Lighting Calculations in the LED Era

James R Benya, PE, FIES, FIALD

Developed for Cree LED Lighting
May 15, 2011
With Addendum May 22, 2011
Revision June 6, 2011
Final version June 30, 2011

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

Abstract
For decades, lighting calculations have been the backbone of lighting designs for almost all lighting
applications, indoors and out. Good practice in illuminating engineering dictates that the designer
uses photometric data that is adjusted to meet the conditions of the intended application by
accounting for temperature, dirt, and variations of components. With LED lighting systems, the
photometric test method (absolute photometry) differs from conventional source lighting (relative
photometry). In order to properly predict the performance of an LED lighting system and to
compare results to competing conventional lighting systems, designers must be particularly careful
to use appropriate factors in addition to properly using the two different photometric data formats.
A discussion of each of the factors and examples of comparative calculations are provided.

Introduction
Calculations to predict lighting system performance are fundamental to the practice of lighting
design and illuminating engineering. These calculations allow one to predict lighting performance
and whether the design meets current performance recommendations. Practitioners use both
simple and advanced methods, but in either case, the input must include all of the proper data and
adjustments relative to the project.
Until the advent of solid-state lighting (SSL or LED), lighting calculations evolved with the
presumption that components could vary within the luminaire. Luminaire photometric testing is
performed in a laboratory using a reference lamp and ballast, and then factors are applied to
compensate for the actual lamps, ballasts and physical conditions of the design. These factors, called
light loss factors (LLF), are scalar multipliers that account for differences in performance between
the laboratory and field.
There are two types of factors. Non-recoverable light loss factors are differences inherent to the
lamp, ballast, room surfaces and thermal environment because the differences are always evident.
Recoverable light loss factors are differences caused by lamp aging and effects of atmosphere, dirt,
location, and other degrading environmental factors that can be recovered with new lamps and a
good cleaning of the luminaire and room.
Solid-state lighting is the first generation of lighting equipment in which user-replaceable or
interchangeable lamps are not desirable. Not only does very long life virtually eliminate the need for
relamping, solid-state light sources require very specific mounting to meet precise thermal and
optical requirements. Compared to traditional luminaires, solid-state lighting luminaires are better
seen as complete assemblies. Both photometric testing and application calculations must be done
differently. Many emerging solid-state lighting systems have important differences relative to
conventional lighting and to fairly compare competing technologies, apples-to-apples comparisons
are needed. The use of photometrics and factors is different with solid-state lighting and their
proper use in achieving proper calculation results is a key reason for this paper.

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

Calculations in Lighting Design

Introduction
General Concepts
When designing lighting installations, one of the most significant requirements is to provide an
appropriate quantity of light. The design target quantity is typically chosen from an IES publication
such as the IES Lighting Handbook or one of IES Recommended Practices. The designer who may
be an architect, engineer, lighting designer or specialist, or one of many other roles uses
calculations to confirm that the design meets the desired quantity without being significantly above
or below the target. Effective calculations can be simple, but many prefer computer calculations. In
either case, the designer must choose appropriate photometric data and then must adjust it to suit
project conditions.
Photometric Data
Photometric data for each luminaire type is determined in a test laboratory. There are independent
laboratories as well as in-house laboratories in larger lighting companies. To make a test, the
luminaire is mounted in a black room and light meter readings are taken at points at all angles about
the luminaire. Each data point represents the candlepower of the luminaire at a specific angle. The
result is a data file in a specific IES format. A complete test report includes all of the data and several
summaries and derived data charts, including a Coefficient of Utilization (CU) table.
Photometric data is typically obtained from the luminaire manufacturers website. Free softwarei
can be used to view the data and to produce reports such as CU tables. Manufacturers may also
produce printed photometric reports and it is common to have the CU table for the luminaire on the
catalog cut sheet.
Lumen Method Calculations
The lumen method is a hand calculation method for predicting the performance of a general lighting
system providing reasonably uniform illumination. It can also be used by an experienced designer
for non-uniform lighting, although the results could be misleading. The method entails four steps:
For a given space, determine the room cavity ratio (RCR) and reflectance of the surfaces of
the space.
Choose a lighting system (luminaire) and obtain photometric reports including a CU table.
Determine the CU of the lighting system from RCR and reflectance.
Determine the applicable lumen adjustment and light loss factors (see below).
Solve the equation for either average illumination (footcandle or lux) level for a given
number of luminaires, or for the number of luminaires needed to meet a specific illumination
level.
The lumen method is convenient to use, requiring a basic calculator and a CU table, which is small
and simple enough to be printed on a luminaire catalog sheet. The CU table is derived from a full
photometric test report, and it is acceptably accurate for predicting the average illumination in a
room. However, this method cannot predict specific illumination levels nor the variance of light
levels in the space.
Radiosity and Ray Tracing Calculations
Computer calculations for predicting lighting system performance are significantly more accurate
than the lumen method. In general, computer methods predict the illumination at specific points in
the space (point-by-point illumination) permitting a detailed evaluation of lighting performance.

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

Most software programs offer a number of other calculation types and features, including a
perspective rendering of the illuminated space.
There are two primary types of calculation methods. Radiosity is a fast calculation method that
assumes all room surfaces have a matte (lambertian) finish. This assumption permits the
computation using radiative transfer functions from surface to surface. In a simple room, a lighting
system performance can be computed in seconds, and a rudimentary rendering can be generated in
under a minute using a typical Windows XP computer.
Raytracing is a comparatively slow calculation method in which a large number of rays of light are
traced from the light source, reflection by reflection, until diminished. Raytracing takes into account
both the matte and specular reflections of every surface, and for each reflection to be carefully
followed according to the surface from which it came. In a simple room, raytracing can produce
acceptable results in a few minutes, but exceptionally nice images renderings can take hours of
computational time on a typical Windows XP computer. Some software programs employ radiosity
for speedy calculations of most of the lighting effects and then perform a raytracing layer in order
to create more realistic images.
In either case, input to the program consists of a complete description of the space in three
dimensions complete with furniture, ceilings and walls. For each luminaire, its location is specified
as well as its photometric aiming. Each luminaires characteristic photometric report is part of the
program input. The lighting program allows photometric adjustment factors for each luminaire
type.
Lighting software requires special training and experience. With modest training, calculations of
rectangular box-shaped spaces can be very quick. Conversely, allowing for enough time, computer
calculations can produce impressive reports and renderings.

Conventional Practice
Relative photometry
When making a photometric test for conventional lighting systems, a reference lamp is placed in each
socket and, with the exception of incandescent lamps, the lamp socket(s) are rewired to a reference
ballast. The reference lamp(s) and reference ballast(s) are operated at specific temperature and
voltage, such that the results of the test are relative to reference components. Because of the
calibration of the lamp and ballast, detailed information about the luminaire can be derived from the
data. For example, it is possible to calculate the efficiency of the luminaire by dividing the measured
light output by the rated lamp lumens.
The primary reason for relative testing is to permit the interchange of lamps and ballasts with
different output but dont change the way light is emitted by the luminaire. In other words, all of the
candlepower values can be multiplied by a single value that represents the ratio of the real lamp and
ballast to the reference lamp and ballast. For instance, assume a photometric report prepared for a
luminaire using 2900 lumen T-5 lamps. However, high performance 3125 lumen lamps are to be
used. All of the candlepower values are multiplied by (3125/2900) or 1.077.
Note that the rated initial lamp lumens from the catalog are used in calculations.
Using photometric reports
For hand calculations, a photometric report with CU table is needed, and can either be found on the
product cut sheet or determined using free photometric viewing software. For computer calculations
and to use the photometric viewing software, obtain the photometric data file from the
manufacturers website. Note that for one luminaire model, the manufacturer may have a number of
photometric tests involving different options that affect light distribution such as different lenses or
different numbers of lamps.

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

Simplified calculation theory

Whether hand calculated or done on a computer, lighting calculations result in quantities
(footcandles, lux, nits, etc.) that are proportionate to the amount of light being emitted from the
luminaires. If the quantity of emitted light changes, so does the measured lighting performance in a
proportionate amount. But the pattern of light does not change unless there are multiple lighting
systems and they are not all changed to the same amount.
The light output of a luminaire can be higher or lower than the reference measurements in the
laboratory. The light output in the test report is multiplied by light loss factors. A light loss factor
(LLF) is a number that multiplies the candlepower or lumen values in the calculation. For instance,
many designers use a generic LLF of 0.75, which means that the luminaire is emitting 75% of its
originally tested light output. It is possible for LLF to be >1, which means that the luminaire is
emitted more light than its originally tested light output. A factor having no impact is 1.0. Most
factors, however, are less than 1, indicating a loss of light compared to the originally tested light
output.
Light loss factors multiply each other. For instance, if a luminaire has three light loss factors of 90%
(10% loss each), the total impact is 90% x 90% x 90% (0.9 x 0.9 x 0.9) = .729 or a combined loss of
27.1%. Light loss factors do not add.
Light Loss Factors
Light Loss Factors (LLF) are somewhat misnamed. They were once assumed to be factors that
reduced the amount of light when comparing the tested luminaire with the actual luminaire in the
application, but today, due to many technical advances, it is possible to have more light in the
application. Nonetheless, they are still called light loss factors. They are broken down into two
primary groups, non-recoverable LLF and recoverable LLF. Non-recoverable LLF are permanent
losses (or gains) that can only be changed by changing the component or application, such as using a
different ballast. Recoverable LLF are losses that can be recouped by using a fresh lamp or cleaning
dirt off the lamp, luminaire and/or interior surfaces.
In calculations, there are initial light level calculations and maintained light level calculations. In
general, initial light level calculations only include non-recoverable LLF, whereas maintained light
level calculations include recoverable and non-recoverable LLF.
Non-Recoverable Light Loss Factors
Non-recoverable LLF are factors that adjust the photometric data to compensate for the use of
specific lamps and ballasts. They also compensate for other persistent factors that affect light
output from the beginning of operation of the lighting system. Non-recoverable LLF include:
Ballast Factor (BF)
This factor accounts for the difference between
the reference ballast and an actual ballast
product to be used in the field. The standard T8 electronic ballast has a ballast factor of 87%
(0.87), which means that the ballast will cause
the lamp to produce 87% of its rated output.
This is an important and commonly used factor.
The ballast factor is generally given in the
ballast catalog or cut sheet. With magnetic
ballasts, a ballast factor is often used to
represent manufacturing tolerance rather than designed light output.

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

Ballast-Lamp photometric factor

This factor accounts for the mismatch between ballasts and lamps relative to temperature. It
is an uncommonly used factor as the other factors listed here are more often used.
Thermal Application Factor (TAF)
This factor accounts for the impact of temperature on light output. Temperature can be a
major consideration for parking garage and outdoor lighting and for many indoor spaces
where ambient temperatures are very low (like refrigerated storage or cases) or very high
(like unconditioned warehouse or industrial spaces). You can estimate the thermal
application factor from the lamps temperature curve and an educated estimate of ambient
air temperature. Note that TAF can be tricky. Take, for instance, a T-8 lamp troffer. The
luminaire is tested with the air around it at 25C (77F) but in reality, the temperature
around the lamp is probably about 35C. But we dont care, because the photometric data
already accounts for the actual lamp temperature in the fixture, and the TAF is 1.0. But place
the luminaire in a refrigerated room with an air temperature of 57F (15C) and what
happens? You might guess that the lamp operates in ambient air of around 25C, so that you
will get about 10% more light. A careful designer might choose a TAF of about 1.1 in this
case. The situation is complicated by T5 lamp technology. Since the T5 lamp is designed to
operate at peak with ambient air at 35C, many luminaires have been designed to operate as
close to this point as possible. But in the example above, the proper TAF for a cooler room
would be a 10% drop in light, or TAF = 0.90.
Voltage to Luminaire Factor
This factor is more applicable to incandescent lamps and magnetic ballasts. A voltage drop
of 2.5% to a 120-volt lamp results in nearly 9% light loss. It could be further reduced if a
dimmer, even operating at full output, is part of the circuit. However, with electronic
ballasts, this is no longer an issue for non-incandescent sources.
Heat extraction thermal factor
This factor was intended to address the beneficial effect of drawing return air through a
lensed fixture, dropping lamp temperature. Because of the diminished use of heat extraction
troffers due to lower lighting power density and fewer lamps, this factor is generally rolled
into the Application Thermal Factor, above.
Equipment operating factor
The power and light relationship of HID lamps is complex. This is one of two factors that
accommodate the relationship between power and light. This factor is generally used to
differentiate between rated lumens with horizontal or vertical arc tubes, before the fixture is
tilted. The rated lumens in both positions are generally presented in the lamp catalog.
Lamp position (tilt) factor
This factor is to further compensate for the tilting of HID lamps. This is a harder figure to
determine and must be estimated from manufacturers data and the estimated aiming angle
of the luminaire.
Luminaire surface depreciation factor
This factor is reserved for permanent luminaire deterioration that cant be recovered by
cleaning. This includes the deterioration of paints, plastics and metals. The better materials
used today make this factor of minimum interest unless the luminaire is exposed to an
atmosphere that corrodes or abrades the optical surfaces. But with increased lamp life
ratings of fluorescent lamps, this factor may become more relevant.
For most common lighting applications today, the ballast factor (BF) and the application thermal
factor (TAF) are the most prevalent.

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

Recoverable Light Loss Factors

Recoverable light loss factors represent loss of light due to lamp age and the accumulation of dirt.
Light levels can be recovered back to initial conditions when the luminaire is cleaned and
relamped. Thus, recoverable light loss factors are only applied in either mean or maintained light
level calculations. Mean light levels are the expected light level when lamps have reached 40% of
rated life. Maintained light levels are reached when lamps have reached their replacement time.
There are two types of lamp replacement practice, spot replacement and group replacement.
Spot replacement is becoming more common as the reduced number of lamps per unit area
makes individual tasks more susceptible to being in the dark when a lamp fails. However, group
replacement is far more cost effective. Because lamp life with conventional lamps is based on
mortality and not on light loss, maintenance becomes increasingly necessary as lamp life is
approached.
In conventional lighting systems, the ideal replacement time is determined from rated lamp life.
The best time for group replacement in commercial and industrial buildings is between 60 and
80% of rated lifeii as this will result in the fewest burnouts (about 5-15%) and is the considered
the economically best time. But care is needed; lamp life is directly related to the ballast
selection and operating application. The method of starting the lamp is determined by the
specific ballast circuit of which there are three primary methods:
Preheat
(program)
start

The cathode is pre-heated

for a brief period (up to 1
sec) followed by a voltage
pulse to commence the
main arc.

Longest lamp life

when often
switched

Rapid start

The cathodes are

continuously heated. Arc
is started by a voltage
pulse.

Long lamp life,

dimmable

Instant Start

Cathodes not heated. Arc

is started by a high voltage
pulse.

Instant response;
least temperature
sensitive. Most
energy efficient.
Least expensive.
Shortest lamp life
when switched
often; dimmable
over a small
range

When activated, there is a

slight delayed action. Adds
to the cost of the ballast.
Ballasts may be slightly less
energy efficient. Not
dimmable.
When activated, there is a
slight delayed action. Least
efficient. Latest versions
have heater cutout circuits to
improve efficiency.
Lamp life suffers
dramatically when frequently
switched.

The life of fluorescent lamps is now carefully presented as a function of ballast type and average
operating period per start. For example, the life of a premium lamp with an instant start ballast
might be 35,000 hours at 12 hours per start but only 18,000 hours at 3 hours per start. The same
lamp might only survive 7,500 hours at 45 minutes per start on this ballast. Hence the lamp life
being used must first be carefully determined from lamp, ballast and operating situation data.
The cleaning period of the luminaires is a separate issue and is determined by the space type and
maintenance period. With modern long life lamps, it should be shorter than the relamping cycle.

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

Following are the principal recoverable light loss factors:

Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD)
Lamp lumen depreciation is unique to
each lamp type and can differ even
among similar lamps. In the graph, the
lumen depreciation curves for three
lamps are shown. Note that T5
fluorescent lamps have a 92% lamp
lumen depreciation factor (loss of only
8%) for mean life (8,000 hours),
replacement life (14,000 hours) and
rated life (20,000 hours).
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD)
This factor accounts for accumulation of
dirt on the lens, lamp and reflecting surfaces. It can be determined using a relatively
sophisticated procedure in IES publications. However, with the cessation of smoking
indoors, the accumulation of dirt has dropped dramatically. Except for very dirty
environments and applications, this factor should be around 0.95-0.98.
Room Surface Dirt Depreciation (RSDD)
As with LDD, the change of laws involving indoor smoking has resulted in this factor being
very minor except in particularly dirty spaces for other reasons. It is common to leave it out
for most spaces now.
Lamp burnout factor (LBF)
This factor accounts for the percentage of unreplaced burnouts at a point in time, usually
just before replacement of lamps. This is often seen as a small factor, and is typically
ignored. But with the aggressive lamp life ratings promoted by state of the art fluorescent
lamps, their mortality curves need to be carefully evaluated relative to the ballast and
average operating period. A value of 95% (5 % burnout) is recommended for 70% lamp life
replacement and 85% for 80% lamp life replacement, with the specific replacement time
being set by the lamp and starting method.
For most common applications today, the lamp lumen depreciation factor is significant, the luminaire
and room surface depreciation factors less so. The burnout factor, however, is increasingly
significant due to the lamp life issues that can easily occur with motion sensors and instant start
ballasts.
Special Note: T5 lamps
The T5 lamp is designed to work best at 35 C, but reference lamp photometry is taken at 25C. Yet,
many luminaires actually contain lamp compartments that raise air temperature of the lamp. In these
cases, the photometry is adjusted so that the total luminaire efficiency is increased. Therefore, for
correct calculations, use the 25C lamp lumen values from the catalog, not the rated lumens at 35C.

Calculations Involving Solid State Lighting

Absolute Photometry
When making a photometric test for solid-state lighting systems, the luminaire to be tested is
mounted into the testing equipment. The testing equipment is calibrated to a reference source. The
luminaire is operated at specific temperature and voltage and the measurements represent the
absolute and actual performance of the luminaire. No effort is made to determine how much light
each LED emits. In other words, the luminaire is assumed to be 100% efficient. Do not attempt to

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

use individual LED lumen ratings in calculations the proper value is the total lumens in the
photometric report.
Using photometric reports
Photometric reports are used in just the same way as for conventional luminaires. These include the
typical candlepower tables and CU tables.
Simplified calculation theory
The calculation theory is similar to that of conventional luminaires. The primary difference, as will
be illustrated below, is that the light loss factors are a lot different.
Light Loss Factors
Solid-state lighting is measured as a fixed lamp and driver system. This eliminates the usefulness of
many of the classic light loss factors related to changing the lamp or ballast. Instead, there are
specific factors by which solid-state lighting is better addressed.
Non-Recoverable Light Loss Factors
For solid-state lighting, the non-recoverable light loss factors are:
Thermal Application Factor
The light emission from a solid-state luminaire is relatively constant over a wide
temperature range, as light is generally proportionate to device current (milliamps).
However, in good designs, device junction temperature is measured and if the device begins
to get too hot, the current is reduced, reducing light output but preserving lamp life. But the
reduction is not necessarily linear. It is necessary to assume the worst case, but to
determine the applicable factor; the manufacturer should provide the appropriate curve.
Note: LED rated lamp life is directly affected by temperature. Design lamp life can be plus or
minus; it may exceed rated lamp life when thermal advantages are realized.
Luminaire surface depreciation factor
As with current fluorescent lamps, if the luminaire is to last as long as promised, the
perseverance of the luminaire surfaces could become an issue. However, no data or studies
are available to help set a value.
Recoverable Light Loss Factors
For solid-state lighting, the recoverable light loss factors are similar to conventional lighting.
They include:
Lamp Lumen Depreciation
With solid-state lighting, the most significant light loss factor is lumen depreciation. It is
generally agreed that LED sources depreciate, and the current rating system, based on
accelerated aging tests and other factors, is that solid state lightings rated life is the point at
which the lumen depreciation is 30% (LLD=0.70). If comparing solid-state lighting with T8
or T5 fluorescent lamps at mean life, the approximate depreciation is about 12.5% (mean
lumens = 87.5% of initial). If relamping is to occur earlier, say 80% of rated life, the LLD
would be about 80%.
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation
This factor is virtually the same for any type of lighting.
Room Surface Dirt Depreciation
This factor is also the same for any type of lighting.

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

Burnout Factor
LED must be seen as a lamp whose actual mortality occurs long after the rated life.
Moreover, the rated life is not affected by control type, such that any LED lighting system can
be operated on any controls and still enjoy rated life. Thus, a burnout factor of 1.0 can be
used and the lamp life will be as rated or possibly even longer, subject to changes in life
caused by temperature (see above). This is a particularly interesting issue that is especially
impactful when comparing system economics (below).

10

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

Comparing an LED Lighting System to Conventional Fluorescent

and Compact Fluorescent Systems
Project Description
Solid-state lighting has rapidly advanced from curiosity to serious commercial and industrial lighting.
The problem is that manufacturers make claims that test common sense. The best way to determine
the accuracy of claims is photometric testing and analysis.
Office, retail and school spaces are an excellent situation for comparative analysis. In todays market,
solid-state lighting must compete with a variety of common fluorescent troffer and downlighting
systems. These systems are ubiquitous, comprising by type the majority of non-residential lighting
systems in North America. Any improvements in these luminaire types will be profound and serve as
one of the biggest weapons to combat energy use.
For ease of comparison, calculations are performed using the lumen method. The comparison space
for troffers is a single room, 33 feet 4 inches by 30 feet (1,000 sf) with a 9-foot ceiling. This space is
the most typical classroom size and is also representative of open office areas. A second comparison
space for troffers is a room 12 feet 6 inches by 8 feet (100 sf), representative of private offices and
small conference rooms. The room cavity ratio (RCR) of the former is about 2.0 and the latter, about
6.5. In both cases, the design level is 40 footcandles average maintained, a value I typically use
because it provides over 50 fc in the center of the room thus accommodating task E in much of the
space. It also ensures 30 footcandles in spaces with systems furniture and a furniture factor of 75%.
The final comparison space is a hallway 200 feet long and 5 feet wide (1000 sf) with a 9 ceiling,
representative of office and classroom corridors. The RCR is also about 6.5. Light level for design is
15 footcandles maintained.
All spaces have 80/50/20 reflectance. The maintenance cleaning period is assumed to be two years
and a 0.92 combined light loss due to dirt (RSDD x LDD). Relamping is assumed to be 70% of rated
lamp life for fluorescent lighting and 80% of rated lamp life for solid state lighting.
Troffers
We propose three systems for comparison:
A classic 2x4 lens troffer with 2-T8 lampsiii. Each fixture employs (2) generic 4100K 80 CRI
T8 lamps and a high performance program start ballast. The CU is 0.74 @ RCR=2 and 0.45 @
RCR=6.5. The generic lamp is 2950 lumens with LLD ~ .87 and the input power is 64 watts
@ BF = 1.0 and 72 @ 1.15. Lamp burnout factor is 0.95.
A state of the art 2x4 troffer with 2-T5 lampsiv. Each fixture employs (2) state of the art T5
lamps at 3050 lumens and a high performance program start electronic ballast. The CU is
0.82 @ RCR =2 and 0.50 @ RCR = 6.5. The high performance lamps is 3050 (2730 @ 25C)
lumens with LLD ~ .92 and the input power is 60 @ BF = .95 and 64 @ BF = 1.00. Lamp
burnout factor is 0.95.
A state of the art LED trofferv rated at 4000 lumens @ 36 watts. The CU is 0.92 @ RCR =2
and 0.55 @ RCR = 6.5. The LLD at 70% of rated life is about 0.79 with burnout factor of 1.
The results of basic lumen method calculations are presented in Table 1.

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

1
1

System

Lamps

Lumens

BF

LLD

LDD RSDD

Burnout

CU

Luminaires

Choose

Watts

Total watts

W/sf

FC final

Classroom
T8 lens

3000

0.77

0.87

0.92

0.95

0.74

14.31

15

48

720

0.72

39.0

T5 HP

2780

0.75

0.92

0.92

0.95

0.82

13.64

15

45

675

0.68

41.2

LED HP

4000

1.00

0.79

0.92

0.92

14.96

15

36

540

0.54

40.1

Office
T8 lens

3000

1.00

0.87

0.92

0.95

0.45

1.98

64

128

1.28

41.4

T5 HP

2780

0.85

0.92

0.92

0.95

0.5

2.11

60

120

1.20

38.0

LED HP

5000

1.00

0.79

0.92

0.55

2.00

50

100

1.00

40.0

Table 1 Comparison of Fluorescent and LED Troffer Lighting Systems in 1000 sf classroom and 100 sf office.

12

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

What is particularly impressive in this comparison is that at the time of first relamping either
fluorescent system (about 14,000-22,000 hours depending on the lamp) the lumen depreciation of
the LED system will only be about 8-10%, which means that the light level in the classroom will still
be about 56-58 footcandles, and in the office, about 44-46 footcandles. The relamping of the LED
system will occur at about 40,000 hours of operation, which will be up to 20 years after installation.
Downlights
For most commercial lighting involving downlights that are switched, dimmed and/or used for
emergency lighting, luminaires with compact fluorescent lamps have been used since the 1980s. But
the compact fluorescent lamp downlight has historically been problematic with many problems
including lamp overheating, poor dimming quality and short lamp life. The LED now poses a rational
option.
Downlights are typically used in hallways, lobbies and other spaces with high room cavity ratios. The
test case is a long corridor as might be found in a modern office building. The RCR is 6.5, and the
design level is 15 footcandles. A popular compact fluorescent lamp downlight vi is compared to a
state of the art LED downlight with a deep regress. Both have shielding between 45 and 50 making
them appropriate for commercial applications. A combined dirt depreciation factor of .95 is
assumed.
The compact fluorescent uses a 26-watt compact fluorescent lamp rated 1800 lumens. A nondimming ballast operates at 28 watts at BF = 1.0. Assuming no unusual temperature issues, the ATF
= 1.0 and the CU at RCR 6.5 = 0.43. The LLD for a compact fluorescent is typically about 0.85.
The LED luminaire is rated 1019 lumens with a CU @ RCR of 6.5 = 0.62. Its input power is 12.5 watts.
Because the results so favor the solid-state luminaire, an alternative design using a high efficiency
2x2 with a single 28 watt CFT40 lamp was offered. The results are as follows for the 1000 sf corridor.
System

Lamps

Lumens

BF

LLD

LDD
RSDD

Luminaires

Choose

Watts

Total
watts

W/sf

FC
final

CF26

1800

1.00

0.85

0.92

0.43

24.78

25

28

700

0.70

15

LED

1019

1.00

0.79

0.92

0.62

32.66

32

12.5

400

0.40

15

T5 2x2

2900

1.07

0.92

0.92

0.45

12.97

13

32

416

0.42

15

CU
Corridor

Table 2 Comparison of LED downlights to compact fluorescent lighting systems in corridor lighting
systems.

The maintenance cycle of the compact fluorescent lamp can be as short as 10,000 hours, compared to
40,000 hours or more with the solid state lighting.
As LED continues to increase in lumens per watt, it is foreseen that a 1350 lumen LED could easily be
implemented to create equal luminaire quantities to the 26-watt compact fluorescent with equivalent
or better savings than indicated above Likewise, a 2000 lumen LED downlight could be used to
reduce the number of luminaires by about 50%. However, designers may also consider an LED 1 x 1
or 2 x 2 luminaire to increase source area and reduce the potential for glare.

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

1
3

Related Considerations in Lighting Design

Color Considerations
Choosing interior architectural lighting
requires the consideration of color
temperature and color rendering quality.
With modern light sources including LED
and fluorescent, these are choices to be
made because color options are possible.
Correlated Color Temperature
The correlated color temperature (CCT) of
residential lighting is generally in the range
of 2700K to 3000K, but for commercial
lighting the more common choices are
3500K and 4100K. This is explained by the
Kruithof Curve, a chart representing color
temperature preference as a function of
light level. For most commercial lighting
situations, 3500K has been preferred because of
the light color favors human complexion.

Color temperature preference for

commercial lighting 200-800 lux

Figure 1 Commercial Lighting Levels 200-800 lux

and Kruithof Curve (Wikipedia)

Color Rendering Index

The color rendering index (CRI) generally describes the color quality of the lighting, with a best
quality at CRI = 100. Most fluorescent systems are between 80 and 85; the latest LED sources are
now providing CRI = 90, an important improvement for a number of applications .
Spectral Effects on Visibility
Research at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories (LBNL) has demonstrated improved
visibility of tasks at high color temperaturesvii. Berman believes that this is a result of changes to the
response of the eyes optical pupil, which reacts (through the endocrine system) to short
wavelengths and constricts, reducing visual noise and improving depth of field. IES does not
acknowledge this theory as a general method to reduce recommended light levelsviii, but the
phenomenon may be successfully used for many tasks.

Control Considerations
Starting and Restriking
LED and fluorescent lamps, as well as tungsten lamps, generally start immediately or within 1 second
and will restart immediately as well. Some fluorescent lamps require a warm up period, but it is
generally fairly rapid and full light is reached within a minute or two. HID lamps, however, require a
warm up period of several minutes and if extinguished, require a cooling off and restarting
(restrike) period of several minutes as well. Among state of the art lamps, LED exhibit the most
ideal characteristics.
Dimming
All lamps can be dimmed to operate at lower light levels. HID lamps are the worst, having the
poorest range and experiencing undesirable color shift. Fluorescent has a range dependent on the
ballast with a bottom level of less than 1%, with the risk of some color shift particularly in compact
fluorescent lamps. LED lamps can be dimmed smoothly to zero light with little or no color shift, a
superior characteristic. To dim lamps, dimming ballasts or drivers (see below) must be used.

14

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

Emergency Operations
Emergency lighting typically involves a lesser light level than normal with instant starting and
restriking characteristics. Both fluorescent and LED sources are acceptable emergency and
emergency/normal light sources permitting lower than normal power draw that could work well
with a battery pack inverter unit.

Energy Considerations
Ballast and Driver Losses
Most modern light sources have auxiliary devices that (a) convert incoming AC power and (b)
regulate current flow. For a fluorescent lamp, the device is called a ballast and for an LED, A
driver. Both drivers and ballasts exhibit power loss that reduces the luminous efficacy (lumens per
watt) of the system (see below). Presently, some fluorescent ballasts may be slightly more efficient
than comparable LED drivers, but the differences are small.
System Efficacy
The system efficacy of any conventional lighting system is defined as the product of the source
lumens, the ballast factor, and the luminaire efficiency, all divided by the input watts. With LED
(because of absolute photometry) the system efficacy is determined by measuring the total luminaire
lumens by input watts. System efficacy is indicative of overall efficiency but it neglects room
geometry, so it must be carefully used out of context. For instance, in the example above, the
compact fluorescent downlight is (1800 x 60.9/28 = 39.15 LPW) and the LED downlight is
(1019/12.5 = 81.5 LPW).
Pilot power draw
Ballasts and drivers with direct line voltage switching have no pilot power draw. But some drivers
and ballasts that employ electronic network control can draw pilot power when not on. Pilot power
is drawn 8760 hours per year, so even 0.1 watt per luminaire is almost 1 kWh per year in lost energy,
roughly the equivalent of 1 week per year of operating the fluorescent lamp 24/7 and two weeks per
year of constant operation of the LED.
Dimming power behavior
Dimming behavior may be critical in some applications. Among high efficacy light sources, only LED
has been demonstrated as fade to black, but only with specific drivers and sources. All sources
become less efficacious as they dim because of increased ballast or driver losses relative to source
energy use.

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting

1
5

Cost Benefits of Solid State Lighting

For almost three decades, the cost analysis of competing lighting systems involved the using the
energy cost savings of a more efficient lighting system to offset the first cost of a standard base case.
There is an important difference with solid-state lighting; in addition to energy cost savings, sold
state lighting requires less maintenance, is more immune to control system impacts on maintenance
cycles, and continues to operate well beyond the rated end of life. These benefits have economic
significance in ways previously ignored because of the similarity among fluorescent lamp and ballast
systems.

Energy Savings
Solid-state lighting can save considerable energy relative to even the most efficient current lighting
sources when properly applied and when using state of the art technology. This paper is based on
new technology released in 2011 that is among the first, if not the first, to make a credible and cost
effective argument for solid state lighting when competing against fluorescent in everyday
applications.

Simple Payback Analysis

In simple payback analysis, the savings are used to perform a straight line amortization of the cost
difference. In the case of the troffer analyzed here, an estimated cost difference of $50 per luminaire
can be amortized by about 14 watts power difference per luminaire in about 8 years in a typical
office or school application paying an average of 15 per kWh.

Life Cycle Costing

Life cycle costing has the potential for being an even stronger advocate of solid-state lighting. By
eliminating relamping for the life of the luminaire, considerable costs are eliminated. Moreover, with
expected dramatic increases in energy cost, the energy savings will be magnified.

Summary
Solid-state lighting has been long regarded as the future king of efficient lighting. This paper
indicates that that foretold future is now here for one of the harder applications of solid state
lighting, the general lighting of common commercial spaces.

Acuity Brands Lighting offers a program called Photometric Viewer for free download.
ii IES Lighting Handbook, 9th Edition, Chapter 28 Planned Maintenance Activities suggests 70-80%;
Staying on Schedule, Craig DiLouie, Electrical Contractor, June 2008 and IES RP-36-03 both suggest
60-70%.
iii Lithonia 2GT8
iv Lithonia 2RT5
v Cree CR24 -50
vi Gotham AFV 26TRT 6AR
vii Berman, Sam, New Discoveries in Vision Affect Lighting Practice, undated, c. 2010
viii IES PS-2-10
i

16

Design Calculations with Solid State Lighting