x) = sin x enai kurt sto [0, ] kai
i /2 [0, ] gia kje i = 1, . . . , n. Ap thn anisthta tou Jensen,

sin
1 n
1 1
+ +
n 2
n 2
n
X
1
i
sin ,
n
2
i=1
dhlad,
n
1X
i
sin
sin
n i=1
2
2
2n
'Ara,
P =2
n
X
i=1
12.
sin
2n sin .
2
n
'Estw 1 , 2 , . . . , n jetiko arijmo. Dexte ti

n
(1 + 1 )(1 + 2 ) (1 + n ) 1 + (1 2 n )1/n .
Updeixh. Jtoume xi = ln i (i = 1, . . . , n). Gia na dexoume thn

n
(1 + 1 )(1 + 2 ) (1 + n ) 1 + (1 2 n )1/n
arke na dexoume ti
1+e
x1 ++xn
n
n
(1 + ex1 )(1 + ex2 ) (1 + exn ),
, isodnama,
n

x1 ++xn
1X
n
ln 1 + e
ln(1 + exi ).
n i=1
91
H teleutaa anisthta prokptei ap thn anisthta tou Jensen, an dexoume ti
ex
h sunrthsh g(x) = ln(1 + ex ) enai kurt. Parathrste ti g 0 (x) = 1+e
x kai
ex
00
g (x) = (1+ex )2 0. 'Epetai to zhtomeno.
Omda G'
13.
'Estw f : I R jetik kolh sunrthsh. Dexte ti h 1/f enai kurt.
Updeixh. 'Estw x, y I kai stw t (0, 1). Jloume na dexoume ti
1t
t
1
(1 t)f (y) + tf (x)
1
+
0,
f (x)
f (y) f ((1 t)x + ty)
f (x)f (y)
f ((1 t)x + ty)
h opoa isqei an kai mno an
A := f ((1 t)x + ty) ((1 t)f (y) + tf (x)) f (x)f (y).

Afo h f enai kolh, qoume
A ((1 t)f (x) + tf (y))((1 t)f (y) + tf (x))

= [(1 t)2 + t2 ]f (x)f (y) + t(1 t)[f 2 (y) + f 2 (x)]
[(1 t)2 + t2 ]f (x)f (y) + t(1 t) 2f (x)f (y)
= f (x)f (y),
pou, sto proteleutao bma, qrhsimopoisame thn a2 + b2 2ab.

'Alloc trpoc: 'Eqoume f1 = exp ln f1 . Afo h exp enai kurt kai axousa, arke
na dexoume ti h ln f1 enai kurt ('Askhsh 4). 'Omwc, ln f1 = ln f , opte arke na
dexoume ti h ln f enai kolh. Afo h f enai kolh kai h ln enai kolh kai axousa,
epiqerhma moio me aut thc 'Askhshc 4 deqnei ti h ln f enai kolh.
14.
'Estw f : [0, 2] R kurt sunrthsh. Dexte ti gia kje k 1,

Z
1 2
f (x) cos kxdx 0.
0
Updeixh. 'Eqoume
Z
1 2
f (x) cos kx dx =
0
1
k
1
k
2k
f
0
k1
X
m=0
y
k
cos y dy
2m+2
y
k
2m
cos y dy

k1 Z
1 X 2
y + 2m
f
cos y dy.
k m=0 0
k

Gia kje m = 0, . . . , k 1, h sunrthsh gm (y) = f y+2m
enai kurt sto [0, 2]
k
(exhgste giat). Arke loipn na dexoume ti an g : [0, 2] R enai mia kurt
R 2
sunrthsh tte 0 g(x) cos x dx 0 (to zhtomeno, gia k = 1). Grfoume
Z 2
Z /2
Z
g(x) cos x dx =
g(x) cos x dx +
g(x) cos x dx
=
/2
3/2
g(x) cos x dx +
g(x) cos x dx.

3/2

Knontac tic allagc metablhtc y = x, z = x , w = 2 x blpoume ti
/2
g(x) cos x dx =
g( y) cos y dy
/2
3/2
/2
g(x) cos x dx =
g(z + ) cos z dz
0
/2
g(2 w) cos w dw,
g(x) cos x dx =
3/2
ra
/2
[g(x) g( x) g( + x) + g(2 x)] cos x dx.
g(x) cos x dx =
0
An 0 x /2 tte x x + x 2 x. H g enai kurt, ra
g( x) g(x)
g(2 x) g( + x)
.
( x) x
(2 x) ( + x)
'Omwc, ( x) x = 2x = (2 x) ( + x). 'Ara,
g(x) g( x) g( + x) + g(2 x) 0.
R 2
Afo cos x 0 sto [0, /2], petai ti 0 g(x) cos x dx 0.
'Estw f : (a, b) R suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti h f enai kurt an kai
mno an
Z h
1
f (x)
f (x + t)dt
2h h
15.
gia kje disthma [x h, x + h] (a, b).

Updeixh. Upojtoume prta ti h f enai kurt. 'Estw x (a, b) kai h > 0 gia to
opoo [x h, x + h] (a, b). Gia kje t [0, h] qoume
f (x)
f (x + t) + f (x t)
2
ap thn kurtthta thc f . Parathrste ti

Z h
Z h
Z
f (x + t)dt =
f (x + t) dt +
h
(f (x + t) + f (x t)) dt
0
2f (x) dt
0
2hf (x).
Dhlad,
()
f (x t) dt
1
f (x)
2h
f (x + t) dt.
h
93
Antstrofa, ac upojsoume ti h suneqc sunrthsh f : (a, b) R ikanopoie thn
() gia kje disthma [x h, x + h] (a, b). 'Estw [x, y] (a, b). H f parnei
mgisth tim sto [x, y] (lgw sunqeiac). Ac upojsoume ti aut h mgisth tim
den pinetai se kpoio ap ta x y . Dhlad, uprqei c (x, y) ste f (z) f (c)
gia kje z [x, y] kai max{f (x), f (y)} < f (c). Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac
upojtoume ti h = c x y c. Tte, h mgisth tim thc f sto [c h, c + h]
parnetai sto shmeo c kai f (c h) = f (x) < f (c). Afo h f enai suneqc sto
[c h, c + h], sumperanoume ti
f (c + t) dt < 2h f (c).
h
Tte, h upjesh () odhge se topo: qoume
f (c)
1
2h
f (c + t) dt < f (c).
h
'Eqoume loipn dexei to exc:

Isqurismc. An h suneqc sunrthsh f : (a, b) R ikanopoie thn
() gia kje disthma [x h, x + h] (a, b), tte gia kje disthma
[x, y] (a, b) h mgisth tim thc f sto [x, y] parnetai se kpoio ap ta
kra tou [x, y].
Qrhsimopointac to parapnw ja dexoume ti h f enai kurt. 'Estw x < y sto
(a, b). Jewrome th grammik sunrthsh ` : (a, b) R pou sumpptei me thn f sta
x kai y . Dhlad,
f (y) f (x)
`(z) = f (x) +
(z x).
yx
Parathrste ti
`(z) =
1
2h
`(z + t) dt
h
gia kje z (a, b) kai [z h, z + h] (a, b). 'Ara, h sunrthsh g := f ` ikanopoie

thn
Z h
1
g(z)
g(z + t) dt
2h h
gia kje z (a, b) kai [z h, z + h] (a, b). Ap ton isqurism, h g parnei th
mgisth tim thc sto [x, y] se kpoio ap ta x, y . 'Omwc, g(x) = f (x) `(x) = 0
kai, moia, g(y) = 0. 'Ara, f (z) `(z) gia kje z [x, y]. Isodnama, gia kje
t [0, 1] qoume
f ((1 t)x + ty) f (x) +
f (y) f (x)
[t(y x)] = (1 t)f (x) + tf (y).
yx
Afo ta x, y (a, b) kai t [0, 1] tan tuqnta, h f enai kurt.

'Estw f : (a, b) R kurt sunrthsh kai c (a, b). Dexte ti h f enai
paragwgsimh sto c an kai mno an
16.
lim
h0+
f (c + h) + f (c h) 2f (c)
= 0.
h

Updeixh. An h f enai paragwgsimh sto c, tte
f 0 (c) = lim+
h0
f (c h) f (c)
f (c h) f (c)
f (c + h) f (c)
= lim+
= lim+
,
h
h
h
h0
h0
ra
lim
h0+
f (c + h) + f (c h) 2f (c)
f (c + h) f (c)
f (c h) f (c)
= lim
+ lim
= 0.
+
+
h
h
h
h0
h0
Antstrofa, upojtoume ti
()
lim
h0+
f (c + h) + f (c h) 2f (c)
= 0.
h
Afo h f enai kurt, uprqoun oi pleurikc pargwgoi

0
f+
(c) = lim
h0+
f (c + h) f (c)
h
0
kai f
(c) = lim
h0+
f (c h) f (c)
.
h
Afairntac kat mlh parnoume

0
0
f+
(c) f
(c) = lim
h0+
f (c + h) + f (c h) 2f (c)
.
h
0
0
Ap thn (), to teleutao rio enai so me 0. 'Ara, f+
(c) = f
(c). Sunepc, h f
enai paragwgsimh sto c.
'Estw f : [0, +) kurt, mh arnhtik sunrthsh me f (0) = 0. Orzoume

F : [0, +) R me F (0) = 0 kai
17.
1
F (x) =
x
f (t)dt.
0
Dexte ti h F enai kurt.

Updeixh. 'Estw x > 0. Knontac thn allag metablhtc t = xs blpoume ti
F (x) =
1
x
Z
f (t) dt =
f (xs) ds.
0
'Estw x, y > 0 kai t [0, 1]. Ap thn kurtthta thc f qoume
f ([(1 t)x + ty]s) (1 t)f (xs) + tf (ys)

gia kje s [0, 1]. 'Ara,
Z
F ((1 t)x + ty)
f ([(1 t)x + ty]s) ds
=
0
Z
(1 t)
Z
f (xs) ds + t
(1 t)F (x) + tF (y).
f (ys) ds
0
95
Epshc, qrhsimopointac tic f (0) = 0 kai F (0) = 0 blpoume ti: gia kje x > 0
kai gia kje t [0, 1],
Z
F ((1 t)0 + tx)
f ([(1 t)0 + tx]s) ds
=
0
Z
(1 t)
Z
f (0) ds + t
f (xs) ds
0
= tF (x) = (1 t)F (0) + tF (x).

Ap ta parapnw petai ti h F enai kurt.

ΑΠΕΙΡΟΣΤΙΚΟΣ ΛΟΓΙΣΜΟΣ ΙΙ 2010-2011 ΑΣΚΗΣΕΙΣ

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ΑΠΕΙΡΟΣΤΙΚΟΣ ΛΟΓΙΣΜΟΣ ΙΙ 2010-2011 ΑΣΚΗΣΕΙΣ

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Askseic Apeirostiko Logismo II

Upakoloujec kai akoloujec

Seirc pragmatikn arijmn

Pargwgoc kai Oloklrwma

Kurtc kai kolec sunartseic

Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc

2 Upakoloujes kai akoloujes Cauchy

Kje upakolouja miac sugklnousac akoloujac sugklnei.

ak1 ak2 akn ,

ak1 < ak2 < < akn < .

Swst. Sthn 'Askhsh 15 paraktw apodeiknetai ti an h akolouja (an ) den

Uprqei fragmnh akolouja pou den qei sugklnousa upakolouja.

Ljoc. Ap to jerhma BolzanoWeierstrass, kje fragmnh akolouja qei sugklnousa upakolouja.

An h (an ) den enai fragmnh, tte den qei fragmnh upakolouja.

An an 0 tte uprqei upakolouja (akn ) thc (an ) ste n2 akn 0.

'Estw (an ) mia akolouja. Dexte ti an a an kai mno an oi upakoloujec

Updeixh. Upojtoume ti oi upakoloujec (a2k ) kai (a2k1 ) sugklnoun ston a.

(b) H (an ) sugklnei.

4 Upakoloujes kai akoloujes Cauchy

'Epetai ti x = y = z . Afo oi (a2k ) kai (a2k1 ) qoun to dio rio, h 'Askhsh 11

Updeixh. Deqnoume diadoqik ta exc:

b a = lim a2n1 lim a2n = lim (a2n1 a2n ) = 0.

(d) an a = b: sto (g) edame ti

a = lim a2n = lim a2n1 = b.

Ap thn 'Askhsh 11 petai ti h (an ) sugklnei kai

a = sup{a2n : n N} = inf{a2n1 : n N}.

Updeixh. Smfwna me ton qarakthrism tou oriako shmeou akoloujac, arke na

Updeixh. Dexte tic isodunamec (1) (2) (3) (4):

Updeixh. (=) Upojste prta ti an a. An (akn ) enai mia upakolouja thc

(=) Me apagwg se topo: upojste ti h (an ) den sugklnei ston a. Ap thn

Orzoume mia akolouja (an ) me a1 > 0 kai

(i) Upojste ti 0 < a1 < 3. Dexte diadoqik ta exc:

lim a2k1 = 3. Ap thn 'Askhsh 11 petai ti an 3.

(ii) Exetste me ton dio trpo thn perptwsh a1 > 3.

(iii) Tloc, dexte ti an a1 = 3 tte qoume an = 3 gia kje n N.

6 Upakoloujes kai akoloujes Cauchy

Brete to antero kai to kattero rio twn akoloujin

Updeixh. (a) Parathrste ti 1 n1 an 1 + n1 gia kje n N. An

Ap ta parapnw prokptei ti lim sup bn 1 (diti b6k 1) kai lim inf bn 1

'Estw (an ), (bn ) fragmnec akoloujec. Dexte oti

lim inf an + lim inf bn

Updeixh. H mesaa anisthta isqei profanc. Deqnoume th dexi anisthta (h

x = lim akn lim sup an .

bkn = (akn + bkn ) akn lim sup(an + bn ) x.

lim sup(an + bn ) x lim sup bn .

lim sup(an + bn ) x + lim sup bn lim sup an + lim sup bn .

Updeixh. H mesaa anisthta isqei profanc. Deqnoume thn dexi anisthta (h

an < an1 (x + ) < an2 (x + )2 < < ak (x + )nk =

an M (x + )n gia kje n > k.

8 Upakoloujes kai akoloujes Cauchy

Qrhsimopoiome aut thn anisthta wc exc: jewrome upakolouja ( sn asn ) thc

To > 0 tan tuqn, ra

'Estw (an ) fragmnh akolouja. Dexte oti

lim sup(an ) = lim inf an kai

lim inf(an ) = lim sup an .

'Estw (an ) fragmnh akolouja. An

X = {x R : x an gia peirouc n N},

Qrhsimopointac thn anisthta

|an+1 an | |an an1 |,

Dexte ti h (an ) enai akolouja Cauchy.

|am am1 | + + |an+1 an |

10 Upakoloujes kai akoloujes Cauchy

Dhlad, h (an ) enai akolouja Cauchy.

n 2. Exetste an h (an ) enai