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A J v BS. mP
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P USuS. Pz u G
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vS.
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PuS GuP Cv , C uSvPP
hmk. u]U P Ba] ] S
(NCERT) Gv[P vzv hzvmhzu
Gumh S. v G Az uSP,
uR k v A US Gumh
S. Aq A - II, u \ Amhn - II, vs
{ - II, CUP - II, va\{ - II, v
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iii

v PP |S A mk G P
A|P PnUSP umk. n n P v
P A Eu mk, P
umk.
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umk. CzuPP hzvmhzv Sv BPx. nP
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umk.
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UPPzu Puh sk.
u vmk UP \ uuk,
K UQ h UP SQ h UP
G h[PUS umk. u Gv|US
x, uvmk UP PnURkP BQ
mk Pzv P US h u HxP
nP u kzvU P sk. P PmkP
J hzu A Eu P umk.
v PzxUP AvP uPP Ax
P mk uSu P P PkUPmk.

hUh. . _o

(Sz u)
hzvmh vzx S (v)
{ Csh Bsk
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iv

12Bm Yl - YVp TPjhPm R - I

LU YVp
AX 1 - A AUl - II
GXdhWuLu - DVp RuU - - Wd[ RPo - anNu
Todu XpX LhT - GXdhWu AXlTi - `eLo AXf
NUuT - ILu UlLs Utm ILu CVdLm dVjYm Uhm Xd BohPp \. J TjR] CWhP AdLs Utm TX
TjR] CWhP AdLu XdLs - EXLlQl - A
BohPpLu C]dLXl -XdLd CPV Es ]Lu
YLLs.
AX 2 - BYojR] AhPYQ - II
BYojR] AhPYQV RjRp - A BWju LQd AV BWm LQdRp - AVVdm Bt\X oQdm \Ls AVVdm Bt\Xl Tdm LWLs - GXdhWu ShPjR
oQdm \ - GXdhWu ShPjR Tdm LWLs - GXdhWu
Gou RuUV A[m TpY A[Ls.
AX 3 - p- RUeLs - II
R- 13 TY] RuULs - ThPx TLWm RVl TiLs
TVuLs - R - 14 TY] RuULs - LhLs YLLm,
AUlLm - LuLs - AUl Utm TVuLs - Xh - jRjRp
- R 15 TY] RuULs - TvTWv - \YtU YYeLm
jRjRm, - TvTWu NoUeLs - R - 16 TY]
RuULs - H2SO4-u EtTj Utm TiLm - R 17. Tj
RuULs CVt, YTiLs - @l] jRjRp Utm ARu
TiLs - aX_uLdPV NoUeLs - R 18 UkR YdLs jRjRp, TiLs Utm TVuLs.
AX - 4 d - R RUeLs
d - R RUeLu TY] TiLs - Rp CPXj RU
YN - WVm, LlTo, eL jRjRu RjYm XeLs EXLd
LXY - CWiPm CPXj RU YN - pYo jRRjRu

RjYm, XeLs - u\m - CPXjRU YN - NoUeLs K2Cr2O7,

CuSO4.5H2O,AgNO3, Hg2Cl2, ZnCO3, Lp JfNoUm.
AX 5 - f - R RUeLs
f - R RUeLu TY] TiLs - XkR] Bd]L[
Jlh JlPp - XkR], Bd]Lu TVuLs.
AX 6 - AQf NoUeLs Utm EVp AQf NoUeLs
Ko ALm - AQ YVu LXf NtLs - Jt\L
AQ NoUeLd AX IUPAC \ TVPp - AQ NoUeLp
UtVm - LhU] UtVm - 4 AQ, 6 AQ NoUeLu YY YN
UtVm - AQ NoUeL[l TtV LsLLs - Yo]u LsL
- CQ\u Ql LsL - TLX LsL - AQ NoUeLu
TVuLs - Eo - AQ NoUeLs U[u Utm [W@p.
AX 7 - AdL YVp
AdL YVp - A Bt\p AdL [ AdL NodL
- ""LVdL LoTu YWV\'' - Vp SPTm EhL Ut\m LVdL _NPlLu TVuLs.

CVtVp YVp
AX 8 - iU X II
TLeLu AdLhU]ju YLLs X-Lo TL YYUl AVl TLeLu YLLs - iUeLp AdLhU]ju \TLs
- TLeLu TiLs - TL Ys[ LoTu.
AX 9 - YlT CVdLVp II
Rp Vj RjRp -YlT CVdLVu CWiPm u
AYVm - RufN Utm RufN At\ ]Ls - GuhW - lv
R Bt\p - R Bt\p Ut\m, Yf NUXm - YlT CVdLVu
u\m .
AX 10 - YfNUX II
\RdL u TVuT - NhVo.

vi

AX 11 - YQ YLVp
Rp T ]m, T Rp T ]m - RpT ]V
oQdm Nn\ - ]TV oQdm \Ls YLU]XVf NokR YlTX - GV Utm dLX] ]Ls.
AX 12 - \lTWl YVp
\lTWl LYof - ]YL Ut\m - ]YL Ut\ju LsLLs
- rUeLs - rUeL[j RVjRp - rUeLu TiLs - TpUeLs
AX 13 - u YVp I
LPjLs, LPjRl TsLs, \ LPjLs - u LPjRp LsL
- Y u T LsL - @TWPu u]tTl Ls - VU
RP, VU LPj\u, NU] Utm UXo LPj\u - LPj\u
ojRuU Tj UTRp - LpWx - ReLp NWNpLs pH UlLu TVuLs.
AX 14 - u YVp II
uLXm - u\ Utm u] AjRm - LXeL[ AUjRm
AYtu uVdL N (EMF) - AUQm Utm dLp \Ls TU[p YlTsLs RVjRp - GTs LXeLs.
AX 15 - LU YVp UtVm
YY YN UtVm - Y[V NoUeLu YYUlLs - J Ztj
RuU - LWh (A) oUVt\ LsL - oUVt\ UVm EPV
NoUeLs - D-L Utm R-S Ls - CTh Tuu NoUeLu
UtVeLs.
AX 16 - ahWd YlTsLs
BpapL[l TVm \ - BpapLu YLLs - TiLs uYL BpapLu (1o, 2o Utm 3o) YTL[ Am \Ls
- Pahd BpLap, BpLapLs ([dLp) RVdm \Ls TiLs -TVuLs - hW ahd BpLapLs RVdm \Ls TiLs - TVuLs - AWUhd BpLapLs - TuNp BpLapLs
RVdm \Ls - TiLs - TVuLs - ]pLs U] ahd
Pahd hW ahd ]pL[L YLlTjRp - TU[p ]p
RVjRp - TiLs - Yl TiLs.
vii

AX 17 - DRoLs
DRoLs - A@ThdDRoLu TY] RVl \Ls - TiLs
- TVuLs - AWUd DRoLs - ANp RVl \ - ANu
]Ls - TVuLs.
AX 18 - LoT]p NoUeLs
LoT]p NoUeL[ TVm \ - BpLLs Utm
PuLdPV JlU - BpLL[ RVdm TY] \Ls
- TiLs - TVuLs - AWUd BpLLs TuNpNLu
RVl - TiLs - TVuLs - PuLs - ATd PuL[j
RVdm TY] \Ls (AhPu) - TiLs - TVuLs AWUd PuLs - AhP]u RVl - TiLs - TVuLs
TuN]u RVdm \ - TiLs - TiLs.
AX 19 - LoTdd AXeLs
TVm \ - AThd U]LoTdd AXeL[j RVjRp
- @Tod AXm - TiLs - TVuLs - LoTd AXeLdL]
NR]Ls - U] ahWdU] LoTd AXeLs - Xdd
AXm XeLs - Xd AXm RjRp - A@Thd P LoTdNd
AXm RjRp BdNd AXm, Ndd AXm - TiLs CVtVp
TiLs, YVp TiLs - LoTdNd AXeLu \u - AWUhd
AXeLs TuNd AXm RVjRp - TiLs - TVuLs - Nd
AXjR RVjRp - TVuLs - LoTdd AXeLu YlTsLs
- AX [WL[j RVjRp - AhPp [W (CH3COCl)
TiLs - TVuLs - AhPU RVjRp - TiLs - Ahd
RVjRp - TiLs - GvPo RVjRp - UjRp AhPh - TiLs.
AX 20 - LU ShW_u NoUeLs
A@Thd ShW_u NoUeLs - A@Thd ShW BpLuLs
RVjRp - TiLs - TVuLs - AWUhd ShW NoUeLs RVjRp - TiLs - TVuLs - A@Td Utm AWUhd ShW
NoUeLdPV Es[ YTLs - AuLs - RVdm TY]
\Ls - TiLs AX 1, 2 Utm 3 AuL[ YTjRp AWUhd AuLs - TuNX]j RjRp - TiLs - Au
RVjRp - TiLs - TVuLs - A@Thd Utm AWUhd
viii

AuLu YTLs - A@Thd ShWpLs - RVjRp - TiLs

-TVuLs - PVNVm ElLs - TuuPV NVm [WP
RVjRp Utm AYtu TiLs.
AX 21 - Eo XdLs
LoTahWhLs - LhPUl YjRp - CWhP NodLWLs
Utm TX NodLWLs - WReLs - A] AXeLs - WReLu
LhPUl - dd AXeLs - LlLs.
AX 22 - SP\ YVp
UjY YVp - \Vt\ Uk TVuT - NVeLs YLLm ,
TVuLm - JlT]l ThLs, mLs, YN]l ThLs, LlTPo
Utm oSt\m dLs - EQs[ YlThLs - EQl
TLdLs NVtL ClhLs, Ad_]t\m dLs Utm EiQj
RkR \Ls - f WhLs, WUuLs, C]dLYofLs - WdLh
GlTsLs.

ix

12 Bm YltV Nn\ Yp
1.

LU NoUjp Lm ShW_u. aX_u Utm NpTo

BVYt\ LiPm NR],

2.

LUf NoUjp Lm ]fNVp RL[ LiPRp

A. \t\ Utm \\ RuU
B. AWUd Utm AThd RuU
C. BpaLs, LoTd AXeLs, P AULs, ]d
R (HRm J ]fNVp RVd LiPRp)

3.

TiT TlTn
LXYp C So AVLs Utm C Go AVL[d LiPRp.
So AVLs : Pb++, Cu2+, Al3+, Fe3+, Zn2+, Mn2+, Ca2+, Ba2+,
Mg2+, NH4+
Go AVLs : TWh, NpT, NpTh, LoT]h, ShWh,
[W, WU, Bd^Xh
(Sp LWVR Utm dm AVL[ RodLlTPp Yim.
JW Rp C Y AVLs ClT RodL Yim) (Cl
Utm Br) Utm (LoT]h + BdNXh) Nol RodLlTPYim.

4.

TU] TlTn
A. ToUeL]Uh
1. Bd^d AXm x KMnO4 RWm TojRp
2. ToWv AmUVm NpTh Vs KMnO4 RWm TojRp
B. PWUh
1. K2Cr2O7 LWNX VU N LiPRp
2. K2Cr2O7 Bd_]tV HRm J TU] TlTn

Rop , C AX ElLs Utm C LW ElLs, Elu TVo

NpXRY Tp LdL Yim.
JqY Eltm J Ef NR] BnY[oLd LidL
Yim.

hUP
AS Gs.

UP Gs.

P v
1

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Bzu Amhn - II

42

p - uSv u[P

67

d - uSv u[P

112

f - uSv u[P

151

Ana \[P
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161

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189

C v
8

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212

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xii

P erio d

57

9
10
11
12

d b lo ck

A cLr

A ctin id e s

L a n th a n id es

(2 2 6)

(2 2 3)

S b lo ck

Ra

88

Fr

87

1 32 .91 1 37 .3 3

Ba

Cs

Re

90

Th
2 3 2 .0 4

Ac
(2 2 7 )

f b lo c k

14 0 .12

89

(2 6 2 )

(2 6 3 )

59

Bh

Sg

60

Nd

(2 6 5 )

Hs

108

92

23 1 .0 4 2 3 8.0 3

Pa

91

14 0 .9 1 14 4.24

Pr

107

106

1 3 8 .91

58

Os

10 1 .07
76

Ru

44

5 5 .8 5

Fe

26

Pdt

46

58 .6 8

Ni

28

Pt

78

61

(2 3 7 )

Np

(24 4 )

Pu

94

63

(2 43 )

Am

95

1 51 .9 6

Eu

111

Uuu

110

Sm

62

64

Gd

(2 47 )

Cm

96

65

(2 4 7 )

Bk

97

1 58 .9 3

Tb

Sn

U uq

11 4

2 07 .2

(25 1 )

Cf

98

162 .50

Dy

66

p b lo ck

11 3

Uut

112

U ub

2 00 .5 9 204 .3 8

In

50

7 2.61

6 9 .7 2
49

Ge

Ga

32

31

Er

68

Uuh

116

(2 09 )

Te

52

7 8.9 6

Se

34

32 .0 7

16

1 6 .0 0

16

(2 5 2 )

Es

99

(25 7 )

Fm

10 0

1 64 .9 3 16 7 .26

Ho

67

U up

11 5

2 0 8 .9 8

Sb

51

74 .92

As

33

3 0.97

15

1 4 .0 1

15

10

53
I

7 9.9 0

36

54

Kr
83.80

3 9 .9 5 .

35
Br

Ar

18

2 0 .1 8

Ne

35 .4 5

17
Cl

1 9 .00

9
F

17

Yb

70

U uo

118

(222 )

71

Lu
10 2

No
(25 9)

10 1

Md
(25 8 )

(2 62 )

Lr

1 03

1 6 8 .9 3 17 3 .04 1 7 4 .9 7

Tm

69

U us

11 7

(2 10 )

Xe
112 .4 1 114 .8 2 11 8 .7 1 1 2 1 .7 6 12 7.60 1 26.9 0 131 .29
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
Hg
Ti
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn

Cd

48

65.3 9

Zn

30

15 7.25

196 .97

Au

79

107 .87

Ag

47

6 3 .5 5

Cu

29

Uun

15 0 .3 6

(2 6 6)

Mt

109

19 2 .2 2 1 9 5.0 8

Ir

77

1 0 2 .9 1 1 0 6 .4 2

Rh

45

5 8 .9 3

Pm
93

27

Co

(1 4 5 )

1 86 .21 1 9 0.23

75

1 83 .8 4

(9 8 )

95 .9 4
74

43

42

Tc

5 4.94

5 2 .00

Mo

Mn

25

24

Cr

Ce

(2 6 2 )

Db

105

1 80 .9 5

Ta

73

9 2 .91

Nb

41

5 0.9 4

23

La

(2 61 )

Rf

1 04

17 8 .49

Hf

9 1 .2 2
72

8 8 .9 1

87 .62
56

85 .4 7
55

L aLu

Zr

40

4 7.8 7

4 4 .9 6
39

38

37

Sr

4 0 .0 8

39 .1 0

Ti

Sc

22

Rb

Ca

21

2 8.09

Si

14

1 2 .0 1

2 6 .9 8

20

19

2 4 .3 1

22 .9 9

Al

Mg

Na

13

12

11

10 .8 1

9.0 12

6 .9 4 1

14

4 .0 0 3

13
B

1 .0 0 7 9

Be

He

Li

18
1

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uzu
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uzu
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(1927)
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\mU (1932) : {m Pskizu
Bsh\ (1932)
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(1934)
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(G.P. u\ \u)

xP u \zu

GUm xP ux RUPsh \uP

{nQx.
i)

][U \k v x GUm x JP
Ju {PQx. ][U \k v {P Cu
Jux Smh GUS {PQx. v x
v. xPP mk CzuP Ju {Pzu
C. G, GUm xP u EhuS.

ii)

u\ _ / { Psh (e/m) B
GUm _ Psh UP Gsn x
B BQ \uP GUm xP u u
{UQ.

iii)

P Pva_ J BQ sP
Pva] xP u {UQ.
7

1.2 i&U uh
Azu

Gu
xPUS
A}x AzxP mhh Jkzv
uUPkQx.
J mh As x G Pxx
Au B
E = h ([U Ssh PP i )

...(i)

Gx A Avs h Gx [U S.
mh xP u x G Pv, Au
B
E = mc2 (Ij \mi i)

...(ii)

m Gx mh { c Gx J v\P.
\kP (i) (ii) & x

h.c/

=
=
=
=

mc2
c / G
mc2
h / mc

Ca\k Gu xPUS uUTiuS. G,

mh {US vP xP {, mh
v\P c US vP xP v\P v &
zukQx. G, GUm Gu xPUS
uUTi \k
= h / mv Ax = h / p
mv = p Gx xP EuS.
Ca\k i&U uh G, Gx i&U
A} G AUPkQ.
i U \k s xP u
Azuh uhkzxQx.

 iU Dz u
Bx GUm ~snUQ PmhS, GUm
vs[P A
AuS EuQx. i U Bx GUmPUS
mk {mP mhP, AqUP
UTP ] xPPUS uUTiuS.
i&U AP UQzx
\un A E P Azu GzuP
UQzxzu . H, A APk
uhh A}[P P ]uP Eu Pshx
P PiS. C RUPsh \P A.
i)

9.1 10 -31 kg {h J GUm 10 7 ms -1 G

v\Pzxh |PQx GU Px. Au i&U
A}.
h
6.626 10-34 kg m2s-1
= __ = __________________
mv
9.1 10-31 kg 107 ms-1

= 0.727 10-10m = 7.27 10-11m

& vx X-PvP A}zu {nUS

AhkQx.
ii)

10-2 kg {Psh x J 102 ms-1 G v\Pzxh

|PuPU P. Cu i&U A}
h
6.626 10-34 kg m2s-1
= __ = ________________ = 6.62 10-34m
mv
10-2 kg 102 ms-1

Cu A} v AkuS P SP Cu,
i&U uh US UQzx uuP
CUPx.
G, i&U uhx P ~so A
P AqUP, UTUP AqUP xPP
BQS mk uUTiuS.

PnUS 1
K AqUP xP CUP B 5.85 10-25J G xP
A Avsn PnUQk. ([U , h=6.62610-34 Js)
w
CUP B = mv2 = 5.85 10-25J
i&U uhi,

h
= ___
mv

v
= __ G

v
h
__ = ___

mv

mv2
= ___
h

2 5.85 10-25 J
____________
6.626 10-34 JS

Avs,

1.77 109 s-1

PnUS 2
K GUm 1 kV zu mi kUP
\x i&U A}zu PnUQk.
w
1 kV (1000 m) zu mi kUP S
GUm B
= 1000 eV
= 1000 1.609 10-19 J, (1 eV = 1.609 10-19 J)
= 1.609 10-16 J
[B () = GUm _ (T) zu
k (m)]
10

CUP B
1
2
16
mv = 1.609 10 J
2

1
9.110 31 v 2 = 1.609 10 16 J
2
v 2 = 3.5361014
v = 1.88 10 7 ms 1

h
6.626 10 34
=
mv 9.1 10 31 1.88 107

= 3.87 10-11 m
PnUS 3
K GUm 103m sec-1 G v\Pzxh |P x Au
A}zu PnUQk. ({ 9.1 10-31 kg h = 6.626 10-34
kg m2 s-1).
w
m = 9.1 10-31 kg
v = 103 m sec-1
h = 6.626 10-34 kg m2 sec-1

h
6.626 1034
=
mv (9.11031 ) 103
= 7.25 10-7 m

PnUS 4
J |P GUm 4.55 10-25 J CUP B x
G Au A}zuU PnUQk. ({= 9.11 10-31 kg
h = 6.626 10-34 kg m2 s-1).
11

w
1
mv 2 = 4.55 10 25 J
2
m = 9.1 10-31 kg

CUP B,

h = 6.626 10-34 kg m2 s-1

1
(9.110 31 )v 2 = 4.55 10 25
2

4.55 10 25 2
= 10 6
v =
31
9.1 10
2

v = 103 m sec1

h
6.626 1034
=
mv (9.11031 )103
= 7.25 10-7 m.

PnUS 5
J |P GUm A} 4.8 pm. G, Au CUP
BU PnUQk. [GUm { = 9.11 10-31 kg, h = 6.626
10-34 Kg m2 s-1].
w
=

i&U \mii,
v=

v=

h
mv

h
m

h
6.626 1034 kg m 2 s 1
=
= 1.516 108 ms 1
31
12
m 9.1110 kg 4.8 10 m

1
1
CUP B = mv2 = 9.111031 kg (1.516108 ms1 ) 2
2
2
-15
= 10.47 10 kg m2 s-2 = 1.047 10-14 J
12

PnUS 6
A B BQ CxPP CUPzv E. xP A-
A} 5 10-8m. B- Eu A- vP Ex Au
A}zuU PnUQk.
w
i&U uhi,
=

h
p

p =

Ax

h
xP A US, p A =
A
h
xP B US p B =
B
pB =

1
p A G
2

h 1 h
=
B 2 A
A
1
=
B
2

B = 2A

A = 5 10-8 m G
B = 2A = 2 5 10-8 m = 10 10-8 m = 10-7 m.
] PnUSP
1.

J xP i&U A} 1A G Au Euzu
PnUQk. [h = 6.626 10-34 kg m2 s-1]
[h : 6.63 10-24 kg ms-1]

13

2.

5890 A} Psh \i J mh {
PnUQk.? [h = 6.626 10-34 Js]
[h : 3.75 10-36 kg]

3.

1000 QQ Gh Psh UPmhx 300 Q./o

v\Pzv \ x Au A}zu PnUQk.
[h: 7.92 10-39 m]

4.

K GUm P iU A} 100 G Au
v\Pzu PnUQk.
[h : 7.25 104 ms-1]

5.

0.1 Q {Psh |P J A}
3.31 10 -29 G Au CUP B PnUQk.
(h = 6.626 10-34 Js).
[h : 2 10-3 J]

6.

6.62 10 -27 QQ {Psh xP J CUP B

7.425 10 -13 J G Au A}zuU PnUQk
(h = 6.626 10-34 kg m2 sec-1).
[h : 6.657 10-15 m]

7.

K GUm 10 MeV kUP \x Au

A}zuU PnUQk (1 MeV = 106eV).
[h : 0.39 pm]

8.

K BU] UT 660 |i -1 G v\Pzv

\x
Au
A}zu
PnUQk
-34
2 -1
(h = 6.626 10 kg m s ).
[h : 18.8 pm]

9.

J |P GUm 4.9 10-25 J CUP B x.

Au i&U A}zuU PnUQk (h = 6.626 10-34 Js;
me = 9.1 10-31 kg).
[h : 7 10-7 m]

1.3 { Pmk
|h UP | kzx P {
v\P BQ Smh |zv xP
Ah i. G, AP \ u {nUP
14

iQx. 1927& Bsk \U G J |zv

xP GUm ~s xPP {
v\P (Ax Eu) BQ Ah ix G
Pshu. G, GUm \ u {nUP Cx.
CUPmhx Pva] D u
S. CUPmmii, J |zv P
xP ~s xP { v\P (Ax
Eu) BQ Ah ix.
Pou i { Pmk
Gu.
x.p

h
4

x Gx xP { E {zu
p Gx xP Euzv E {zu
Aux G Sx x p & USz
uPx h/4&US AvPP Ax \P Eu
SUQx. B, Gx h/4&I h SP CUPx.
PnUS 1
3000kg Gh Psh Fv { E {z
u 10pm G Au v\Pzv E {z
u PnUQk (h = 6.626 1034 Kg m2 s-1).
w :
m = 3000 kg
x = 10 pm = 10 10-12 m = 10-11 m
{ Pmmi i,
v =

h
4 m x

6.626 10 34
22
4 3000 10 11
7
10-27ms-1
= 1.76
=

15

PnUS 2
K GUm v\Pzv E {z u
5.7 105 m/sec G, Au { E {zuU
PnUQk (h = 6.626 10-34 kg m2 s-1, {, m = 9.1 1031 kg).
w:

v = 5.7 10 5 ms-1
m = 9.1 10 31 kg
h = 6.626 10 34 kg m2 s-1

CvUP { Pmmi \mi zu

x (m v) =
x =

h
4

h
4 m

6.626 10 34

22
9.1 10 31 5.7 105
7
= 1.0 1010 m
G, { E {zu = 1010 m.
4

] PnUSP
1.

K GUm u { 1027 g. Au { E
{zu 1011 m G v\Pzv {z
u PnUQk.
[h : 5.25 106 m sec1]

2.

\UQ { Pmii 9.1 1031 kg {

Psh GUm { v\P BQ
USzuP {zu PnUQk.
[h: 5.77 105 m2 sec1]

3.

0.15 kg {Psh QUPm v { {z

u 1 (10 10 m) G Au v\Pzv E
{z u PnUQk.
[h: 3.5 1024 m sec-1]
16

4.

K GUm { E {zu 104 m

G, Au v\Pzv E {z u
PnUQk.
[h: 0.577 m sec1]

5.

10 g { Psh C[S umh J {

{zu 105 m G Au v\Pzv E
{zu PnUQk.
[h : 5.25 10-28 m sec-1]

1 . 4 GUmP Azu
J \zu P ~so xskPP USx
UTP, AqUP QhQ. G, AqUP
GUmP, AqUP E Gx \zvQx. 19&B
sk CzxPP {mh CUP PP,
U PuU PP AihPU Psk
\mhuP Pumh. B, Aq A
vUS S CUPzv sk Pnmhx.
P, Jx Pu APP Pumhx. Jx
mh G xP Bx G PskiS S Jx
J \zv Azu, \zv xP
u x {nQx. G Jx
Dz uhx.
i&U AP
Azu Jx xP u
x xPP Azu u
USx i&U APS. \zv GUm Ax
mh xPP Azu .
J xP As USuP Ij
uhP
h
(1)

C i&U s APUS uUTi.

\k (1) E uhP Ij&i&U uhP
GkQ.

E = h,

p=

17

Cuz uhP m AqP vUS

Emkzx x PzxUP | xUP.
m Aq GUm ^ Pzv AqUP
_uPU P. Ssh PPi, Ssh
{u \k (2) uQx. p = h/ G Ij uh
QhUS Ssh {u
2a = n,

(n = 1, 2, 3, ....)

(2)

GUm _mhux i&U A

A}zv GsP h[SP USzuPUS
\S. P, GUm CUPzxh Ti i&U
AP uha] { {zu {nu
Ssh {u Gx uQx.
(hzv Ei)

Ssh
{u
{ {UP {u
GUm _mhux
i&U A}zv USz
uPP CUP sk. A
C
Ax
uha]P CUPx.
J
Aq
GUm
B.
i[P
Aa\mh m AqS kzxx,
GUm B (En) Bx
2 2 me4
(1)
n 2h 2
n Gx u Ssh Gs BS. Ca\k m
Aq GUm BUP \mkh v
Ex.
En =

\k (1)& m, e h & vP zu
En =

1312
kJ mol 1
n2

18

(2)

GvS GUm B UQzx

iz u K GUm B uP
GU P. C{x B {
Gk. GUm |Px, AqUP Pa]US Emkx,
Ax Smh \u B CUQx. G,
GUm B SxUPsh x zuh
SQx. Aux GvUS vQx.
\ 1
J m Aq \un { E x
AUS B 1312 kJ mol 1 . m Aq
GUm n = 2 {x n = 1 {US Cha]
Ahx k Pva] A}zuU PnUQk
(h = 6.626 10-34 Js; J v\P, c = 3 108 m s1; APm
, NA = 6.0237 1023 mol-1).
w
\un { m
Aq AUS B

= 1312 kJ mol1

u _mhu
m Aq B (E1) = I.E = 1312 kJ mol1
n&x _mhu m (En) =
Aq B

- 1312
kJ mol 1
2
n

1312
= 328 kJ mol1
22
E = E 2 E1 = [328 (1312)] kJ = 984 kJ mol1

(E2) =

K AqS Ek B =
E
c
= h = h ;
N

Nh1c
E

19

E
N

984103 J/atom
6.02371023

6.626 1034 Js 3 108 ms1 6.0237 1023

= 1.2 105 cm = 1.2 107 m
984 103 J

\ 2
J m Aq GUm B \un {
E x 2.18 1018 J per atom. J m AqS
1.938 1018 J B \zxx GUm {
PnUQk.
w
\un{ Ex H-Aq B
= 2.18 1018J atom1
Tmhk B = 1.938 1018 J atom1
Q { GUm B
= (2.18 + 1.938) 10-18 J atom1
= 0.242 10-18 J atom1

2.181018 J atom1
0.24210 J atom =
n2
18

2.18 10 18 J atom 1
n =
=9,
- 0.242 J atom -1
2

n=3

G, GUm x B mhzvS QQx.

\ 3
K GUm u B mhzvx x B
mhzvS a]hx m Aq
AUS B a]huS u B
BQU PnUQk.
w
i) AUS B Gx |k{ {
K Aqx GUm GkuS uk
BS. Aux n = 1 x n = US \ u
B
n = 1 G E1 = -1312 kJ mol-1; n = G E = 0
AUS B = E - E1=0 - (-1312 kJ mol-1) = + 1312 kJ mol-1
20

ii)

n = 1 n = 3 & Ex GUm BP
E1 =

1312
= 1312 kJ mol 1
2
1

E3 =

1312
= 146 kJ mol 1
2
3

GUm a]huS uk B,
E = E3 E1 = [146 (1312)] kJ mol-1 = 1166 kJ mol1
BmhP i[P
BmhP G K Aq AqUP _
Sv AvPm\ Ahzv Psk GUm {PuP
BS. Cu Sv i (GUm P) BmhUS
izu PkUQx. Pn Aa\ Ax Pn
Aa\ Ci ({PuP \) BQ h[P
BmhP izuz uQx. Cu Csk h[P
Pa]u kQ.
s-BmhP i[P
s-BmhPUS, l = 0, BP CUSx m v
S. G, GzuP v\ v.
Aux, AqUP Smh ux GUmU
Pq \S. G s Bmh ^ P
ihx.
s-Bmh Ex u Ssh Gs n &
v \uuS. n& v AvPP CUSx s
Bmh E uP CUS.

h 1.3

1s 2s BmhP i
21

2s-Bmh EmSv Pizu

A GUmP AvPm\P Pq {PuP P
Ex. CP |m(node) Ax |m GkQx. 2s
Bmh J P |m mk Ex s-BmhP
|mP B mh[P GsoUP (n-1) BS, n Gx
u Ssh Gs BS.
p-BmhP i[P
p-Bmh l = 1 G m&US 1, 0, +1 BQ vP
E. Cu p BmhP v\|US
UP . C BmhP \ B
u. v\|USP . J
p-Bmh Smh Aa] ^h Csk hP
. J h v\|UP zx A 2px , 2py
2p z G X,Y Z Aa_UP ^ zx
AUPkQ.
hzv E PkP p-BmhP n
G SUSmk PmkQ. G Gx
E 90 \uu P GUm SuS. pBmh Csk hP |h uzv (
GUm Ahzv u) UPmk.
EunP, 2px BmhUS, YZ u |h uS (nodal plane).
Y

X
Z

2p
2pxz

X
Z

2p y

h 1.4 2px, 2py 2pz

BmhP i[P

2p z

X
Z

h 1.5 2px Bmh

|h u

G, p-BmhP h izu, v\|US

s . Csk hP GUm Pq
22

{PuP \P Ex. AvP B mhzv p-BmhP

Ezxh J izu .
d-BmhP i[P
d-xnUTmi, l = 2 Ex m&US 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 BQ
vP E. Aux d- BmhP Ix v\|US
{U PsiUS. dxy, dyz, dzx, dx2-y2 dz2 BQ Au
Ix BhPS. 3dxy, 3dyz, 3dzx, 3dx2-y2 3dz2 BQ
Eun[PS. d xy, d yz d zx BQ BmhP J
izu . Aux S C A
. A XY, YZ ZX- u[P
Ax. dz2 Bmh Z- Aa] \a^h h
izxh zv E i (doughnut) GUm Pzxh
Ex. dx2-y2 Bmh S C Ah X
Y- Aa] Axx..
Gu nd Bmh |S hPh CuS Pn
A Csk |h u[P & Csk CPou
S [PS.
y

yx

d xy

d yz

d xz

d x 2 -y 2

d z2

h 1.6 d-Bmh i[P

1.5 UT Bmh PP
UT Bmh PP 1932& Bsk sm
UP
EUQ.
CUPP
|uS.
CUPPi, UTP Aq BmhP
uzu CxkQ. UTP GUmP
Ax v BmhP UT BmhP
GkQ. CUPP G PzxUP
23

(i)

UT, GUmP Ax v BmhP

UT BmhP GkQ. UT
BmhP Aq BmhP Ssh
GsP UPkQ.

(ii) UT BmhP \ Bh Aq BmhP

(Jizu AqUP UTP) Cnu Ax
HUS \ Bh Aq BmhP (izu
AqUP UTP) Cnu EQ.
(iii) UT BmhP ES GsoUP, Aq
BmhP Cn GsoUP \P CUS.
(iv) Csk Aq BmhP Cnx Csk UT
BmhPz uQ. C J AvP B,
x Su B . Su B Psh
UT Bmh n UT Bmh G,
AvP B Psh UT Bmh Gvn
UT Bmh G AUPkQ.
(v) UT BmhP i[P Cn Aq
BmhP izu .
(vi) n UT BmhP (]U), (), (hh)
Gvn UT BmhP , , *G
SUPkQ.
(vii) UT
BmhP
B
{kQ. (BL uzx)

H\

(viii) J UT Bmh Csk GUmP mk {

C. Au Csk GUmP Gvv _]
Eh. ( uUP uzx)
(ix) Csk \ B Eh UT BmhP
{x, u A GUmP J {u
zv \uP C GUm Cn { sk
(sm v)

24

1.5.1 UT BmhPUP B mh h
Jizu C Aq UTP Csk 1s Aq
BmhP Cnx 1s *1s BQ v Csk UT
BmhPz uQ. Cu J Aq 2s
2p-BmhP Cnx Gmk v UT
BmhPz uQ. A
2s , *2s , 2p x , *2p x , 2p y , *2p y , 2p z , *2p z .
Aq A, v n
UT BmhP B mh[P {{
\uP {nUPkQ. u\
Amhn E u Csh \ u[P
Jizu C Aq UT BmhP H\
Bmh[P
1s < 1s* < 2s < *2s < 2p x = 2p y < 2p z < *2p x = *2p y < *2p z
H2, H2+, He2+, He2 (P), Li2, Be2 (P), B2, C2 N2
UTPUS Cu UT BmhP B
mh x. Cu UT BmhP B
hx h 1.7a& Pmhmkx.
B, Cu Bmhx BU] E C Aq
UTPUS \u iP xv. CzuP
u[P 2p z , 2p x , 2p y BQP B mh[P
mk. Aux 2p z Bx 2p x Ax 2p y &I h Su
B x. G, CzuP UTPUP UT
BmhP H\ B mh .
1s < 1s* < 2s < *2s < 2p z < 2p x = 2p y < *2p x = *2p y < *2p z
Cu UT Bmh B mh O2, O2- (E BU\k
A), O22- (U\k A), F2 Ne2 (P)
UT Bmh hx h 1.7b& Ex.

25

B
Aq
BmhP

UT
BmhP

Aq
BmhP

Aq
BmhP

h 1.7a
u Csh \
u[PUS J izu Dq
UTPUP UT
B mh h

UT
BmhP

Aq
BmhP

h 1.7b
O2 E u J
izu Dq U
TPUP UT
Bmh h

1.5.2 UTP GUm A Au UT

sP uh
UT BmhP GUmP {mk
u UT GUm A Gk. Cx UTP
P UQ uPP uQ Gu
.
1. n Gvn UT BmhP
E GUmP GsoUP P UT
{zu.
GUm A P n UT BmhP
E GUmP GsoUP (Nb) Gvn UT
BmhP E GUmP GsoUP (Na) BQ
PnUQh. n UT BmhP E
GUmP n GUmP G, Gvn UT
BmhP E GUmP Gvn GUmP
G AUPkQ.
26

(a) Nb>Na G UT {zu Ehx: C

n
GUmP
BvUPx
Gvn
GUmPh AvPP Cu D\ EQx.
(b) Nb< Na G UT {zuuP CUS.
C{ Gvn GUmP BvUPx n
GUmPh AvPP Cu US \ EQx.
(c) Nb = Na G UT {zuuP CUS.
C{ n GUmP BvUP Gvn
GUmP BvUP \P Cu GzuP D\
\kv.
2. nzu UT Ax A
{zu: J UT Ax A {z
ux nzuzv {nUPkQx.
nzu Gx n UT BmhP E
GUmP GsoUPUS(N b ) Gvn UT
BmhP E GUmP GsoUPUS (Na) E
mi vS Aux,
1
(N N a )
2 b
Nb > Na BP CUSx ES UT Ax A
{zuhx. Aux nzu |UShx.
N b Na BP CUSx ES UT Ax A
{zuuP CUS. Aux nzu
GvUSh Ax P CUS.

nzu =

3. nzuzv P UTP Ax
AP J {zu: J UT Ax
A {zux nzuzvS |Quzv
CUS. G, nzu 3 E UT (\: N2)
nzu 2 (\: O2) Ax 1 (\: Li2) E UT
h AvP {zu US.
4 . nzuzv P n u: J
vnx J, Cmh Ax nP
CUP, B P CUPx. B nzu
P A.
27

5 . nzuzv P n }: n
}x nzuzvS Gv QuzvUS. nzu
AvPP CUSx n} SP CUS. Cu
nzu SP Cu n } AvPP CUS.
\P, |m UT E n }x
(nzu = 3) BU] UT E n
}zuh SS. (nzu = 2) Cu m
UT E n (nzu = 1) BU] UT
Euh }uS.
Amhn 1 N2, O2 Li2 UTP nzu,
n B n }
UT

nzu

n B

n}

|m

945 kJ mol-1

110 pm

-1

121 pm

-1

267 pm

BU]
zv

495 kJ mol

110 kJ mol

6. UT hPu Puzu : J
UT
GUmP
CnP
Cu
Ax
hPuzuhuS. P uzu GUmP
u AUT Puz uhuS.
1.5.3 Jizu Dq UTP UT
APUP UT Bmh B mh
h
UT BmhP {kx RUPsh PPP
AihPU PshuS. (i) BL PP (ii)
uUPz uzx (iii) sm v. ] Jizu C Aq
UTP Px.
1. m UT, H2. Csk m AqUP
Cnu UT EQx. J m Aq
\un { 1s Bmh J GUm x.
G, m UT Csk GUmP E. Cu
Csk GUmP Su B mh Psh 1s UT
Bmh E. uUP uzxzvi Cu
Csk GUmP Gvv _] .
28

m UTUP UT Bmh GUm

A, H 2 : ( 1s) 2. H 2 UTUP UT Bmh
hx h 1.7 Ex.

h 1.8 H2 UTUP UT Bmh B

mh h
H2 UTUP nzu
Nb = 2
Na = 0
Nb Na 2 0
=
= 1.
2
2
n u: m UT E Csk
m AqUP J \Pn nx.

nzu
i)
ii)

h Puzu : m UT uzu GUmP

Gxuu UT hPuz uhuS.

2. Dq UT, He 2 (P). zv
GUm A (Z = 2) 1s2 BS. J Aq
Csk GUmP u He 2 UT |S
GUmP E. BL PP uUPz
uzx BQ Au GUm A .
He2 : (1s)2 (*1s)2.
h 1.8& He2 (P) UT UT Bmh
h PkUPmkx.

h 1.9 He 2 (P) UT UT Bmh

B mh h
29

Nb = 2 Na = 2 G
Nb Na 2 2
=
= 0.
2
2
nzu P Cu, He2 UT EPx.
3. |m UT (N2). \un { |m (Z=7)

nz u =

Aq GUm A 1s 2 2s 2 2p1x 2p1y 2p1z BS. G,

|m UT (N2) E zu GUmP GsoUP
14 BS. Cu 14 GUmP B H\ UT
BmhP {kQ.
N 2 : KK( 2s ) 2 (*2s ) 2 ( 2p x ) 2 ( 2p y ) 2 ( 2p z ) 2
GUm A KK Gx Csk AqUP

(1s ) 2 (1s* ) 2 Gu K Tmi _UPS. nzuzu

PnUQk x KK Csk n Csk
Gvn GUmP Cu Au uzxh. h
1.9 N2 UTUP UT Bmh h Ex.

Aq
BmhP

UT
BmhP

Aq
BmhP

h 1.10 N 2&UP UT Bmh B mh

h
30

N2 & nzu ,
Na = 2
Nb = 8
Nb Na 8 2
=
= 3.
2
2
n u: nzu 3 Gx N2 UT
n Eu SUQx.
hPuzu : |m UT E Azx
GUmP CnP Cu UT hPuz
uhuS.

nzu =
i)
ii)

4. BU] UT, O2. BU] Aq (Z = 8) GUm

A 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4 BS. J BU] Aq 8
GUmP u, O2 UT 16 GUmP
E. O2 & GUm A .
O 2 : KK( 2s ) 2 ( *2s ) 2 ( 2p z ) 2 ( 2p x ) 2 ( 2p y ) 2 (*2p x )1 (*2p y )1

(1s ) 2 (1s* ) 2 Bx KK G _UPP SUPmkx.

Aq
BmhP

UT
BmhP

Aq
BmhP

h 1.11 BU] UTUP UT Bmh B

mh h
31

nz u =

Nb Na 8 4
=
= 2.
2
2

1.6 CUP
CUP Gx HUS \ B Psh Aq
BmhP Jh J Px \ Bh, Jzu
ih BmhP uuS. ES \ v
BmhP CUP BmhP Gk. CUP
BmhP Bu BmhPx x mh
sP UQ.
CUP UQ PzxUP
i)

CUP Dkk BmhP HUS \ B

.

ii)

J Aq BmhP CUP DkkQ.

iii)

ES CUP BmhP GsoUPx

CUP Dkk BmhP GsoUPUS \S.

iv) CUP BmhP J i, B

.
v)

n Eu Dkk CUP Bmh K

GUm mk x.

vi) CUP BmhP E GUm US\

PnP A AvP u E.
vii) Aq BmhP |iP xu ]U ()
n EQx.
viii) Aq BmhP UPmi xu ()
n EQx.

32

1.6.1 J UT Ax A E CUP
P {nzu (An APzu)
i 1 : PkUPmh UT Ax A E AqUP
Cnv GUmPU Tmh.
i 2 : | AP Cu, A _US \
GUmP PUP. Gv AP Cu, A
_US \ GUmPU Tmh.
i 3 : (i) i&2 QhUS uP 8&I h SP Cu 2&B
Szx Au D (Q) v (R)& Tmh PskiUP.
(ii) i&2 QhUS uP 9US 56US Ch
CUSx 8&B Szx u D (Q1) I PskiUP. v
(R1) I 2 B Szx Cshx D (Q2) I Pn. Azx DP
Cv v R2 Emh Azu Tmh.
(i) Ax (ii) & Cv i X GUP. X
vx CUP P :
X v
CUP P

2
sp

3
sp2

4
sp3

5
6
3
sp d sp3d2

\
i)

BeCl2
zu Cnv GUmP = 2 + 7 2 = 16
16
= 2(Q 1 ) + 0(R 1 ) ; X = 2
8
CUP = sp

ii)

BF3
zu Cnv GUmP = 3 + 7 3 = 24
24
= 3(Q 1 ) + 0(R 1 ) ; X = 3
8
CUP = sp2

33

7
sp3d3

iii)

NH3
zu Cnv GUmP = 5 + 3 = 8 ;

X=

8
=4
2

X=

8
=4
2

CUP = sp3
iv) H2O
zu Cnv GUmP = 2 + 6 = 8 ;
CUP = sp3
v)

PCl5
zu Cnv GUmP = 5 + 7 5 = 40
40
= 5(Q1 ) + 0(R1 ) ; X = 5
8
CUP = sp3d

vi) SF6
zu Cnv GUmP = 6 + 7 6 = 48
48
= 6(Q 1 ) + 0(R 1 ) ; X = 6
8
CUP = sp3d2

vii) IF7
zu Cnv GUmP = 7 + 7 7 = 56
56
= 7(Q 1 ) + 0 (R 1 ) ; X = 7
8
CUP = sp3d3

viii) NO2 A
zu Cnv GUmP = 5 + 2 6 = 17
_ = -1. G, zu GUmP = 17 + 1 = 18
18
2
= 2(Q 1 ) + 2(R 1 ) ; = 1(Q 2 ) + 0(R 2 ) ; X = 2 + 1 + 0 = 3
8
2
2
CUP = sp
34

ix) NO3 ion

zu Cnv GUmP = 5 + 3 6 = 23; _ = -1
G, zu GUmP = 23 + 1 = 24
24
= 3(Q 1 ) + 0(R 1 ) ; X = 3
8
CUP = sp2

x)

CO32
zu Cnv GUmP = 4 + 3 6 = 22; _ = -2
G, zu GUmP = 22 + 2 = 24
24
= 3(Q 1 ) + 0(R 1 ) ; X = 3
8

CUP = sp2
xi) SO42
zu Cnv GUmP = 6 + 4 6 = 30; _ = -2
G, zu GUmP = 30 + 2 = 32
32
= 4(Q 1 ) + 0(R 1 ) ; X = 4
8
CUP = sp3

xii) ICl4
zu Cnv GUmP = 7 + 7 4 = 35; _ = -1
G, zu GUmP = 35 + 1 = 36
36
4
= 4(Q1 ) + 4(R 1 ) ; = 2(Q 2 ) + 0(R 2 ) ; X = 4 + 2 + 0 = 6
8
2
3 2
CUP = sp d

xiii) NH4+
zu Cnv GUmP = 5 + 4 = 9; _ = +1
G, zu GUmP = 9 - 1 = 8
8
= 4(Q 1 ) + 0(R 1 ) ;
2
CUP = sp3

35

X = 4

] UTP AP CUP
CUP

GkzxUPmkP

sp

BeF2, BeCl2, C2H2, CO2

sp2

SO2, BH3, BF3, NO2, NO3, CO32

sp3

NH3, H2O, CH4, CCl4, SiCl4, H3O+,NH4+, ClO2,

ClO3, ClO4, NF3

sp3d

PCl5, ClF3, SF4, XeF2

sp3d2
sp3d3

SF6, XeF4, XeOF4, BrF5

IF7, XeF6

1.7 UTPUQhmh \P
AqUPUQhmh Pa] \P PnP
An, \Pn Du nP
EQ. x {mh BmhP u
UP AqUPUQh {P D\ sh
(ha_ C, 1873) uuP UQ. Cu \P
UTP Ex.
UTPUSQh {P D\ PnP
UTP
|[Q
Ax.

UTPUQh {P CzuP D\
UTPUQhmh \P GkQx. Cu \P
Gs vx vs[P AvPP, vszvx
vzvS, vzvx {US Sx Psh
Qx. UP vUSu UTPUQhmh
\ P sh UQ. C\P y
Pa]zuhuP, C uhuP
Ex.
m n: UT \Pn E
m AqS, AvP GUm P B Psh
AqS Ch {P C&C Pa] \
PnP m n EQx. m n
EuP UQ Pn[P :
36

i) mh nx Aq AvP GUm P
B USx n h CUS.
ii) mh nx Aq E ]uP
CUSx Ax n GUm Cn u DUS.
mh nx Aq E uP,
Su GUm P B u m
n Ex \zvPx. |m, BU]
BQ AvP GUm P B v, ]
E
u

m
nPz uQx.
H- n : Cx vnP C {
\P Cu Su nS. n
x m Aq nx Aq GUm P
B zx AQx. GUm P B \x
F > O > N Eu H- n \ H - F ......... H > H-O.....H >
H-N.....H BS. H-nP \Pnh
SuuS.
nP n \x,
\Pn > A n > m n >
C&C Pa] \, sh sh
\P.
m n PP
m nP Csk Pk.
i) UTPUQhmh m n :
CP m nP J Ax mh
\[P Csk UTPUQh EQx.
UTPUQhmh m nP ]
GkzxUPmkUP .
+ 1. m k, H - F. vs {, m
i J[P \[QP UTP m
n Cnx. Cu hzv A.
37

F
H

F
H

F
H

BP HF Gx (HF)n GU SUPkQx.
+
2
O H

2. } H
. } UT, GUm P BU] Aq
+

Csk \PnP Csk m

AqUPh EUSQx. BU] Aq AvP GUm P
B u Sv Gv_, Csk
m AqUP Sv |_ .
Gv_ BU] Aq AQ E UTP
C |_h m AqUPh m
n EUSQx. J BU] Aq |S
mPh |Q A EUSQx.

} E m n PnP (H-O-H)
m EQ n A (H2O)n }UT
AQx.
ii) UT {P m n : CP
m nx J UT E m
AqS, N, O Ax F AqS Ch EQx.
CP H n xP PkUQn GUP
kQx. P UTP CzuP n PnkQx.
Ix Ax B AqUP Psh a \[P
38

Cn EQx. UT {P m
n PnP \zv Pv{ SQx. }
Pv SQx.
H
O

O
C

O
C

OH

O-|m \]U A \]ik

H-n UQzx
UTPUQhmh H-n PnP }x v
{ Ex. A C E x
i CvUS.
ii) H-nx CP AvPu
kPmh u Pmk mP S
EuQx.
iii) zv, mk \P CP
TmkuS H-n EuQx.
iv) PmmkP mj |x
EnP H-n Ex.
v) v_UP, u, zu, GP H Eh P[P
H&n PnkQx.

i)

u vk
A. \ h uuk
1.

313.6
, Ei = 34.84 G n- v
n2
4
b)
3
c) 2

En =

a)

39

d)

2.

GUm Dz u UQ
a)

3.

mv
h

b)

= hmv

c)

hv
m

d)

h
mv

m AqP Bzv v
b) 0.529 10-10 cm
d) 0.529 10-12 cm

a) 0.529 10-8 cm
c) 0.529 10-6 cm
5.

d)

i&U \k
a)

4.

b) \U c) i U

RUPsh Gu xP J CUP B AvPm\

i&U A}zu x.
a) -xP

b) mh

c) -xP

d) {m

6.

Cshx _mhu m Aq
E GUm B -E, G u _mhu
GUm B G?
a) 2E
b) -4E
c)
-2E
d)
4E

7.

K Aq E GUm B En =
2 2 me 4
n 2h 2

d)

2 me4
n 2h 2

BU] UT nzu
a) 2.5
b) 1
c)

d)

SF6 UT E CUP
a) sp3
b) sp3d2
c)

sp3d

d)

sp3d3

a)
8.
9.

4 2 me 4
n 2h 2

b)

2 2 me 2
n 2h 2

c)

10. UT {P H-nP \
a) o-|m
b) m-|m
c) p-|m
d) C Hx
B. K P h
11. s Dzu G G?
12. \UQ { PP Gx.
40

13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

GUm B GvUS UQzx x?

Bmh .
UT BmhP G G?
He2 H EP?
nzu G G?
CUP .

C. P h
h\ \u US.
i&U \mh . Au UQzx x.
s, p d BmhP i[P USP.
UT Bmh PP USP.
NO UT Eu UT Bmh PPi
USP.
uS

19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

Cu AQ s D u UPmhx.
i- U \k UPmk Au UQzx
UPmhx. \U { Pmk.
UT Bmh PP Au kP
Jizu Dq izu Dq UTPUS
Tmkx. Aq BmhP CUP Au
kP UPmkx.
P P
1)

Theoretical principles of Inorganic Chemistry-G.S.Yanker, 9th Edn-1993.

2)

Selected topics in Inorganic Chemistry - V.Mallik, G.D.Tuli and R.D.Madan,

6th Ed. - 2002.

3)

Concise Inorganic Chemistry - J.D.Lec, 3rd Ed. - 1977 and 5th Ed. 2002.
_______

41

2. Bzu Amhn & II

P PmkP
( Bzu sP Aq/ A B, AUS B,
GUm |mh GUm Pv BQ
{ Tu.
( Aq A B[P PnUQk
P.
( AUS B {nUS P Au I, II
IIIB AUS B kzxu.
( AUS B vUS PoP \Ph
Au.
( GUm |mhzu {nUS P Au
vUS PoP xPu.
( GUm Pv vP A AkP
G uhPh xPu.

42

2.1 Bzu sP { Tu
u\ Amhn E u[P sP
Smh ^ ChUS S sk J vP
CUS. Cx Bzu s Gk. u[P UTmk
GUmP A J vP Cu CuSU
PnS. CzuP ] sP _UPP { T.
2.1.1 Aq A B[P
Aq Ax A B Gx K Aq Ax A
AqUP zvS, UTmi GUmPUS
Ch uS.
u \ Amhn \ ChUPzvx
UP \x \un u[P Aq A
B[P ^P SQx. EmP _ AvPx, J
u B mhzv GUmP \x CuSU
PnS. uSv x R[Sx Aq
A B[P Aq Gs AvPu zx EQx.
\UPk GUmP v B mhzv \u E
AvPUQx. C EmP _ AvPu Hk
h AvP.
2.1.2 AUS B
{ uzu Aq GuP nUPmh
K GUm }USuS uk B AUS B
Gk.
Aq()

| A() +GUm

K Aq AUS B PoP
zuuS. A (i) Aq E (ii) AqUP _
(iii) ETmk GUmP US u (iv) GUmP
Fk u (v) v {mh x {mh
E B mh[P.
J \, AUS B vP
ChUPzvx UP ]x ChPh
43

({ A Eu) xP AvPUQx. J
uSv AUS B x RSv SQx.
2.1.3 GUm |mh
{ |k{ Aqh K GUm \zx
Gv_h A EUSx hk
B GUm |mh Gk.
Aq()+ GUm

Gv A() +B

xP GUm |mh J \ Chx

UPP \x AvPUQx. xP GUm |mh
J uSv x R[Sx SQx.
2.1.4 GUm P u
J UT K Aqx n GUm
Cn u DzxUP s GUm Pu
Gk.
J \ GUm PB Chx UPP
\x AvPUQx. \ AqUP _
AvPUSx AqB Su CuSU PnS. J
uSv GUm P B x R[Sx
SQx. Aq B AvPu CuSU PnS.
2.1.5 mh Bzu sP
u \ Amhn \ J] Ch[P
AUS B v Ex v { x
{ BmhP UPmkx.
2.2 Aq Bzu (\Pn Bzu) PnUQh
Aq B Gx AqUP zvS GUm Ahzv
P E US Chmh u BS.
a.

Jizu CAq UTP

A2 P (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 ... ) J izu C Aq

UTPUS, n }, d(A-A) PnUQh.
d(AA)

r(A) + r(A)
44

d(AA)

2 r(A)

r(A)

d(A-A)
______

2
Psh \mix, A2 P J izu C Aq
UTP, Aq A& \Pn Bx r(A),
AqUPPUQhmh u vP CUS Gx
uQx. G, Jizu C Aq UT J
Aq Bx AqUPUPUQhmh u
Csh SUSx QhUQx.
\
1.

Cl2 UT
\u mh ClCl n }zv v 1.98.
G,
r(Cl) =

d(Cl Cl) 1.98

=
= 0.99
2
2

2 .
\u

mh

{
mPP E d(CC) u v 1.54.
d(C C ) 1.54
=
= 0.77
2
2
izu C Aq UTP

G,
b.

r(C) =

ABP izu C Aq UTP, n }

d(A-B) , PnUQhkQx.
d(AB) = r(A) + r(B)
r(A) r(B) BQ A B AqUP \Pn
B[PS.
\
1.

CCl4 UT
\u mh d(CCl) v 1.76
45

G, d(C-Cl) = r(C) + r(Cl)

r(C) = d(CCl) r(Cl)
= 1.76 r(Cl)
G, d(C-Cl) n }zvx Cl Aq \Pn
Bzu Pzu P Aq \Pn B QhUQx.
Cu C Aq \Pn B ux Cl Aq
\Pn Bzu PnUQh.
2.

SiC
\u mh d(Si-C) & v 1.93 . G,
d(Si-C)
r(Si)

=
=
=
=
=

r(Si) + r(C)
d(Si-C) r(C)
1.93 r(C)
1.93 0.77 [ ... r(C) = 0.77 ]
1.16

x Jizu C Aq UTP ]
\Pn n }zv \u vP :
UT
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

H2
F2
Cl2
Br2
H3CCH3

n }()

HH
FF
ClCl
BrBr
CC

0.74
1.44
1.98
2.28
1.54

2.2.1 A B[P PnUQh

NaF, KCl, RbBr CsI BQ |S iP[P AqUPU
PUS Chmh u Aih A B[P
[ PnUQmh. J A iPzv E |
Gv AP u UP GUm GsoUPh
\P (isoelectronic) E.

46

NaF iP

: Na+ - 2, 8
F- - 2, 8

Ne P A

KCl iP

: K+
Cl-

Ar P A

- 2, 8, 8
- 2, 8, 8

, RUPsh Csk TP A B[P PnUQh

kzukQ.
i) K AiPzv E | Gv AP
J umk PsiUS Pxx A
A B[P Tkux AQh AqUPUP
uS \P CUS.
r(C+) + r(A-) = d (C+-A-)

(1)

Aux,
r(C+)

- | A (C+) B

r(A)

- Gv A (A) B

d(C+A-) - C+A G AiPzv E C+ AAP AqUPUPUS Chmh

u
ii) J u GUm A, K A Bx
Au AqUP {P _US GvQuzvUS. Aux
1
Z (C + )

r(C + )

(2)

1
(3)
Z (A )
Z*(C+) Z *(A ) BQ | (C +)
Gv (A) AP {P _PS.
r(A )

\kP (2) (3) BQ Cnzu

r(C+ )
r(A )

Z* (A )
Z* (C + )

47

(4)

d(C+-A-), Z*(C+) Z*(A-)BQ vP ux \kP

(1) (4) I kzv r(C + ) r(A ) vP
PnUQh.
mh (Slater) vP
zu (S) AqUP ^ _ (Z*)
BQ mh vP PnUQh. CvPi
J PkUPmh GUmUS S v
PnUQhkQx.
i) J uzv { GUm A Gu
sk. S Aq EUPzvx GUmP
A Bmh uSvP SUP sk.
(1s) :

(2s, 2p) : (3s, 3p) : (3d) : (4s, 4p) :

(4d) :

(4f)

: (5s, 5p) : (6s, 6p) .......etc.

ii) S v PnUQhh si GUm uukUP

sk. CuS R PkUPmh vPx
GUmP S vP Tmh sk.
J GUm
PUS E S v

GUm P
i)

uukUPmh GUm
uSvUS E GUmP

ii)

uukUPmh GUm
0.35
uSv E GUmP (Ax 1s GUmUS 0.30)

iii)

uukUPmh GUm E
uSvUS Akzu E Tmi GUmP 0.85

iv) EmTkP E GUmP

1.00

{P AqUP _ (Z*) PnUQku

\ 1
mh] Aq 4s GUmUP {P AqUP
_U PnUQk.

48

w
mh] Aq GUm A
K 19

= (1s2) (2s2 2p6) (3s2 3p6) 4s1

{P AqUP _ (Z*) = Z S
Z*

= 19-[(0.85 (n-1)th Tmi E GUmP GsoUP)+

(1.00 E Tmi E zu GUmP GsoUP)]
= 19

[0.85 (8) + (1.00 10)]

Z* = 2.20
\ 2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 GUm A Psh Aq E
Ph] GUmUP {P AqUP _ PnUQk.
Z

= 17

Z* = Z S
= 17 [(0.35 n x Tmi GUmP GsoUP)
+ (0.85 (n-1)x Tmi GUmP GsoUP)
+ (1.00 E Tmi GUmP GsoUP)]
= 17 [(0.35 6) + (0.85 8) + (1 2)]
= 17 10.9 = 6.1
A B[P PnUQh
\
KCl iPzv E K+ Cl AP A B[P
PnUQk. K+ Cl- AP AqUPUPUS Ch
u 3.14.
w
r(K+) + r(Cl-) = d(K+ Cl) = 3.14

(1)

K + Cl AP Ar (Z=18) P GUm A
Psh. G, AP {P AqUP _
PnUQhkQx.
49

K+

(1s2)
(2s2 2p6)
(3s2 3p6)
E Tk (n-1)x Tk n x Tk

Z*(K+)

ZS

19 [(0.35 7) + (0.85 8) + (1 2)]

19 11.25 = 7.75

17 [(0.35 7) + (0.85 8) + (1 2)]

17 11.25 = 5.75

Z*(Cl-)

r(K + ) Z* (Cl ) 5.75

=
=
=0.74
r(Cl ) Z* (K + ) 7.75
r(K+) = 0.74 r(Cl-)

(2)

\k (2) I \k (1)& vh
0.74 r(Cl) + r(Cl) = 3.14

(3)

1.74 r(Cl) = 3.14

r(Cl)

3.14
= 1.81
1.74

\k (2) x
r(K+)

= 0.74 r(Cl)
= 0.74 1.81
= 1.33

r(K+) = 1.33
r(Cl) = 1.81
AUS B
{ J uzu Aqx K GUm
}USuS uk B AUS B Gk.
Ca\ UPmkx.
I1
M(g) + \zuk B
M+(g)+ e

50

AUS B GUm m / Aq (eV/atom), Q.P/

(kcal/mole) Ax Q./ (kJ/mole) BQ ASP
AhkQx.
Akzukzu AUS BP
Psh u AUS Bz u Csh,
AUS BP Pshmk.
{ | Ax M+(g) GUm
}UQ M2+(g) A EUSuS uk B Csh
AUS B (I2) Gk. Aux,
M + (g) + I 2 M 2 + (g) + e
Cu, M2+(g) | Ax GUm
}UQ M 3+(g) A uS uk B
AUS B (I3) Gk.
M 2 + (g) + I 3 M 3 + (g) + e

Cu E AUS BP UP.
J Akzukzu AUS B E
AUS Bh AvPP CUS. H, A
E zu | _US GvP GUm }UPkQx.
AUS B {nUS PoP
AUS B PoPa \xx.
(a) Aq Ax A E: AUS
Bx Aq E Eu zx SQx.
Aq E AvPP Ex AUS B
SP CUS. ] AqUP GUmP |[Q
Ax, AqUP GUmP Chh
Avu CuSU PnS. G, AqUP
E GUm }USuS ] AqS ukuh
Su B ukQx. G, AqUP Su
AUS B, ] AqUP AvP AUS
B .
51

\ 1
Be (Aq Gs.4)& AUS B Li (Aq Gs.3) I h
AvPP CUS. Be (Z=4) AqUP _ Li(Z=3) h
AvPS. AqUP _ AvPP CUSx, AqUP
UTmk GUm BQS Ch D
\ AvPP CUS. G, Be& AUS Bx
Li I h AvPS.
\ 2
Aq (Z=5) AqUP _ zuh (Z =
4) AvPP Cu, Be Bx B-h AvP AUS B
(I1) x. CuP Pn .
Aq (Z = 5; 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py0 2pz0) K J GUm
2p-CnUTmi x. Be-Aq (Z = 4; 1s 2 2s 2) 2sCnUTmi K Cn GUmP x. Be Aq
x { 2s CnUTk ^h Eu BAqh AvP {zuhuS. G, BeAqx GUm }USuS AvP B ukQx.
G, Be AvP AUS B Ehx.
\ 3
P AUS B h AvPS.
P (Z = 6; 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0) AqUP _x
(Z = 5; 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py0 2pz0) h AvPS. Csi 2pCnUTmi K GUm }UPsk. P AvP
AqUP _ u UTmi 2pGUm h AvPP DUQx. G, P u
AUS B h AvPS.
(b) EmP _ Gs v (Magnitude of Nuclear
Charge) : EmP mhP EmP _
AvP AUS B AvP. AvP A EmP
_, GUmP AvP \h nUPmk.
G, C }USuS AvP A B ukQx.
\P U]zv EmP _ (12 mhP)
\izuh (11 mhP) AvP. G, U]zv
52

AUS B \izuh AvP. Cu

AUS B BUh AvP. Cu
UP. (i) F (z = 9 1s22s22p2x 2p2y2p12) EmP _
BUh(z = 8 1s 22s 22p 2x 2p 1y2p 12) AvP. Cu Csk
u[P GUm Bx Au 2p-EmTmix
}UPkQx. EmP _ BU h AvPP
Eu, L mhzv E 2p GUmP AvP
A PQx. G L u AUS B
BU h AvP.
(c) ETmi GUmP GsoUP
(zu ): UTmi GUmx AqUP
\zx D \x ETmi GUmP
US\ PnP K Dk\kQx. G,
}UPh si GUmx AqUP D \x
ETmi GUmP UPkQx. G,
Cnv Tmi GUm AqUP Su A
DUPkQx. G, AUS B SQx. J
uSv x R[Sx AUS B
SuS Cx PnS.
(d) Bmh E : Bmh E
AUS B vUQx. J Cnv E s GUm
p,d f GUmPh AqUPS AQ Cu,
AUS B \ SQx.
s>p>d>f
Azv u AUS B U]zuh
SS. Mg& GUm A [Ne]3s2 Al& GUm
A [Ne] 3s 2 3p 1BS. G, Azv J 3p
GUm, U]zv J 3s GUm }UPsk.
B, s GUmh p GUm Gv }UQh. G,
Azv u AUS B U]zuh
SS.
(e) GUm A ES : P
{ GUm A USx AvP
53

AUS B US. E UP {
GUm A u A AvPm\ AUS
B EhS.
\
Ne& AUS B F&Ih AvPS. Cx
UPkQx.
Ne (Z = 10) AqUP _ F (Z = 9)&I h AvPS.
AqUP _ AvPUSx AqUPS,
Tmk GUmUS E D\ AvPUS. G, .
Ne& u AUS B F&I h AvPS.
GUm |mh Ax GUm P Gu
{ J |k{ AqS K GUm
\zx Gv_h A EUSx
hk B GUm |mh Ax GUm P
Gu Gk.
Aq()+ GUm() Gv A() + B
GUm \US \x AvP B
hmh, GUm |mh AvPP CUS. G,
AUS Bx K Aq | A (M M+ + le)
EUSuP B, GUm |mhx K Aq
Gv A (X + e X) EUSuP B
AkQ.
Akzukzu GUm |mh[P: JUS mh
GUm K Aq \USx, Ax Csh GUm
|mh Gk. Cu E GUm |mh Ex.
AP[P u GUm |mh ( E)
|Shx. BU\k Ax \k A Eu
Csh AUS B GvShx (P).
\P, BU\k Ax \k AP Eu zu
GUm |mh GvSh 640 390 kJ mol-1 vP
x.
X(g) + e + energy X2(g)
54

d10 s2 GUm Psk u[P GUm |mh

vP GvS Eh. E p-Bmh GUmP
\u CuSU PnS (Zn = 87 kJ mol-1, Cd = 56 kJ mol-1).
17&B uSv u[P AvPm\ GUm |mhzu
. K GUm \u { E
GUm A Czu[P u CuSU PnS.
GUm |mh kJ mol-1 G AQ SUPkQx.
uSv GUm |mhzv
J uSv R[S x Aq E
AvPUQx. G, GUm u {P AqUP D\
SQx. Cu PnP, Aq GUm \zxUP
C SQx. Aux, J uSv GUm |mh
R[Sx SQx. P, GUm |mhx
Sx Ai Sx A A B[P
^P AvPuS.
uSv GUm |mh v R[S x Su
Cl& GUm |mhx F&I h SP CUP sk.
B, F (320 kJ mol-1) GUm |mhx Cl (348 kJ mol-1)-I h
SP Ex. CuS Pn F- ] ES.
\UPk GUm AvP GUm Ahzv uu
GUm&GUm US\ AvPUQx. Cu
GUmPUQh US\ Su GUm
|mhzvS PnQx.
E UP GUm |mhx S. Cu
AqUP Cnv Tmi ns 2 np 6 GUm A
u, GUm \x CuuS. G,
C GUm |mh S.
Be N- GUm |mh vP zvS AQ
E. Be& x { 2s Bmh, N- v {
p-Bmh PkUS AvP {zu CuSU
PnS. { GUm A u,
GUm \uP \zvUT P SS.
G, C GUm |mh S.
55

J \ GUm |mhzv : J \
Aq E SQx AqUP _
AvPUQx. Cu Csk PoP GUm u
AqUP D\ AvPUQ. Cu PnP,
Aqx GUm DuP \zvUT AvPQx.
G, J \ Chx P \x GUm
|mh AvPUQx. G, AP[P AvP GUm
|mhzu, EP[P Su GUm |mhzu
.
Azx EP[P Pk (222.7 kJ mol 1) AvPm\
GUm |mhzu x. CuS Pn AvP {P AqUP
_ AqUP d f GUmP \P
UP CuS.
GUm |mhzu vUS PoP
( 1 ) Aq E
1
GUm |mh Aq E
Aq E SP E x, GUm |mhzv
v AvPP CUS. Aq E AvPUS x, {P
AqUP _ S Ax GUm \uP
AqUP D \ S. CuPnP, Aqh
GUm \uP \zvUT S. G, GUm
|mh {P AqUP _.
xP, GUm |mh, uSv R[Sx
S \ Chx P \x
AvPUS. Aq E uSv R[S x AvPUQx
\ Chx P \x SQx.
( 2 ) zu
GUm |mh

1
zu

56

AqUPS TmiS Ch GUm B

mh GUm \UPkuP AqUP D \
UQx. G AvP Ch{ B mh Cu
GUm |mh SQx.
( 3 ) GUm A
u[P GUm A GUm |mhzu K
vUQx. E UP GUm |mh S. C
ns 2 np 6 A Cnv Tmi u,
GUm \uP SS.
Be, Mg, Ca BQ GUm |mh vP
HUS S. CuS Pn x zv
\mh s-BmhPS. G K Aq x
Ax v { Bmh Cu Au GUm
|mh SP CUS.
\ 1
Be, Mg N BQ Hzu GUm |mhzu
. Be (Z = 4; 1s2 2s2) Mg (Z = 12; 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2) BQ
Csk x { s BmhP . G,
^ PnP x { BmhP {z
u . G, Czu[P GUm \zxU
PuS Su \zvzu . Be, Mg BQ
HUS GUm |mhzu .
|m N (Z = 7; 1s2 2s2 2p1x 2p1y 2p1z) v { 2p
ETmh . ^ PnP v {
BmhP {z u . (sm v).
G |m GUm Pu PPU S. BP,
|m Hzu GUm |mhzu mkx.
\ 2
L GUm |mhx S h
SS. GUm |mh J uSv R[S x
SQx. Lx S h Su GUm

57

|mhzu x. F (0.71 ) Su Eh Csh

GUm Tmi u CuSU PnS. (9F = 1s2 2s2
2px2 2py2 2pz1).
i) Aq E ]uP Cu 2pxnUTk |UPP Ex. G Cnv GUmP
UP AhQx. \UPk GUm USQx.
Cu US\ F-Aq GUm \US \zv
SuS PnS.
ii) Aq ] E u AqUP
_ AvP GsoUP GUmP E. Cu GUmP
AqUP UQ. G, {P AqUP _
SQx. Cu \UPk GUm Su D\
Pskx. G, GUm|mh SQx.
2.4 GUm P v AkP
GUm P v Ak K Aih Bu Ak
BS. A n B, C vzv,
AUS B GUm |mh BQ
AihPU PshuS. xP kzuk ]
AkP .
1.
2.
3.
4.

[ Ak
UP Ak
\sh\ Ak
Bm P Ak

[ Ak (1932)
Cu Ahx n BUS, n E
AqUP GUm PvUS E uh AihPU
PshuS.
UT A-B& E A B BQ C
AqUPUQh AB nU Px. A-A, B-B
A-B nP n BP EA-A, EB-B
EA-B BS. A-B n n Bx A-A
B-B nP n BP UP
58

v UPzuh AvPP CUS. G,

E A B > E A A E B B
AQh k () A B& GUm
PvP zv\zxh E uh
SUP.

E A B E A A E B B

= (XB XA)2
Ax
0.208

= XB XA

X A X B BQ A B& GUm
Pv vPS. Po 0.208 Bx Q P
GUm m ASUS x QhUQx.
[ m GUm Pv 2.1 G uP
GkzxUPsk u[P GUm Pv
Ca\mi PnUQmh.
[ Ami SP
vs u[P n BP xP
uuu [ Amh AzvS kzu Cx.
PnUS
PkUPmh uPx S GUm Pv
PnUQk.
EH-H = 104 Q P -1 ;

ECl-Cl = 36 Q P -1

EH-Cl = 134 Q P -1
[ \mii

E HCl E H H E Cl Cl

=
=

134 104 36
134 61.18 =

72.82
59

0.208

X Cl X H

X Cl X H

=
=
=
=
=

0.208 72.82
1.77
1.77
1.77 + 2.1
3.87

XCl - 2.1
XCl
2.

..
.

XH = 2.1]

UP Ak

1934& Bsk UP, K Aq AUS B

GUm |mh BQ AihPU Psk
GUm P vUP v Szv. C
GUm P vx GUm |mh AUS
B BQ \\S.
GUm Pv

I.E. + E.A
2

AUS B + GUm |mh

= ___________________________________
2
UP AUS B GUm |mh
BQ vP GUm m AQ Amh.
CvP [ vh 2.8 h[S AvPP Cux.
AUS B GUm |mh BQ
Q -1 G AQ AhkQ. 1eV =96.48 Q
-1BS.
G, xP HUPmh [ vP

GUm Pv =

I.E. + E.A
I.E. + E.A
=
2 2.8 96.48
540

Cx J \un S. BU]
{P Psh J uzvS vP x
C ]S.
60

SP
C [ h P Cu ]
u[P GUm |mh vUP \P C Cx
C SS.
PnUS
L S GUm Pv vP
UP Ami PnUQk.
F& AUS B = 17.4 eV/atom F& GUm |mh
= 3.62 ev/Aq, Cl& AUS B = 13.0 ev/Aq Cl&
GUm |mh = 4.0 ev.
GUm Pv

S GUm Pv

(IP) F + (EA) F
2 2.8

17.4 + 3.62
21.02
=
5 .6
5 .6

(IP) Cl + (EA) Cl
2 2.8

1 3 .0 + 4 .0
17
=
= 3.03
5 .6
5 .6

= 3.75

GUm Pv P
1 ) n u
GUm Pv vPx n E J
Ax mh AqUPUQh nx
\Pn, \Pn Ax A n
Gu A.
i)

XA = XB BP Ex, XA - XB = 0. G, A-B nx
\Pn BS. (G&P) H2 UT E H-H
n \Pn H-H G SUPkQx.

ii)

XA >XB, BP Ex XA - XB Bx Sx. G A-B

nx \Pn BS. Cx A--B + G
SUPkQx. (G.P) } (H 2 O) UT E O-H
61

nP \Pn BS. XO > XH XO XH SP Cu O--H+ G SUPkQx.

iii)

XA >> XB BP E x XA - XB P AvPS. A-B

nx A Ax n Gk.
A--B +, G SUPkQx. Na-Cl UT E Na +Cl n A nS. G, Na + Cl - G
SUPkQx. (Cl = A, Na = B BS).

2 . \Pn \uu Azu

[ (XA-XB) vUPx A--B+
\PnP \uu Az u {nzu.
CvPx RUPsh iP zu.
(i)

(X A -X B ) = 1.7, BP Ex A - -B + n \uu
Azu 50% \Pnzu 50%
Azu Ehx. G A-B n 50%
Azu, 50% \Pnz u
EhuS.

(ii) (X A-X B ) < 1.7 BP Ex A - -B + n \uu

Azu 50% h S. \Pnzu 50% h
AvPS.
G
A - -B +
n
x
\Pnzuh A-B G SUPkQx.
(iii) (XA-XB) > 1.7 BP Ex A--B+ n Azu
50% h AvPP \Pnzu 50% h SP
CUS.
G
A - -B + nx
x
- +
Azuh A B G SUPkQx.

62

u vk
A. \ h u \P.
1.

{ m PP \u Pshmh
C-C v
a) 1.34

2.

b) 1.36

c) 1.54

uSv x RPa \x A B
a) SQx
c) Guu

3.

b) AvPUQx
d) C Gx

{P AqUPa _ mi
PnUQh.
a) Z* = Z-S

4.

d) 1.56

b) Z* = Z + S

c) Z* = S - Z d) Z = Z* - S

\ T uuk
a) h P AqUP _ AvP
b) h P E A x
c) P GUm S \[P EUSQx
d) P Aa \[P EshUS

5.

: AUS B Ph Jmh
L
a) AvP AUS B Pskx
b) Su AUS B Pskx
c) Au A AUS B Pskx
d) C Gx

6.

R E G AvP AUS B
x.
a) P EP[P
b) Ps EP[P
c) P
c) E UP

7.

Aq GUm |mh
a) E Ah |Quz uhhx
b) E Ah GvQuz uhhx

63

c) E A zux A
d) C Gx
8.

Gx AvP GUm P u Pskx.

a) L

9.

b) S

c) d) Ai

n B Cnx AqUP GUm

P v BQ AihPU Psh Ak Gx?
a) [ Ak
c) \h\ Ak

b) P Ak
d) Bk \ Ak

10. GUm Pu AS x?
a) Q

b)

c) Q d) Q -1

11. Cl2 UT n }
a) 0.74

b) 1.44

c) 1.98

d) 2.28

12. AUS B \
a) s < p < d < f

b) s>p>d>f

c) s>d>p>f

d) s<d<p<f

13. Ch P, GUm |mh

a) SQx
c) Sx AvPUQx

b) AvPUQx
d) AvPzx SQx

14. E UP_____GUm |mhzu

a) AvP

b) S

c)

d) PUS

15. XA>>XB G A-B n

a) \Pn
c) A n

b) \Pn
d) EP n

B. K UQ[P h uP.
16. A E AvPUS \
GxP.
a)
b)
c)

O2, F, Mg2+, Na+

F, F
N, O
64

d)
e)
f)

Fe2+, Fe, Fe3+

Na+, Cl, Na, Cl
I, I+, I

17. u[P A u AUS B

H\ Gv, AuP Pnzu USP.
a)

Li, Be, B

b) N, O, F

c) C, N, O, F

18. RUPsh u[P Gx AvP AUS B

Ehx.
Na, Cl, Si Ar.
19. RUPsh CnP E u[P AvP AUS
B x Gx? H?
a)

Mg Al

b) B Al

c) Al Si

20. CnP Gx AvP AUS B Ehx.

Pn T.
a) K (A) Ca
b)
Be (A) B
c)
I (A) Ba
d) F (A) Cl
e)
N (A) O
21. uz uSvP Guz u PUSu
AUS B x? EhUSU
Pn[PU TP.
a) Ca (A) Be
b) Ca (A) K
c) Cl (A) I d) Be (A) C
22. RUPshS h.
a)
b)

Gu u AvP |S GUm |mh v

Ehx.
Gu u Su GUm Pv vhx.

23. [ Ak, P Ami SP GxP.

24. L GUm |mh S h S H?
C. 60 \PUS P h
25. \Pn } Psk Aq B[P G
PnUQk?
65

26. [ Aq Bzu PnUQk USP.

27. uSv \ AUS B mh
GxP.
28. GUm |mhzu vUS PoP USP.
29. GUm P u vU Psk AqUPUS Ch
E n G Psh?
uS
u[P Bzu sP _UPP { Tmhx.
UTP Aq A B[P G Eun[Ph
PnUQhmkx. AUS B vUS PoP
\Ph UPmk. GUm |mhzu vUS
PoP _UPP vUPmk. GUm P v
vP
Ak

AkP
P
UPmk.
P P
1)

Concise Inorganic Chemistry, J.D. Lee, 3rd Edition, 1977.

2)

Selected Topics in Inorganic Chemistry, Wakid V.Malik, G.D.Tuli,

R.D.Madan 7th edition, 2001.

66

3. p - uSv u[P
P PmkP
( 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 18 x uSvP ^ [P
x Pu.
( mh iP uzu, sP P x
Pu.
( ]PP ux Pu.
( m zukzu, Au sP P x
Pu.
( kP, BUkP, BU A[P
mkP BQ uzu, sP, P
AP x Pu.
( L uzu sP { T.
( E Cha \[P x Pu.
( A UP zukzu ux Pu.
( \ \[Pz uzu, sP AP
{ T.
( A UP Pz ux Pu.

67

u \ Amhn
18
n s 2 n p 1-5
He

Ne

Cl

Ar

As

Se

Br

Kr

Sn

Sb

Te

Xe

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

13

14

15

16

17

12

Al

Si

Ga

Ge

In
Tl

7
n s 2n p 1

13
14
15
16

n s2n p 2

n s 2n p 3

uSv 1 7
P uSv
18
|m uSv
BU uSv

n s 2n p 4

n s 2n p 5 n s 2 n p 6

Sk
E UP

p-uSv u[P, s-uSv u[P UQ uSv

u[P Ax v{vzx u[P G AUPkQ.
C zu 44 u[P. u \ Amhn A
UP \zx 13&18 uSvP E u[P puSv
u[P. p-uSv u[P CP {PP [S
QUQ. BP zv Azv [S P AvP.
Cx PhzvP \kQx. Azx Pa
68

\[PUS xPP Cx P BS. ]P ]P

(Silicon chips) Po UQ [S QUQx. E[PUS
UQzx u u |m BS. UT BU
v_UP GuUS xn Qx.
p-uSv u[P x sP
1.

p-uSv u[P x GUm A ns2 np1-6.

2.

p-uSv ] EP Ph \x EP[P,
AP[P E.

3.

C
EshUSQ.

4.

C xP AvP A AUS B
. AUS B v \
AvPzx, uSv Sx PnkQ.

5.

u[P Gv (] EP[P u)
| BU {P . (L u)

6.

p-uSv u[PUP Ezu J s u Cn

. Aux s-Bmh E GUmP
vnS Emh p-Bmh E
GUmP mk v nS EmkuS.
uSv x RP \ x Aq Gs
AvPS H u Cn AvPUQx.

\Pna

\[P

uSv 13& u[P & Sk

, A, P, Csi u
u[P uSv 13(IIIA) & E.

K Au u. Au {
0.001% Ex.

13&x uSv P UQ u A.

P PU Su ES{ (29.7C) Ehu A

{ }P Ex. P B]k uUP
P kQx.
69

Csi S Phzv \u[P uUP kQx.

C , uh {&P
(thermisters) kQ.

u P |a_z u Ehu zuP v

kv.

3.1 x sP (General Trends)

GUm A: Cu uSv E u[P
x GUm A ns2 np1.
Amhn 3.1 13&x uSv u[P GUm A

Aq
Gs

GUm A

uSv
Gs

\
Gs

[He] 2s2 2p1

13

13

[Ne] 3s2 3p1

13

31

[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1

13

Csi

49

[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p1

13

81

[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p1

13

3.1.1 mh iP K2 SO4. Al2 (SO4)3. 24 H2O uzu

mh iP A|m (alunite) Ax iPU P (alum
stone) &x uUPkQx.
A|mix uzu: A|m Ax iPU P K2SO4.
Al2(SO4)3. 4Al(OH)3 BS. Cx |S yUPmk }zu \LU
Azxh \zx PvUP UPkQx. Ax
A mU\k Sv A \mhP Qx.
Cuh PnUQhmh A mh] \mh \zx
iP iPUPkQx.
sP
1.

mh iP so iP iz vs.
70

2.

Cx } P. B BP Px.

3.

Al2 (SO4)3 & }S u Cu }UP\ Az

u Ehx.

4.

365K {US `kkzx x Cx ESQx.

kzv Azx } UTP Cx
Ezv uQx. Cx GUPmh iP (burnt alum)
GkQx.

P
1.

Cx }a _zvPUP, } Kmh BhP, \, PQuz

u\P kQx.

2.

Cx Czu Eu FUSUS xP kQx.

3.2 uSv 14& u[P

uSv 14 (IVA) & P, ]P, , i
m u[P E. C u\P, E
C[P UQPU PukQ.

u[P, [SP P Ex. u Eh

{ 23% P Ex. E C[P AihU
T P \[P BS.

P EQ ]P UQx. Cx Gsn ]Pm

P[PP Ex. P AvPP E
u[P ]P Cshx Chzu x.

]P | vs { P
uUP kQx.

i m [Pzvu EPkzumk
EP[P BS.

x sP (General Trends)
GUm A: Cuz uSv E u[P
GUm A ns2 np2.

71

Amhn 3.2 14x uSv u[P GUm A

Aq
Gs

GUm A

uSv
Gs

\
Gs

[He] 2s2 2p2

14

]P

14

[Ne] 3s2 3p2

14

32

[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2

14

50

[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p2

14

82

[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2

14

3.2.1 ]UPP A P
]PP uS ]P P iP BS. C oP
vP kQ.
SiCl4 xP }hx SiO2Iz uQx. Cx {zu
u Eh n A Ehx. F.S. Q[ G
AP vmh S ]P }SUS x A
Gvzu Rmh A ]P \[P
EshP. AuS vP }sh \[Qz uh A
Psh ]PP G iP Eshx.
R

Cl
Si

Si
R

Si = 0
OH

R
OH + HO

OH
Si

Cl

R
HO

H 2O

Si

R
OH

HO

Si
R

72

R
O

Si
R

OH

]PP uUP uk
AP vk \mh S ]P BS. i
AP S ] R3SiCl } Shx U\
AP ]U\z uQx.
R
R

Si

R
O

Si

R
R
h AP h S ] R2SiCl2 } Shx
}sh \[Qzuh iz uQx. \hU Ti OH
uSv J \[Q Eu iUP uhx
|h \[Q } AvPQx.
R
HO

Si

R
O

Si

R
O

Si

R
O

Si

OH

AP iS ] }Shx ]UP
SUS nu i ]PPz uQx.
|
O
R

Si

|
O
O

Si

O
R

Si

Si
O

73

P
1)

]PP mhP mk EP
PUS Pa ]u P P kQx.
C AvP zuz u[P x.

2)

| Pmk \[Qz uh i 20 u 500 ASP

Psh. C } ]PP. AvPU Pz uSvU
Psku } US s . G
C } US BhP uUP, E P,
Tmku kQ.

3)

Su {, ]P P m]z u
uUP zxU PQ. v mP
vUPkv. skPh CU Px
kzv }izx EUS.

4)

]UP SUS ia ]P \[P Jmhu u

(non-stick) sm P kQ.

5)

]P GsnP kzx x BP
AvP {z u Eh. G AvP
{P k Gsnz umiP, h
P kQ.

3.2.2 mi EP
uxUP
1.

PbS

2.

\\m

PbCO3

3.

B[Q\m

PbSO4

4.

m JUP

PbO

zukzu: m EP, Au \k ux Px
UQP zukUPkQx. m \k ]u
] P Ex.
74

1.

Ahzu: ux ~ u AhUPkQx.

2. Gv A E EUSu: AhUPmh ux
E u { UPkQx. E
{ P Pmkkzxu J {
UPkQx. USx, mi J v BU]
Ahx m BU\k v m \mkP
Qx.

UP

G
| E

h 3,1 Gv A E
2PbS + 3O2

PbS + 2O2

2 PbO + 2SO2
PbSO4

P \UPmk { Ezx Au
P A SUPkQx. m \k, Csk BU]
Ph x mh PkUS.
PbS+2PbO
PbS+PbSO4

3Pb+SO2
2Pb+2SO2

Cu , { J E zu
EUSu Csk \kQ.
75

CP mh m EP 90% P\hP
. yUPmh PP _sn P\kh \zx
`hUQ, m zx GkUPkQx.
yUPmh ux

Ahzu

PbS AvPP E ux
zu

PbO, PbSO4, PbS E ux

y EP

EUSu
_ Pu EP

ykzu

Pb EP +Au, Sn

]
zukzu

Pb +Sn, Ag, Au

mh ykzxu
zukUPmh mi ], P, i, z, u[P
C _UP E. R P EP
yUPkQx.
a. } _zvP
_ Pu EP E \ kP zx
kzukQx. m EQ \ R[SQx. E
EPu _UP u[QkQ.
b. ] }USu
i\ Ax U ] UPkQx.
c. ykzu
C y m kQx.
|
& _ Pu m
Gv & y m
S
& m ]UPm (PbSiF6) +
m ]]U A (H2SiF6)
76

mh h AvP | _h EPu _UPQ

C i PP P _UP |
\h. y m EP Gv i.
C sP
1.
2.
3.
4.

} Pu \ {zu, u Ehx.
Pzv mhhUTi x EP
PPP, uPhP shx.
Cx \zu Phzux.
PQuzv Gx shx.

v sP
1.

Ph

i)

Eu P vUPkv. DU P m
Pm Ax m mU\k h EPzv x
ix, uhx Ph u ukzxk.

ii)

P Ax BU]h `kkzxx, m u
(PbO) ] mhP (Pb3O4) BU] Ah.
2Pb + O2 2PbO
3Pb + 2O2 Pb3O4

2.

}h

P `{ m y } vUPhx. B
} P Px C, P u |a_z u
Psh m mU\k uQx. Cx P
u G AUPkQx.
2Pb + O2 + 2H2O

2Pb(OH)2

3.

A[Ph

i)
ii)

}zu H2SO4 HCl Eh m v.

`h Ah H 2SO 4 Azxh x SO 2
Qx. Pu m \m h Eu
P SQx.
Pb + 2H2SO4 PbSO4 + 2H2O + SO2
77

iii)

Ah HCl Azxh x m
S U Azuz uQx.
Pb + 2HCl
PbCl2 + 2HCl

PbCl2 +H2
H2PbCl4

SU A

P
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

m SP \ kQx.
uv u] PP uUP.
SskP m P[P,
\U A u ,
\h, mh Aa_ EPU P uUP,
m Gv\ ukUP Eu m hmGzv
(Pb(C2H5) 4) uUP kQx.

PnUS
A G u uSv Gs 14 \ Gs.6 Ex. A
Ah HCl Eh x B Azu uQx. u A
\[P B C Psh. P GxP.
w
1.

Bzu Amhn uSv 14 C uh 6 E

u A m BS.

2.

m Ah HCl Eh B PkUQx.
Pb + 4 HCl H2PbCl4 + H2
B \ SU A.

3.

P[P uUS GvP k \ C BS.

Au C hm Gzv m.

3.3 uSv 15 u[P & |m uSv

|m, , B\U, Bsi z
BQ uSv 15 (VA) u[PS.

|m J . shzv 78% P A
|m Ex.
78

uSv 15 P AvPP QhUS u BS.

B\U a]PP uUP, GeAs S PhzvP
uUP kQx.
z ] vs. h&
xP z \[P PnkQ.
As, Sb Bi u[P P Su
A PnkQ.
x sP
GUm A: CzuSv u[P x
GUm A ns2 np3.
Amhn 3.3 uSv 15 u[P GUm A
u

Aq
Gs

uSv
Gs

\
Gs

|m

[He] 2s2 2p3

15

15

[Ne] 3s2 3p3

15

B\U

33

[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3

15

Bsio

51

[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3

15

83

[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3

15

GUm A

3.3.1 \[P
a) kP
G h x \Pn
\[PQ kPz uQx. Av
SkP UQS. i h
SkP xS.
I.

iSk, PCl3

u : J }zumi UPmk kzx

Pzv GkzxU Psk Eu S a
79

\zv xP `kkzx x mSk

BP Qx. Cu EU P UPmk
Pzv \zv }Qx.
P4 + 6Cl2

4PCl3

Cu s x \zv sk Pa] izx, Av

Px hSk _ }UPkQx.
Eu
D R Y CS
H L O R IN E

W
H IT E

C aC l 2

P H O S PH O R U S

}
SAN D

P C l3

h 3.2 \ua\ PCl 3 uUS

C sP
1.
2.
3.

{ Su Pv{h }
DUP P shx
P nhx

v sP
1. }h PP x A m
Sk uQx.
PCl3 + 3 H2O 3HCl + H3PO3
Cu, PU]U A, BP mU]
uSv P \[Ph .
80

 3CH3COCl + H3PO3
A]mh Sk

PCl3 + 3CH3COOH
A]miU A
PCl3 + 3C2H5OH
Gzv BP

3 C2H5Cl + H3PO3
Gzv Sk

2. S Ax \ Skh x
hShz uQx.
PCl3 + Cl2

PCl5

PCl3 + SO2Cl2 PCl5 + SO2

3. Ph Eh x BU]Shz
uQx.
2PCl3 + O2 2POCl3
4.

SO3 Eh x POCl3 SO2 uQx.

SO3 + PCl3 POCl3 + SO2

A:

P
Cl
Cl

Cl

Cl

xx
x Px
x
Cl

Cl

x - p - GUm
- C l- GUm

II. hSk, PCl5

u: AvP A Eu S m
Skh \zv h Sk
uUPkQx.
PCl3 + Cl2 PCl 5
C sP
1.
2.

hSk g\ Pu {h
vs.
473 K US `kkzxx u[PS. E Azuzv 318K
ES.
81

v sP
1.

hSh `kkzxx, ]u
iSk S PkUQx.
PCl3 + Cl2

PCl5
2.

}h AvPP }hx, } AUS H

BU]Sk Ax U AzuU PkUQx.
Su
PCl5 + H2O

POCl3 + 2HCl

A }
AvP A

PCl5 + 4H2O
3.

mU] uSv Pa \[Ph

x S U PkUQx. Cv
mU] uSv S vk \kQx.
C2H5OH + PCl5

4.

H3PO4 + 5HCl

C2 H5Cl + POCl3 + HCl

EP[Ph x EP SkPU
PkUQx.
2Ag + PCl5 2 AgCl + PCl3

A
Cl

Cl
Cl

x
x

Cl

Cl
x
P
x
Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl
Cl

82

x - p & GUm
- C l & GUm

b)

BUkP

m BUk P2O3 Ax P4O6

A P Gzu m BUk
EshQx.
4P + 3O2 2P2O3
I.

C sP
1.
2.

s { S vs
E si n Ehx.

v sP
1. P2O3 Su }h x Azu uQx.
P2O3 +3H2O 2H3PO3
2. P2O3 `h }h AvPzxh x GUTi
z uQx.
2P2O3 + 6H2O PH3 + 3H3 PO4
II. hUk P2O5 Ax P4O10
AvP A P Gzx hU\k
uUPkQx.
P4 + 5O2 P4 O10
C sP
hU\k s{ Az uh
vs.
v sP
1. P4O10 DUPh x mh U Azuz
uQx.
P4O10 + 2H2O 4HPO3
mh U AU P\ PvUP zu Bzu
U AP Qx.
HPO3 + H2O H3PO4
Ax
P4O10 + 6H2O 4H3 PO4
83

2. \LU A, |mU A Emh Pa

\[Px Pa \[Px } }UP
hU\k kQx. G, Cx J ]u } }US
PoP kQx.
P4O10

H2SO4

SO3
- H2O
P4O10

2HNO3

N2O5
- H2O

P4O10

RCONH2
Ak

-H2O

RCN
|m

P : }}US PoP kQx.

c)

BU A[P

I.

P2O3 Ax PCl3& }h zx A
uUPkQx.
P2O3 + 3H2O 2H3PO3
PCl3 + 3H2O H3PO3 + 3HCl
C sP
A so iP iz vs. E
si _hx.
v sP
1. Az u: A C Pzxhu
Csk u EPz uQx.
H3PO3 + NaOH
H3PO3 + 2NaOH

NaH2PO3 + H2O

\i h m m

Na2HPO3 + 2H2O

h \i m m
84

2. kzx x u BU JkUPhx
U Azu uQx.

4H3 PO3 3H3PO4 + PH3

3. P-H n Cu Cx J ]u JkUS PoP
\kQx. ] |mmh ]P JkUSQx.
2AgNO3 + H3PO3 + H2O 2Ag +H3PO4+2HNO3
GUm A
O

O
x x
H

O x P
x
H

x - P & GUm
- C l & GUm
- H & GUm

HO

OH
H

: Cx JkUS PoP kQx.

II. Bzu U A
u
1. hU\h } Pzx, P\ PvUP
zx U A uUPkQx.

2H3PO4
P2O5 + 3H2O
2. BPz u : Sh Ti Sk ]
50% |mU Azu GkzxU Psk }z
umi zx |m BUkP x
PvUP UPmk U A uUPkQx.
Ai P P \kQx. 453 K
{US SP BUQ h Ezx P
GkzxU Psk EP ` zx Szu Bzu
U A iP[PP iQx.
P+5HNO3 H3PO4 +5NO2 +H2O

85

C sP
1.
2.

Px } Eg_ iP iz vs.
} PU Tix.

v sP
1. Cx UPzxhx. Cx NaOH P[Ph
x P EUPz uQx.
H3PO4 +NaOH

H3PO4 +2NaOH

H3PO4 + 3NaOH

NaH2PO4 + H2O

\i m m

Na2HPO4

+ 2H2O

h \i m m

Na3PO4

3H2O

\i m

2. Bzu U Azu kzx x 523 K

{ U Azu 589 K {
mh U Azu uQx.
523K

H3PO4

589K

H4 P2O7

2HPO3 + H2O

3. ] |mmkh x ] m G g\
{ iz uQx.
H3PO4 + 3AgNO3 Ag3PO4+3HNO3
P
1.
2.
3.
4.

\LU AzvS vP HBr HI uUP

kQx.
S[P a _mh kQx.
\i, mh] A m EUP
uUP kQx.
m E[P uUP kQx.

A
UPzx Ehu U Azv A
R Axx.
86

GUm A
O

O
x x
O x P x O
x
O

x - P & GUm
- O & GUm
- H & GUm

H
P

HO

OH
OH

III. U A, H4 P2 O7
u: BzuU Azu 523 K 533 K {US
kzx x U A QhUQx.
2H3PO4 H4P2O7 + H2O
C sP
Cx { iPz vs.
v sP
1.

}h kzxx Cx sk Bzu U
AP Qx.
H4P2O7 + H2O 2H3PO4

2.

AvPP kzxx mh U Azu

uQx.
2PO3 + H2O

H4P2O7

A: U Azv A R umkx.
GUm A
O
x x
H

O
x x

x P
x
O

O x P
x
x
O

HO

P
OH

87

P
OH

OH

x - P & GUm
- O & GUm
- H & GUm

 - PH3
mkP UQuS.
BPz u: _h 30-40% \i
mU\k P\ \UPmk CO2 ` PvUSx
QhUQx.
4P + 3NaOH + 3H2O PH3 + 3NaH2PO2
d)

\i m

CP uUPmh yx. Cu
m Ahk }U P\ \zv PH 4 I
EshQx. PH 4 I KOH Ax NaOH h \zx
kzv y QhUQx.
PH3 + HI PH4I
PH4I + NaOH PH3 + NaI + H2O
C sP
{ . AQ nhx.
v sP
1. ]uhu: 723 K { ]uhx
] uQx.
4PH3

723 K

P4 + 6H2

2. Ph : 423 K {US kzv

Ph Gx hU\hz uQx.
4PH3 + 8O2

P4O10 + 6H2O

3. Sh : Sh EhiP Gx PCl3
PCl5 EshUSQx.
PH3 + 3Cl2

PCl3 + 3HCl

PH3 + 4Cl2

PCl5 + 3HCl

4. JkUS s: Cx J ]u JkUS Po. Cu EP

EU P\ \zv EP QhUQx.
PH3 + 6AgNO3+ 3H2O 6g + 6HNO3 + H3PO3
88

P
1.

Pzv

P Gx P Ahzv P EUSu
PzvP kQx.
2. : xhmk mi
P] k P] Pk { Ph
GkQx. } mi x P ~x P]
Pk P] kh x A]mi
uQx. Ph EhiP Gx
A]mi Ga\Qx. ] {a _h
Gu EshS P \xPQx. Cx Ph
E PPUS PmkuPP kQx.
Ca3P2 + 6H2O 2 PH3
CaC2

+ 3Ca(OH)2

+ 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2

PnUS
uSv Gs 15, \ Gs 3 E A G J u
Sh x B uQx. B Sh
273 K {US x C uQx. B C
Csk Pa \[P S \ kQx. C
Pa ]u S \ Po. Cx EPzuUTh
S \. B Bx SO3 h x SO2 BP
JkUSQx. B k ihx. C-sp 3d Pu
UPn Ck ihx. A, B C PshP.
P GxP.
w
1.

uSv Gs. 15, \ Gs. 3 E u BS.

G, A . Sh x PCl3
uQx. G \ B, m Sk, Cx k
ihx.
P4 + 6Cl2

4PCl3

89

2.

PCl3 Sh x PCl5 uQx. G,

\ C hUSk BS. Cx UPn
k ihx.
PCl3 + Cl2

3.

PCl5

PCl 3 PCl 5 P \[P S \

PoP kQ. G Csk C 2H 5OH h
x C2H5Cl uQx.
PCl3 + 3C2H5OH
PCl5 + C2H5OH

3C2H5Cl+ H3PO3
C2H5Cl + POCl3 + HCl

4. PCl 5 J Pa ]u S Po. Cx P
S \Qx.
PCl5 + 2Cu
5.

2CuCl + PCl3

SO3 h PCl3 x SO2 BP JkUSQx.

PCl3 + SO 3

POCl3 + SO 2

3.4 uSv 16 BU Sk
uSv 16 (VI A) & BU, \, \, h,
u[P E. u |S u[P
\P (chalcogens) Ax ux EUS u[P
G AUPkQ. H EP[P uxUP
BU\kPP, \kPP QhUQ.

BU AvP A QhUQx. shzv

Ph UQ Sv P BU Ex.
46.6% BU Ex.

\L uzu { uP Ax \P
Su A QhUQx. \L PuP P (Brim stone)
G AUPkQx.

z uxUP Pa ]u PvUPz u E
QhUQx. u \u U 1898
B Bsi PskiUPmhu Czu
G hmhx.
90

x sP
GUm A
G u[P ns 2 np 4 G GUm A
. A {zu U Tmk (octet configuration)
GUm A Csk GUmP
ukQ.
Amhn 3.4 16x uSv u[P GUm
A
u

Aq
Gs

GUm A

uSv
Gs

\
Gs

BU

[He] 2s22p4

16

\L

16

[Ne] 3s23p4

16

34

[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p4

16

52

[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p4

16

84

[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p4

16

3.5 uSv 17 & Sk

L, S, , Ai Ahh
BQ u \ Amhn 17&x uSv E.
C Azx P G AUPkQ. Cx
G C QUP zux mhx.
CuS E EUSx G . Ph
} PnkQ.
x sP
GUm A: G u[P ns 2 np 5 GUm
A .

91

Amhn 3.5 17x uSv u[P GUm

A
Aq
Gs

GUm A

uSv
Gs

\
Gs

[He] 2s22p5

17

17

[Ne] 3s23p5

17

35

[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p5

17

Ai

53

[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5

17

Ahh

85

[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p5

17

v sP
1. BU v: AqUPUS GUm
|mh AvPP Cu C BU G UQ
s . Lx Ai Cs
SQx. L J ]u BU Po. Cx
k AP PP A P\ Ax
Eu { BU \Qx.
F + 2 X 2F + X (X = Cl , Br , I)
2

Aq Gs SP E P, Aq Gs AvPP E
k AP BU Aha \Q.
2. Pv: UTP P
P } ShzuUP A Pv.
C L }h x O12 O3 Pz
uQx.
2F2 + 2H2O

4HF + O2

3F2 + 3H2O

6HF + O3

PU PPQ CCl 4, CHCl3 BQ S,

, Ai BQ |S Px g\,
Fu {U P\PU PkUQ.
92

3.

P mkP (m kP)

i)

Azx P mh x HX G
k BPU Ti \Pn mkP
EUSQ.

ii)

Cu mkP m[P G AUPkQ.

iii)

Lx Ai \a \ mh
P \v SQx. m Lh
iUS uh Cmi Qx. Sh
` J , h kzx
x m Qx. m, Aih
UQ kzv mk TkQx.

iv) m[P JkUS PoPS.

v)

HF u, m kP UP.
UTPUQh m n HF J
}P Ex.
H F ....... H F ....... HF ....... HF

vi) HX& Azu RUPsh Ex.

HF < HCl < HBr < H.
L mh u
1.

L AvP v Ehx. H F-F

n UP S A B u.

2.

}zu P[Ph x OF 2 &, Ah

P[Ph x O2& Qx.
Au
`{

mkP, mkP uQ.

3.

m x AvP |mhzv Gv HF \zu

EUSQx. m n AvP
GsoUP HF UTP J \x E. G HF
A J Su A. B
mU A[P UP.
...... H F...... H F..... HF.
93

4.

5.

EP[Ph Cx Csk P EUPz

uvx, Px kQx.
\ : NaF NaHF2.
HF& EP A[P EPx
kQx. AgF } P AgX } Pv.

6.

GUm P u AvPP Cu Cx Gv ()
BU { mk Pskx. P
Gv | BU {PU Psk.

7.

HF Psni AUS u Ehx. B

m kP Psni Av.

8.

L Aq UTmi d-BmhP Cuu

Cx kP EUSv. G, 3 , Br3, Cl3
AP E. B F3 A C.

Psni AUS u
u\ L (CaF2)I m zvzv Ah
\LU Azxh `kkzx x HF QhUQx.
CaF2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + 2HF
HF iUPmk, A BP } SUPmk,
m PPzv \PUPkQx. CP QhUP }
HF S uh miP xPUPkQx. Cu Psni
miP Ax ]P miP xPUP ix.
H Cx ]P ]Pmkh .
Na2 SiO3 + 6HF Na2SiF6 + 3H2O
SiO2 + 4HF

SiF4 + 2H2O

]P ]Pmi x HF& \ Psni

AzuUS kQx.
Psni u P \kQx. Gu i
sk Au S x x, HF B Au x
ki UP sk. S hh Psk P P
sk. Cx Psni u i uuU
Pn.
94

3.5.1 L uzu zukzu

Sk- F

Aq Gs - 9

\ Gs

Cnv-1

Aq { -19

uSv Gs : 17

: 2

L uzx CP Qhv. Cx
u[Ph \x \P QhUQx.
h : C 1931 B Bsk h, h
\ BQP Pshmhx. \i Ax m
Lh (|P Eu) Szx L uUP
kQx. V-izu B \zu `kkzuU Ti P
S QLm uskPUQh Szu
\kQx. S P P iP
hmk. C QLm uskP UPm
]i zumk. C uUP P
P S kzukQx.
KHF2

KF + HF

HF H+ + F
2H+ + 2e H 2
2F 2e F

(Gv)
(|)

Um
P
iP

H2
N aF

N aF
uh
E

Qm
uskP
EQ
KH F2

u U i
SP

h 3.3 L uzu
95

| L U-S E \i
Li \zukQx. Cx Lh \x HF
}USQx.
NaF +HF NaHF2
C sP
1.
2.
3.

L _ Pu g\ { .
P AvPP Fk P |ihx.
Ph Px.

v sP
Skzv UP u L BS.
1. mh : mh, L iUS
uh, UP zxh Cmi mk HF&Iz
uQx.
H2 + F2 2HF
2. AP[Ph : P, ]P
AP[Ph Gx LkPz uQx.
C + 2F2 CF4

hm Lzu

Si + 2F2 SiF4

]P hm Lk

2P + 5F2 2PF5

h Lk

3. EP[Ph : EP[Ph x
A LkPz uQx.
2Ag + F2 2AgF
2Al + 3F2 2AlF3
4. Cha \[P: P
Cha\[P Ph x uQx.
Br2 + 3F2 2Br F3
2 + 5F2 2 F5
96

P
1.

L \[Pz uUP L kQx.

|a_z u, G u, BPU Ti CP
}[P SmiP S \u mi, Bu
Smi, S \u[P (air conditioners)
kQx. h Sh zu CF2 Cl2 G
L
Azx
\u[P
xP
kzukQx.

2.

CaF2 EP CUQP kzukQx.

3.

|vu ukuS ]u ukuS NaF

kQx.

4.

Av zu \u[P Phzu P SF6 kQx.

5.

h (Teflon), m LU A \zx US
P \ kQx.

6.

UF6 Bx, U235 U238&I zukuS kQx.

Cha \[P
J h \x \[P
EUSuS Cha \[P G . Su
GUm P u u u GukQx. k
x Su GUm P u u u
hh sk.
C |S PPP UPkQ.
AX

AX3

AX5

AX7

CIF
BrF
BrCl
ICl
IBr

ClF3
BrF3
ICl3

BrF5
IF5

IF7

Cha \[P P |iP Ti

97

EshUSQ. Ax AX, AX3, AX5, AX7 S

Cha \[Ph \zx E Cha
\[P .
Cl2+ F2 (\ P A)

473K

2ClF (AX P)

2 + Cl2 liquid (\) 2Cl (AX P)

Cl2 + 3F2 (AvP A)

573K

2 ClF3 (AX3 P)

Br2 + 3F2 (|m Psk }zu) 2Br F3 (AX3 P)

Br2 + 5F2 (AvP A) 2Br F5 (AX5 P)
2 + 5F2 (AvP A) 2F5 (AX5 P)
F5 + F2 (AvP A)

573K

F7 (AX7 P)

GUm P u ]u mk Cu
\Pn EshQx. G ES{, Pv{
GUm P u k AvPUSx EQ.
Cha \[P xP P h AvP
v Eh. (F u) H A-X n
XX n h x. P C
v Eh. }Szu kP,
BUk AP uQ. Ezv
P Cx BUk A EQx.
H2O

BrF5 + 3OH

Cl + OH

5F + BrO3 + 3 H+
m

H2O

Cl + O + H+
Ahm

Cha \[P i[P

Cha \[P xP \P na \[P.
C |k Ezv Ex.
98

1. AX P. AX P |Pmk AS. CF, BrF, BrCl, Br

CI BQ |Pmk A Eh.
S Aq GUm A C{
Q { 3.4& Pmhmkx.

C{ Aq

|Pk UT
AX

|S sp3 CUP BhP

h 3.4 Cha \[P AX P |Pmk
A
uzu GUm Cshx h \Pn
EshUSQx. G Cv AX |Pmk A
Qx.
2. AX3 P: AX3 P UPn Ck A Ehx.
(uzuGUm uUP T A Ehx).
CP \ sp3d Pu EQx. Cx h
3.6&C Pmhmkx. Shmk
AUSP L AqUP [Pmh
GUmPU SUQ.
F

Cl

:
F

h 3.5 CIF3 UT A
99

J J Cn \hu
GUm J \Pn
mk EUS

C{ Aq

Cn \hu
GUmP \P
nP EUS.

Av{ Aq

sp d CUP ClF 3
3

UT ESu

sp3d CUP

h 3.6 Cl F3 UT Eu [S sp3d CUP

3. AX 5 P ( F5, BrF 5, u) Cu P \[P sp3d2
Pu EshQx. Cx h 3.7 Pmii GsQ
i. (uzu GUm uUP \x k ihx)

C{ Ai Aq

Q{ Ai Aq

h 3.7 IF 5A

sp3d2 CUP

4. AX7 P ( F7). CPa \[P sp3d3 Pu

EQ. Cx I[Pn C k A Ehx.

100

F
F

Q{ Ai Aq

F
sp3d3 CUP

F
F

F
h 3.8 IF7 A

PnUS

uSv Gs. 17, \ Gs. 2& E A G u uzu

shx. A }h x B C G Pz
uQx. A Cmi mh AvPzxh x
D G Azuz uQx. A,B,C,D BQU Pski.
P .
w
i)

uSv Gs. 17 \ Gs. 2& E mh sh A

G u L.

ii) L }h x B C G Pz
uQx.
2F2 + 2H2O
3F2 + 3H2O

4HF + O2
6HF + O3

G, B Gx BU, C Gx K\.
iii)

L mh x D&z uQx.
F2 + H2 2HF
L D Gx m LU A.

3.6 uSv 18 A UP Ax u UP
, {, BP, Qh, \ h
u[P u \ Amhn 18& E. \un
{ Azuzv C UP. h u

101

P ]u E. i PvUPa ]uhx hz
uQx.
shzv Pa ]u Cu CS A
UP G . v P PU SP Cu
u UP G AUPkQ. AvP GsoUP
\ \[P, Csk Qh LkP mk
Cx uUPmk. G C E UP
G hmk.
GUm A
C G u[P ns2 np 6 GUm A
. Cv GUm p-ETmiSa \u C
p-uSv u[P GkQ.
Amhn 3.6 uSv 18x u[P GUm
A
u

Aq
Gs

GUm A

uSv
Gs

\
Gs

1s2

18

10

1s22s22p6

18

BP

18

1s22s22p63s2 3p6

18

Qh

36

1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 4p6

18

54

1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
4p64d105s2 5p6

18

86

1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
4d104f145s2 5p65d106s2 6p6

18

u UP zukzu
u
UP
P
BU,
|m
,
P&h&BU\k,
},
y]
}UQ zukUPkQ. C }UP
102

v Ax C P kzukQ.
v i u UP \[PP
}UPkQ, C }U P BUP
u mP }UPkQ.
v
P \zv |m
BU BQ a \x |m h BU\hP
}UPkQx. (N2 + 2O2 2NO2 ) u u UP
PS. AkzuuP (U Pa] ) mh
{P Q PP u UP
P \zv C UPkQ.
i 1 shzv BU |m
|m h BU\hP }USu \&
\& :- 50 mh P E Psni
\mh P i zvzv P BU Pu
P uha]P \zukQx. C Csk
mi P UPmk. 6000 - 8000 m
\ Cu \zukQx. Ax |m PP
BUh \x |m h BU\hz uQx. Pzv
\i mU\hz uha]P \zv Cu BU\k
PUPkQx.
N2+ O2

2 NO

2 NO + O2 2NO2
2NO2 + 2NaOH NaNO3 + NaNO2 + H2O
P i Psni zvzv Hu BU C
Ax P[Pu P \zv Pzx }UPkQx. ]x
| \ P, \ \zxu {zv u
P u UP }UPkQ.

103

S
oda out
NaOH

EG
a se s in

ES
S o d a in NaOH

h 3.9 v u UP zu
i 2 E UP zukzu (v )
QhUP E UP P u[P
Jmk P \zv {P uUP
P U Pa] \mk uzuP zukUP
kQ.
Cmha _ S (double-walled bulb) u[P Kmk P
GkzxU Psk 173K { u UP P
\zukQu. A o | Ai UPkQx. 173K,
{ BP, Qh \ UP
u[P Kmk P U Pa] \kQ.
{ Pkv. C (He, Ne) mk
\PUPkQx.
93K { UPmh u[P Kmk P
{a \zu { x Pmk
mk kQx.
173K { BP, Qh \
UPU Psk u[P Kmk Px }U P
104

{ UPmk u[P Jmk P

UPkQx. BP mk }U P {
UPmk P a \Qx.

u[P KmkUP
S }
w Sk

h 3.10 E UP zukzu (i )
173K { E P Qh \
E. { 183K&US AvPkzv Qh
kQx. \ Pmk P Ex.
Cu kzv \ QhUQx.
\ & Lk \[P
XeF2, XeF4, XeF6 G P LkP
\ uQx. Xe L \ ` |iP
a \x C \[P . \,
L ` J Ax US x
mh J kzu XeF2 QhUQx.
Xe+F2

673K

XeF2

105

673K

Xe + 2 F2

XeF4
573K

Xe+ 3 F2

XeF6

sP: Xe F2, Xe F4 Xe F6 { iP iz vs[P.

298 K { u[PQ. C Pa ]u
LP. ]u } P }SUP i. \
2Xe F2 + 2 H2O 2Xe + 4HF + O2
A : VSEPR PPi mh \
LkP
AP
Amhn
3.7&
PkUPmk. XeF2 XeF4 |Pk ui
Eh. XeF6 7 GUm iU Pskx. (6 n
J uzu GUm) Cx J[P GsQ izu
x.
E UP P
(A)
1.

P \uP, G uuP, Cu
P AhUPmk A
kQx.

2.

P \uP Cu BP [P hP
{uS kQx.

3.

|m SP zu |[Ph \x (bends)
G }x S x EshUSQx.
|m&BU PUS vP &BU
P BPh }xP kzukQx. H
Cx |m h Czuzv SP P u
Ehx.

4.

Bx Snkzu & BU P
kzukQx.

106

5.

S { \uP \uS }
(Pv{ 4.2K) Q\U PoP (cryogenic agent)
kQx.

6.

NMR {, zxz x k MRI

(Magnetic Resonance Imaging) P (Scan)
kzuU Ti AvP Phzx v PQu[P
uUP Cx kQx.

(B) {
1.

[P k
kQx (discharge tubes).

USP

2.

AvP zuvx \u[P xPUP

zxh \zx kzukQx.

3.

k Fka \ s u BP
[P Eu x u CUP x
zxQ USP kQx.

4.

Cx u[P uz ysku, S EP
ku { USP uz umh[P
kQx.

(C) BP
1.
2.

26% |mh \zx C {mh USP

BP kQx.
i P, SP kQx.

(D) Qh \
1.
2.

JUTi EP CU Psk P {
Kr Xe kQ.
\zu SP (discharge tubes)
kQ.

(E) h
1. PvUP B, Pva] (radiotherapy) |
Snkzu kQ.

107

u vk
A. \ hz u \x GxP.
1 Gzu 13x uSv \ux A?
a) B
b) Al
c) Ge
d) In
2. G AvPP QhUQx?
a) C
b) Si
c) Ge
d) Sn
3. J u Aumh BUh Gx A G
BU\hz uQx. A }h x B G Azu
uQx. B kzv C G Azu uQx. C
] |mmkh g\ { iz uQx A Gx
a) SO2
b) NO2
c) P2 O3
d) SO3
4. E si nh \ Gx?
a) P2 O3
b) P2O5
c) H3PO3
d) H3PO4
5. PCl5 i x
a) k
b) UPn C k
c) |Pmk i
d) |Q
6. Pzv kzuk \ Gx?
b) PCl5
c) PH3
d) H3PO3
a) PCl3
7. Gx 1 BU { mk Ex?
a) F
b) Br
c) Cl
d) I
8. J hzu Psni Gu Euh i?
a) HI
b) HF
c) HBr
d) HCl
9. Azv Sux Gx?
a) HF
b) HCl
c) HBr
d) HI
10. P uSv G?
a) 14
b) 15
c) 17
d) 18
11. E UPUS v S, H
a) J GsoUP GUmU Pskx
b) AqUPmk Gs J
c) Su Ahzv Eh UP
d) {zu GUm A
108

12. XeF4& i
a) |Q
b) GsQ c) u \x
d) k
13. RUPsh Gx \zvx?
b) XeF4
c) XeO3
d) ArF6
a) XeF6
14. P \, Gu u Gx?
a) He
b) H2
c) N2
d) Ar
15. RPsh Gx P AvP u AUS B
Pskx?
a) He
b) Ne
c) Ar
d) Kr.
B. K P h GxP.
16. \ (plumbo solvency) S GxP.
17. H3PO3 CPzx Ehx H?
18. a) PCl 5 b) H3PO3 BQ A P.
19. P2O5 J Pa]u }}US Po Gu {.
20. H2S P Ex H2O mk H }P Ex?
21. L BUh \x EUS \[P
BU Lk G AUQ. B L
BU\k G Av H?
22. L Aih AvP GUm P u
Pshv HI&Ih HF H Su A
Pskx Gu USP.
23. Cha \[P G G? A G
EQ?
24. L BU v TP.
25. XeF6 G uUPkQx? Au UT izuz
uP.
26. H E UP L BUh mk
\[P EUSQ?
27. { P GxP.
C. P h
28. ]PP G G? A G EshQ?
A PU SkP.
109

29. m G uUPkQx? Au UQ
sP, P .
30. RPsh
\[P
G

Cx
uUPkQ.
b) P2O5
c) PCl3
d) PCl5 d) PH3
a) P2O3
31. LkPx L G zukUP
kQx? Au UQ sP, P
.
32. Ai Psk Cha \[P P
. Au AP P.
33. G E UP Px zukUPkQ
Gu P ?
34. \ EUPk \[P GxP.
D. \ PnUSP
1. uSv Gs 14&Ia \u A u K EP, Cu Pzv
mh. Cx J ]u Phzv Phzv. A
y { }h x. B P Pu }h
x mU\hz uQx. A&IU PshP.
2. uSv Gs. 15, \ Gs.3& E u A |S
AqUP Ehx. i Pshx. A PU
P\h \x B&IU PkUQx. B AQ
nhx. A Sh x C IU PkUQx.
Cx E si nhx. A, B C&IU PshP.
P GxP.
3. uSv Gs. 15, \ Gs.3& E A G u
Sh x B&z uQx. \ B
}Shx CPzx A C&z uQx. \
C uP BU, JkUP Ahx UPzx A
D &Iz uQx. u A, \ B, C D&IU PshP.
P GxP.
4. uSv Gs. 17, \ Gs.2& E A G u AvP
GUm P u Ehx. u A,B&h x
C&Iz uQx. B& uSv Gs. 17, \ Gs.4. \ C
110

sp3d2 CUP Ahx GsQ izuz uQx. u

A B \ C&IU Pski. P GxP.
uS

u \ Amhn 13&18 E u[P

p-uSv u[P.

Sk 13x uSv Ex& mh iP

A|mix uUPkQx.

P Sk 14x uSv Ex.]P Gx

uS ]P P iP. Px m
uUPkQx.

|m Sk uSv 15& Ex.

BU\kP, kP, BU A[P,
mkP EshUSQx.

BU Sk 16x uSv Ex.

Sk 17x uSv E.
Px L kQx P
zv UP G \[PP QhUQ.
u[P h L AvP GUm Pu Ehx.
k EP Szx F2 BQ
UPmk.

E UP Ax u UP uSv 18 E. C
x {mh Cnv Tmk GUm A
. Su v Eh. \
Lh, BUh \x \[P
EshUSQx.

P P
1.

Inorganic Chemistry by P.L.Soni.

2.

Inorganic Chemistry by Puri and Sharma.

3.

Concise Inorganic Chemistry by J.D.Lee.

4.

Chemistry fourth edition by McMurry Fay.

111

4. d - uSv u[P
P PmkP
( d-uSvz u[P xsP, |S Ch{
\P uP Au.
( EP[P zukUS x P Au.
( EPU PP C, sP P Au.
( \[Pz uUS P, A sP
P P Au.
EP uS J A, J Es, J u,
J \Puzx ES P Qx.... Cx G
|UP. A Qx, P Qx. Cx |
uS, PzxUQhuS QhUS _.
ii[ sh, ] v .

112

27
Co
40
Zr

46
Pd

13-17
p- uSv

18 u UP

1-2 s- uSv

d- uSv
Ch{ u[P

110
Uun

u \ Amhn |kSv d-uSv u[P

Ax. C Azx EP[P BS. d-uSv
|S Ch{ \P, J \ 10
u[P E.
Cuz u[P, Ph] GUm d-Bmh E
Cnv TmiS E TmiS, Aux (n-1) d
BmhUSa \Qx. G C d-uSv u[P G
AUPkQx. Cuz u[P Sv { dBmhP u { Ax A {
.
d&uSv
u[P,
C
sP
AvP
|u u[PUS (S&uSv EP[P)
Su | u u[PUS (p-uSv
AP[P)Ch Axu Ch{ u[P G
AUPkQ.

113

d-uSv u[P Pkzxu

3d,4d,5d (A) 6d {ku zx Ph] GUm
Bmh {ku zx C |S \PP
UPmk.
i)

3d \ (A) u Ch{ \ (21Sc to 30Zn)

ii) 4d \ (A) Cshx Ch{ \ (39Y to 48Cd)

iii) 5d \ (A) x Ch{ \ (57La and 72Hf to 80Hg)
iv) 6d \ (A) |Px Ch{ \ (89Ac 104Rf to
112) (A) u \.
d-uSv u[P GUm A
Ch{z u[P Cnv TmiS E
Tmi d-BmhP Akzukzx {kQ. u
Ch{ \ 3d BmhP {kQ. Cx
Psizv uh[Q (Z=21) [U \Qx (Z=30).
Cshx Ch{ \ 4d-Bmh GUmP
{kQ. C E 10 u[P, Gm (Z=39) u
Pm (Z=48) Ex.
x \ 5d-BmhP {kQ. Cu
\ u u u (Z=57). Cuz uhx E 14
u[P ukP G AUPkQ. ukP
4f
BmhP
GUmP
{kQ.
zvzvx (Z=72) S (Z=80) E u[P
x \a \u.
Ch{z u[P x GUm A
(n-1)d1-10 ns1-2. Ch{ \P GUm A
Amhn 4.1 PkUPmkx.

114

4.1 d-uSv u[P ]P

4.1.1 Aq A B[P
Ch{ u[P Aq A B[P s-uSv
u[P h ]uP, p-uSv u[Ph
uP E. u Ch{ \P Aq
A B Amhn 4.1 PkUPmkx.
Amhn 4.1 u Ch{ \ E
u[P Aq B[P
u

Sc

Ti

Cr

Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

Cu

Zn

Aq
B
(pm)

144

132

122

118

117

117

116

115

117

125

u Ch{ \P Aq B Sc x Cr
Sx P K ^P, i AvPzx
PnkQ. C Csk P Aih
UP. A zu AqUP _
BS. Csk P J Gvu
AqUP _ AvPQx. G Cr x Cu Pa]
k EuU Pn.
Cshx x \P Aq B[P
Amhn 4.3& PkUPmkx.
uk SUPzu P zv Aq
B vP Hzu J A .
4.1.2 EPz u
UTk Pa]x. G Czu[P Cnv
Tmi E GUmP GsoUP P SP (2&USa
\P) Cu Azx Ch{z u[P EP[P
BS.
C Pi, uPhPzuUP, PP }mhk u
Eh. d-BmhP Sv {u C
\Pn EUP PnQ. Cu EP[P \
zu |S Phzx uh.
115

4.1.3 { A Eu
Ch{ EPa \[P vh Ax
P\ { {P E. EP AP
{zvSU Pn, uzu GUm A J
d-Cn Tmi E Akzukzu B mh[PUS
Ch ] B mh k BS. G, J B
mhzvx B mhzvSa \ Su A
B mk ukQx. Cu B GuP PmS
J Th u C. G, Eg\mh JUS Dh
{zuU PkUQx.
Amhn 4.2 Ch{ EP AP {[P
PkUPmkx
A

mh
GUm A

Sc3+, Ti4+

3d0

{x

Ti3+

3d1

PFu

V3+

3d2

a\

V2+, Cr3+

3d3

Fu

Mn3+

3d4

Fu

Mn2+

3d5

C a\

Fe3+

3d5

Fe2+

3d6

a\

Co2+

3d7

Cg]

Ni2+

3d8

a\

Cu2+

3d9

Fu
}

Cu
Zn+

3d10

{x

Zn2+

3d10

{x

116

[U, Pm S EP GUmP
Cha]uS
u
BmhP
UPuu ( {mh d &Bmh) {
E EUSv. Sc3+ AP d-GUmP Cuu
{P E.
4.1.4 UQ sP
Ch{z
u[P
A
\[P
UQPP kQ. Pn[P C
UQ sP .
i)

ii)

mh BU] {P u C
k Ph \x Ch{ Pz
uQ.
C u[PUQhmh \[P EUS
u UQ. Ca\[P U Pa]US
Emmk k P Qa \Q.
UQPUS GkzxUPmkP

i)
ii)
iii)

A uzu C/ i
UQP kQx.
SO2 I SO3&P BU] \ i hU\k
(v2o5) UQP kQx.
zw u TiCl4 UQP kQx.

4.1.5 mh BU {P
Azx Ch{z u[P mh BU
{ Ax mh CnvP A \[P
Pskx.
Cu
sP
Pn[P
R
PkUPmkx.
i)

Cuz u[P (n-1)d ns GUmPU

Psk.

ii)

(n-1)d ns BmhUS E B k PU
SP EuS.

117

Ch{z u[P BU {P ]
sP
1.

AvP GsoUP BU {PU Psk.

u[P \ |k Ax |kS AQ
Ax. GkzxUPmhP, u Ch{ \
[P AvP GsoUP BU {P
(+2 u +7 ) Pskx.

2.

\ u E u[P Su BU
{U Psk. H C Su
GsoUP d-GUm Cx CUP Ax Qx
P. \ Ph] A Su
BU
{
.
H
d-GUmP GsoUP AvPP E. G J]
P d-BmhP mk nS kQ.

3.

Ch{z u[P Su BU] {

Eh u[P (+2 +3) xP A
n, AvPm\ BU] { Eh
u[P \Pn EshUSQ.

4.

Ch{ EP[P AvPm\ BU] {

+8. GkzxUPmk zw B A
] \[P +8 BU] { .

5.

] Ch{ EP[P BU {
Au \[P . Ni(CO)4 Fe(CO)5 BQ
x GkzxUPmhS.

4.1.6 PusP
uzu GUmP GsoUP zu A
Puzu {nUPkQx. Puz u zx
A Csk PPP UP.
i)

Puz u \[P

uzu GUm u Puz u G

s . Puzu DUPk \[P
Puzuh.
118

ii)

h Puz u \[P

uzu GUmP Cuu h Puz u G

s . C Pu zv UPhQ.
Ch{z u[P A \[P
Puz u u Puzu
DUPkQ.
uzu
GUmP
GsoUP
AvPUSx Puz u s AvPUQx. J
\zv Puz ux Puz vzv
UPkQx. Puz vz v RUPsh uh
PnUQhkQx.

n(n + 2) BM ( Umh)

n = uzu GUmP GsoUP

\
Ti3+ - uzu GUmP GsoUP1. G,

= 1(1 + 2)BM =

3 = 1.732 B.M

Puz vz v v AvPP CUSx Pu

s AvPUQx.
Puzu h Puz u u, A
\un EP[Ph Jkx AvP
Puzu Eh. Ca\[P Puz u
(ferromagnetic) Eh G AUPkQ.
4.1.7 Ana \[P Eu
d-uSv u[P | AP, DP Gk. ]
UTP (CO, NO, NH3....) Ax APh (F-,
Cl-, CN-....) Ana \[P EUS u
P . An EuP Csk
Pn[P
i)

] E AvP | Ahzv.

ii)

P (n-1)d BmhP u A DP E
119

uzu n Dkhu uzu Cn

GUmP n uUQx. Ana
\[PUS ] Eun
[Cu(NH3)4]2+, [Ag(NH3)2]+, [Fe(CN)6]4-,.....
4.1.8 EPU PP Eu
Ch{z u[P Jh J \x EPU
PP EUSQ. Cx H Czx Hzu
J Aq A J v iP A
u J Chzu GkzxU P i.
\:Cr-Ni, Cr-Ni-Fe, Cr-V-Fe, Mn-Fe....EPU PP u.
4.2 ux Ch{ \
4.2.1 u P zukzu E uzx
Aq { : 63.54
Cnv : 1 2
Aq Gs
: 29
Sk
: Cu
u \ Amhn Cu& Ch &\ Gs&4,
uSv Gs & 11.
u
u S u u uvu EP P. ]
wx Gkzx EQUPmhu P C
S G mh. P uzu { uP
Ax \P QhUS. uzu P AvP A U]P
(Michigan (USA)) |mix QhUP x. P Cv
][ (Singhbhum) (P), Pmv h (u)
u|mi QhUQx.
uxUP
i)
ii)
iii)

P m , CuFeS2.
Sm Ax P, Cu2O.
P Q , Cu2S.

P UQz ux P m BS. EP A 76%

P Cvx kQx.

120

1.

yUQ Ahzu

uxx
yUPmk
AhUPkQx.
2.

zu

AhUPmh uxx Gv A E Cmk AvP

A P \zv UPkQx. zu x,
i)
ii)
iii)

Du kQx.
BPU Ti _UP }UPkQx.
\L, , B\U Bi _UP
BPU Ti BU\kPP }UPkQ.
S + O2

P4 + 5O2
4As + 3O2

SO 2
2P 2O5
2As2O3

iv) P mP Sv P A
\kPP kQ.

2CuFeS2 + O2
2FeS + 3O2
3.

Cu2S + 2FeS + SO2

2FeO + 2SO2

EUQ zu

UPmh ux, yUPmh PP nh \zx

Fx E `kkzukQx. Ex GLS uPmi
\mk, Em _mh \[P Pmhmkx. 800C &
`h Px E AiPzv E P \zv
E \zukQx. Cu PnP [P
{PQx.
2FeS
FeO
2Cu2S
Cu2O
FeO

+
+
+
+
+

3O2
SiO2
3O2
FeS
SiO2

2FeO + 2SO2
FeSiO3 (CPUTi P\k)
2Cu2O + 2SO2
Cu2S + FeO
FeSiO3 (CPUTi P\k)

121

EUQ zu PnP, E AiPzv EQ

Csk AkUSP EQ. AkUQ E P\k \P
}UPkQx. R AkUQ E mi S \k
]u hu L \Lk Ex.
4.

]USu

]x Chmh Aa] Axx. Cuh

CnUPmh xPh Ti ] SP `h
P ~so n \UPkQx.
Hux \L, Ba\U Bi ]u C
A BU\kPP kQx. mi E L
\Lk L BU\hP mk P\hP }UPkQx.
2FeS + 3O2
FeO + SiO2

2FeO + 2SO2
FeSiO3 (P\k)

] S \k S BU\hP BU
AhQx. Cu S BU\k S AvP S \Lkh
x P EPP Qx. Qhzu y
EP PU P GkQx. Cx 98% yP Ex.
2Cu2S + 3O2
2Cu2O + Cu2S
5.

2Cu2O
6Cu

+ 2SO2
+ SO 2

ykzxu

PU P 2% _ Ex. Cu
yUP ykzu.
yUP
_zu EP uUP Cu kzukQx.
i)
ii)
iii)

y P EP |
y P uPk Gv
\LU A \UPmh CuSO4 S

S P \zu \zx x y P
Gv iQx. _UP | UPQ SP
iQx. Cx Bk n (Anode mud) GkQx.

122

sP
C sP
P \ { EP. AvP
Ahzv, AvP ES{ (1356C) Ehx.
v sP
i) DUP Ph
CO2 DU P P EP a\ {
P P Pm izu uQx.
2Cu + O2 + CO2 + H2O
ii)

Cu(OH)2 . CuCO3
a\

zv

P BU Ax P \g`mk
{US `kkzv (1370K {US R) u P
{ SU BU\hP, 1370K {US
`kkzv ] { S BU\k EQx.
2Cu + O2

R
1370K
{US

2CuO

K {US
4Cu + O2 1370

2Cu2O
iii) A[Ph

a)

}zu HCl H2SO4 &Eh

Pa ` (Ax) BU Po Cu x
}zu HCl H 2SO 4 Ph v. P
EP Azv PQx.
2Cu + 4HCl + O2 (air) 2CuCl2 + 2H2O
2Cu + 2H2SO4 + O2 (air) 2CuSO4 + 2H2O
b)

}zu |mU Azxh

P }zu |mU Azxh x NO

kQx.
3Cu + 8HNO3(}zu) 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
123

c)

Ah HNO3 H2SO4 Eh

P Ah HNO3 Ah H2SO4 Azxh x

NO2 SO2 kQx.
Cu + 4HNO3 (Ah)
Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O
CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
Cu + 2H2SO4 (Ah)
iv) Sh
P Sh x P Sk EshQx.
Cu + Cl2 CuCl2
v) Pzxh
P Pzxh v.
P
1.
2.
3.
4.

\u[P PP uUP kQx.

zv[P, PPP, P mhP, |n[P
u uUP kQx.
\ kQx.
u[P Pu EPU P |n[P
Bnz u kQx.

P EPU PP
EPU
P
i) zu

Cu = 60-80, Zn = 20-40

ii) sP Cu = 75-90, Sn = 10-25

iii) xUQ
EP

zv[P, Smk
SP, PP
\ kQx.
zv[P, ]P
|n[P \
kQx.

Cu = 87, Sn = 10, Zn = 3 xUQ, \UP[P,

P uUP
kQx.

124

4.2.2 u S zukzu P
S
Aq {
Aq Gs

Cnv : 0,1,2,3,4,5,6
Sk
: Cr

: 51.99
: 24

u \ Amhn Ch: \ Gs& 4, uSv Gs& 6.

L.N. S G ga v 1797 B Bsk,
A ] Qhzu Pzu B \ x J v
uzuU Pshu. Cx { \[PU Pku
CuS S G . QUP zu S G {
G k.
u
EP S uz uP CP Qhv.
P, `, \, BQ Ch[P Sm ux
QhUQx.
uxUP
Szv UQ ux
Sm Ax S ux, FeO Cr2O3
Sm uxx S EPzu
zukzu
Sm uxx S zukzu
iPU Pshx.
1.

Ahzu

|S y \mh ux \ kzv
AhUPkQx.
2.

Sm uxx Na 2CrO 4 uzu

AhUPmh ux AvP A \i Pm _mh

_sn \UPmk Gv A E AvP Pa
\zv 900-1000C { UPkQx. Cu
P Smi E S } P Ch
125

g\ { \i SmhP Qx.
4(FeO. Cr2O3) + 8Na2CO3 + 7O2 (P Cx)
Sm ux

900-1000C
8Na2CrO4 +2Fe2O3 + 8CO2
P
Px
u
Ehx

\i Smix \i h Smh u
} Pu \i Sm P\h PnUQhmh A
\LU Azua \UP \i h Sm uQx.
2Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2O
\i h Smh SU BU\hP u
\i h Smh P Psk JkUP \i
Sm EshQx. Cu AvP }h \zx kzu
Cr2O3 iQx.

Na2Cr2O4 + 3CO

Na2Cr2O4 + H2O

Cr2O3 + 2 NaOH

Na2Cr2O7 + 3C

SU BU\h JkUQ S u & A

JkUP

h 4.1 A
1. BaO2 + Mg y 2. wUPs hUSP 3. U] |h,
4. n

5. Cr2O3 + Al
126

S BU\h PnUQhmh A Az
y 3:1 G Quzv Px wUPsn \mh
S GkzxU PkQx. CUPh U]z y
U\hU Px UPkQx.
Cz uUP wUPs n `mkx. CuU
P Mg |h zx wh sk. Cu
{P x AvP A EshQx. Cu
Cr 2O 3&I SP JkUSQx. EQ S S
Aizv \PUPkQx. A BU\k P\hP
}UPkQx.
Cr2O3 + 2Al 2Cr + Al2O3 + 468.6 kJ
Cr&C sP
C sP
1.
2.
3.

Cu EP ] sx, iP
ihx.
Cx P Pix. EhUTix.
2113K&C ESQx.

v sP
1. Ph :
vUPkv.

\un

P AvP {US 2000C kzxx Cx

SU BU\hP BU AhQx.
4Cr + 3O2 2Cr2O3
2. }h : A { C. G
\g`mk { }a ]uzx SU BU\h,
m PkUQx.
2Cr + 3H2O Cr2O3 + 3H2
3. Azxh : Cx }zu mSU A,
\LU A BQ Px m
S EUPz uQx.
Cr + 2HCl CrCl2 + H2
Cr + H2SO4 CrSO4 + H2
127

4. E { Ah \LU Azxh \L h
BU\h SU \mhz uQx.
2Cr + 6H2SO4 Cr2(SO4)3 + 3SO2 + 6H2O
5. y EP }zu |mU Azu vUPkv.
Ah A EPzu uzu Aha \Qx. Aux
CP Au UP PUS Emkv.
6. Ph : S |iP Eu
L Sh \x S (III) kPz
uQx.
2Cr + 3F2 2CrF3
2Cr + 3Cl2 2CrCl3
: S _u
1.

S \si GvP, m
uPmh | P Psk SU A,
\LU A \u P P\ SPU
PkQx. SUS x S
x (Gv) iQx. xP S _uS
{UP \kQx.

2.

EP P uUP kQx. (G.P) S

GLS, S i GLS, xiUPu GLS
h[h GLS.

3.

S {UP GLS Ph[P \kQ.

4.

S EUP {PP, { Psni

[P zv[P \ kQx.

5.

\z u Szv \[P {PP u

uk u kQx.

128

Szv EPU P
EPU
P

i)

LS Cr = 65% Fe = 35%

ii)

xiUPu
GLS

Cr = 11-13%
C = 0.1 - 0.4%
Fe = 73% Ni = 8%

iii)

|U

Cr = 15%, Ni = 60%
Fe = 25%
Cr = 20-35%
Co = 40-80%
Ni = 0.25%
C = 0.75 - 2.5%

iv) hm

P
Cx S GLS
xP mhP[P
uUP
kQx.
Cx \ \u[P
zv[P
u
kQx.
uhU PP
uUP kQx.
\\u[P
Aa ]Qa\U
PP \
kQx.

4.2.3 u [U zukzu uzx[P

[U
Aq { : 65.37
Cnv : 2
Aq Gs
: 30
Sk
: Zn
u \ Amhn Ch : \ Gs&4, uSv Gs&12
[Pzv EPU P Zn Cu Hzu zu
EuPU Pv Au C A
kzxmk ux. Pzv Cx [U | |mi
UPzv Cux. Buzv Cx u (Yashda) G
AUPmhx. xP m (jast) G AUPkQx.
u
Cx v AvP EPu uzu
{ Qhv. C, \[PP
Ch[P PnkQx.

129

uxUP
Cu UQ uxUP
i)
ii)
iii)

[U m, ZnS
P, ZnCO3
[\m, ZnO

[U&UQz ux [U sm. Cuz ux Cv

u E Eu AQ _[Pzv QhUQx.
[U six [P zukzu
[U six [P zukzu iP
{PQx.
1.

Ahzu
y \mh ux ~ u AhUPkQx.

2.

zu

AhUPmh ux _ 1200 K { AvP A

Pa \zv UPkQx.

2 ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO

3.

+ 2SO 2

JkUP

[U BU\k PPh \x wUPsn \mh

S SP GkzxU Psk 1673 K {US
kzu ZnO Bx [U EPP JkUPkQx.
ZnO + C 1673
K

Zn + CO

yUP
yUP [U yUPkQx. \
Pu [U |P, y [U uPmi Gv P
Psk }zu \LU A, [U \m \u P\
SP GkzxU Psk \zu \zx x |
Px Pz y u [U Gv iQx.

130

sP
C sP
i)
ii)
iii)

}[Pu s{ EP
\zuU Phzx
CuU PP }mh uPhP AiUP.

v sP
i)

Ph

773 K { P Gx s g_
[U BU\k EQ S C Qx. \ E
(philosophers wool) GkQx.
2Zn + O2
ii)

773 K

2ZnO

}h

y [U }h v. B _ Pu [U (ZnCu Cn) } ]uzx m Qx.

Zn + H2O (}) ZnO + H2
iii) }zu A[Ph
y [U }zu A[P vUPkv. C
y [U }zu A[Ph x m
kQx.
Zn + 2HCl

Zn + H2SO4

ZnCl2 + H2
ZnSO4 + H2

iv) Ah H2SO4 Eh
Ah H2SO4 zxh [U x ZnSO4 uQx.
Zn + 2H2SO4
v)

ZnSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O

Ah HNO3 Eh

[U Ah |mU Azxh mh \ x
mh Pz uQx.

131

4 Zn + 10 HNO3 (dil) 4 Zn (NO3)2 + N2O + 5 H2O

|m BU\k
4 Zn + 10 HNO3 (very dilute) 4 Zn (NO3)2 + NH4NO3 + 3H2O
A |mm
vi) P[Ph
[U Ah NaOH P\h x PU Ti [Pm
A EshUSQx.
Zn + 2NaOH + 2H2O Na2ZnO2 + H2O
\i [Pm
[U& P
1.
2.
3.
4.

A uPkP P \ kQx.
\k Pk ] zukzu
kQx.
[U uPkP uskP, E P
mhP kQx.
[U xPP BPzv JkUS PoP kQx.

4.3 Cshx Ch{ \

4.3.1 u ] zukzu uzx
]
Aq { : 108
Cnv : 1
AqGs
: 47
Sk
: Ag
u \ Amhn Ch : \ Gs&5, uSv Gs&11.
u
] uzu { uP, \P QhUQx.
uxUP
i)
ii)
iii)

] UQ uxUP
Ahm Ax ] Q, Ag2S
] Ax Shm, AgCl
m Ax ], Ag2S. Sb2 S3
] UQz ux Ahm. Cuz uxUP ] Pa
132

]u (Hzu 1%) Ex. ]u ]x u[Pz ux

Cx P|hP E P P, Au
_[P[P QhUQx.
Ahm uxx ] zukzu
U Bu m \k i ] Ahm
uxx zukUPkQx. Cx iP {PQx.
1.

Ahzu
yUPmh ux ~ u AhUPkQx.

2.

ux NaCN Eh \zu

AhUPmh ux |S y \x 0.4&0.6% \
\i \k P\h P \zv kzx x,
\i Ah \k G PUTi Ana \
EshQx.

3.

Ag2S + 4NaCN
2Na [Ag(CN)2] + Na2S
\i Ah \k (P u)
] iu

\i Ah\k P\ iPmhmk Pu
_UP }UPkQ. i} [U y]h \UPmk ]
iUPkQx.
2Na [Ag(CN)2] + Zn Na2[Zn(CN)4] + 2Ag
4.

yUP

Szu _ ] yUPkQx.
_Pu ] | P, y ] uPmh Gv
P, 1% |mU A Pu ] |mm P\
SP GkzxU Psk \zu \zx x y
] | Cx Px Gv iQx.
4.3.2 ] |nzvx ] u
] |n P, ] Pu EPU PS,
Cu, Ah |mU Azv PUS x P ]
Au |mmkPP AgNO3 Cu(NO3)2 BP Qx.
133

CUP\ PvUP USx E |mU A

BQ. Gg] |mmkPh Ah m SU
Azua \US x, Cx x ] Sk
iQx. P P\ Px kQx. i iPmi
zx AvPA \i Pmkh kzx x ]
Sk ]P JkUPkQx.
4AgCl + 2Na2CO3 4Ag + 4NaCl + 2CO2 + O2
Qhzu ] Bx U Eh \UPmk,
yUP \kQx.
sP
C sP
i)
ii)

Cx so EP.
1233C { ES, 2485C {
PvUS.

iii)

EQ { E ]x Au P A 20
h[S BU EmP uhuS. Cu
SUS x Eg] BU Qx. CuS
"] Eu" G . Ca\ EQ ] x
Phzu Hkzxu ukUP.

v sP
i)

}zu |mU Azxh

] }zu |mU Azxh x |mU BU\k

Qx.
3Ag + 4HNO3 3AgNO3 + NO + 2H2O
ii)

Ah HNO3 Ah H2SO4

`h Ah HNO3 Ah H2SO4&zxh ] x,
NO2 SO2 UP kQx.
Ag + 2 HNO3 AgNO3 + NO2 + H2O
2Ag + 2H2SO4 Ag2SO4 + SO2 + 2H2O

134

iii) Sh
] Sh ] Shz uQx.
2Ag + Cl2 2AgCl
iv) Pzxh
] Pzxh v.
] P
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

PsniP ] \ ] EP kQx.
AgBr Phz u kQx.
] EP ] \ kQx.
] P kQx.
] CP xP, ] \UP SP
AhUP kQx.

4.4 x Ch{ \
4.4.1 u Pk zukzu uzx
Pk
Aq { : 196.97
Cnv : 1, 3
Aq Gs
: 79
Sk
: Au
u \ Amhn Ch : \ Gs&6, uSv Gs&11.
u
Pk u { PnkQx. u[P
CP Sm Ph PPPU PnkQ.
n ] PP (\ Pk) Ax BkP
so (A Pk) BQ PnkQ.
uxUP
Pi UQ ux
B kP so Pm
EPzv Pk Ezv Hzu v Pk u
BUP _[P[Px QhUQx. EQ Pk Ezv
\ |kP Cv 8x Chzu x. EP zu
135

Ezv 2% Cvx QhUQx. P|hP E

P _[Pzv 99.97% Pk zu Ezv kQx.
Ph uxx zukzu
U Bu k \k
Pk Au \k (Ax) hk uxx
zukzu iP {PQx.
i)

yUSu, |USu Ahzu

Pk ux |UPmk, S ~ u
AhUPkQx.
ii)

zu

AhUPmh uxx AvP A P (A) BU

USx,
\L,
B\U

h
BU]hx,
BPU
Ti
BUkPP
Q.
iii) KCN \zu
|S yUPmk UPmh ux xPh Ti
AiP Psh ]sm Ax C B P
GkzxU PkQx. S }zu (0.5%) KCN \UPmk 24
o | AvP A P UPkQx. Cu Pm
Bx KCN& Px PU Ti mh] B \k
Anz uQx.
4Au + 8KCN + 2H2O + O2 4K[Au(CN)2] + 4KOH
mh] B\k
iv) Ph iUP
Qhzu P\ E mh] B \h
iPmi Pu _UP }UQ, [U yh kzu
kQx. Pk Bx ][UP h Su | _hu
Pk iQx.
2K[Au(CN2] + Zn K2[Zn(CN)4] + 2 Au

136

iUPmh Pk iPmi kQx. Cu

yUP ykzukQx.
iv) yUP
Cu P _zu Pk kQx& _
Pk | _zu Pk Gv
GkzxU Psk, A[Pu (10-12% HCl) BUSh
SPU Psk \zu \zxx Pk Gv
iQx.
sP
C sP
i)

Pk g\ { EP. Cx 1063C
{ EQ a\{ }P 2610C PvUQx.

ii)

Cx Azx EP[PU Pmi P uPhP

PP }mhUTi uhx.

iii)

\zu |S Phzx.

v sP
i)

Eu (A) DUP (A) BU vUPhx.

ii)

Pk Pzu vUPkv.

iii) vPzxh (Aqua regia)

Pm vPzxh (3 Sv Ah HCl + 1 Sv Ah HNO3)
Px BU Shz uQx.
2Au + 9 HCl + 3HNO3 2AuCl3 + 6H2O + 3NOCl
iv) Sh
200C { Sh \x BU Shz
uQx.
2Au + 3Cl2 2AuCl3
P
i)

|n[P, |PP Bn zv[P kQx.

137

ii)
iii)

Pk CP A[P P Gzv,
xP hUPP kQx.
T hU Azxh Pk \u P P] Fu
GkQx. Cx ] Psni Eu
ssh[P kQx.

Pi u
EPU P Pi A zx Pi u
Pmi {nUP kQx. _zu u[P 24 Pm. ux
Bn[P 18 Pm Pk EPzvx. Cu EPU
P Gh 18 Sv Pm Gg] Gh 6 Sv
xP P EP Ex.
4.5 \[P
4.5.1 mh] h Sm (K2Cr2O7)
S A uxx K2Cr2O7 uzu iP
UPmkx.
i)

Sm uxx \i Sm uzu

|S y \mh S A uxx Na2CO3

_mh _snh \zx Gv A E AvP P
\zv UPkQx.
4FeO.Cr2O3 + 8Na2CO3 + 7O2 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2
ii)

\i Smix \i h Sm u

\i Sm P\ iPmi, Auh Ah H2SO4,

\zu \i h Sm EshQx.
2Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2O
iii) \i h Smix
Sm u

mh]

\i h Sm P\ Ahzx KCl \UP

mh] h Sm EshQx. \i Sh h
mh] h Sm P Su Pv
PskuP Cx u iPQx.
Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl
138

sP
C sP
1.

mh] h Sm Bg_ { iP. Cu ES{

396C.

2.

Su } K P, B _k } |S P.

v sP
1.

zv

Cu kzx x mh] Sm, SU

BU\k BU uQx.
4K2Cr2O7 4K2CrO4 + 2Cr2O3 + 3 O2
2.

Pzxh

Bg_{ K2Cr2O7, P\ Pzxh kzx x

Sm Eu g\ { P\ EshQx.
K2Cr2O7 + 2KOH 2K2CrO4 + H2O
Bg_ ]
g\
g\ { K2CrO4 P\h \LU Azu \zu
Bg_ ] { K2Cr2O7 EQx.
2K2CrO4 + H2SO4 K2Cr2O7 + K2SO4 + H2O
Bg_ ]
Cr2O72- A CrO42- A kvSU Pn Cu
C AP \{ E.
Cr2O72- + H2O
Bg_ ]
3.

2CrO42- + 2H+
g\

BU sP

K 2Cr2O 7 J UP BU Po. }zu H 2SO 4

, J \ ]uhx BU
Aqz uQx.
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4(}zu) K2SO4 + Cr2 (SO4)3 + 4H2O + 3(O)

139

K2Cr2O7 & BU sUS ] GkzxUPmkP.

i)

KI &x I2-I u
K2Cr2O7 + 7H2SO4 + 6KI 4 K2SO4 + Cr2 (SO4)3 + 3 I2 + 7H2O

ii)

L E LU BP BUha \u
K2Cr2O7 + 7H2SO4 + 6 FeSO4
K2SO4 + Cr2 (SO4)3 + 3 Fe2 (SO4)3+ 2H2O

iii) H2S &I S BP BUha \u

K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 + 3H2S K2SO4 + Cr2 (SO4)3 + 7H2O + 3S
S Sk \u
mh] h Smh Hux J Sk
Ah \LU Azxh `k \u Bg_ ] {h
S Sk B QhUQ.
K2Cr2O7 + 4KCl + 6H2SO4 2CrO2Cl2 + 6 KHSO4 + 3H2O
Cu s S Sk A
Psh kQx.
P
4.

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

S kQx.
u ukzu kQx.
PP Aa]ku, \z u kQx.
Jh, mi CP Pikzu
kQx.

4.5.2 P \m (CuSO4.5H2O) xzu

uzu
i) BPzv SU BU\k Ax SU mU\k Ax
SU Pmh }zu H2SO4 &Eh kzv P \m
uUPkQx.
CuO + H2SO4
CuSO4 + H2O
Cu(OH)2 + H2SO4 CuSO4 + 2H2O
CuCO3 + H2SO4
CuSO4 + H2O + CO2
140

sP
C sP
1.
2.

} E Bu }{hx. } CuSO4 {x.

} |S P. BP Px.

v sP
1.

zu

CuSO4.5H2O- kzx x ux iP }
Cx, 720C& {US ]ux SU BU\hP,
\L m BU\hP Qx.
C u S O 4 .5 H 2 O
(B lu e)

1 0 0 C
-4 H 2 O

SO 3 + CuO
2.

C u S O 4 .H 2 O
-H 2 O 2 3 0 C

7 2 0 C

Ah

CuSO 4
(W h ite)

P \m P\h NH4OH&I xzxP \USx

Ah } { Ana \ EshQx.
CuSO4 + 4NH4OH [Cu (NH3)4]SO4 + 4H2O
3.

mh] Ahkh

Cx mh] Ahkh mk s {
S Ahk iz uQx.
CuSO4 + 2KI Cu I2 + K2SO4
({x)
2CuI2 Cu2I2 + I2
(s { i)
4.

KCN Eh

P \m mh] \kh mk g\ {
SU \hz uQx. Cx Gv ]uhx
\z uQx.
141

CuSO4 + 2KCN Cu(CN)2 + K2SO4

2Cu(CN)2 Cu2(CN)2 + (CN)2
\
5.

Pzxh

P[Ph x
mU\hz uQx.

Fu

CuSO4 + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4

Fu {h i
6.

H2S &Eh

P \m H 2 S &Eh x P { P
\hz uQx.
CuSO4 + H2S CuS + H2SO4
(P i)
P
1.

\zv Q |]P, a]U PP

kQx.

2.

P \m, P] mU\kh (lime) \UPmk

hU P (Bordeaux mixture) G P
PP kQx.

3.

\, PP Aa]ku, mhP
kQx.

4.5.3 ] |mm (Ax) PiU (AgNO3)

uzu
EP ] }zu |mU Azxh \zx ]
|mm uUPkQx.
3Ag + 4HNO3 3AgNO3 + 2H2O + NO

142

sP
C sP
1.
2.

} P
}zu P\ J ]uhQx.

v sP
1.

zu
zv AgNO3 Csk {P ]uhQx.
2A gN O 3
A gN O 2

2.

723 K

2A gN O 2 + O 2
] |mm

980 K

Ag

+ NO2

NaCl&Eh

P u AU Skh AgNO3 x
s{ AgCl iz uQx.
AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3
3.

] |mm
shx.

Pzu

4.

KBr, KI&Eh

BU

AgNO3 kPh x g\ { AgBr

G i, AhkPh x AgI G g\
{ i uQx.
AgNO3 + KBr AgBr + KNO3
g\ { i
AgNO3 + KI AgI + KNO3
g\ { i
5.

Pa \[Ph

A Pu ] |mm, U A,
ik, SUP BQh x ]
Biz uUQx.
143

2AgNO3 + 2NH4OH Ag2O + 2NH4NO3 + H2O

Ag2O + HCOOH 2Ag + H2O + CO2
P
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Phz u k ] kP uUP
kQx.
PsniPUS a\P kQx.
, ia\ uUP kQx.
] \ kQx.
BPzv P kQx.

4.5.4 [U Pm (ZnCO3)
Cx CP P G PU QhUQx.
uzu
[U \m P\h NaHCO 3 P\a \zx
kzx x ZnCO3 EshQx.
ZnSO4 + 2NaHCO3 ZnCO3 + Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
sP
C sP
Cx s y, } Px.
v sP
Cu kzx x 300C {
]uhx [U BU\h, P h BU\h uQx.
C
ZnCO3 300

ZnO + CO 2
P
i)
ii)
iii)

u |U Snkzx PP kQx.
AS mP uzu kQx.
C u\ {P kQx.

4.5.5 P] Fu
P] Fu Gx T Pk BS. Cx P Fu Ax
] { Ehx. Cx P] G Pshmhu
144

P] Fu G AUPkQx.
uzu
P }zu Pk Skh h Sh
kzv Cx QhUQx.
2AuCl3 + 3 SnCl2 2Au + 3SnCl4
C Qhzu Pk, hU Sh } Szu
EshS hU mU\h Eg\mk QhUQx.
P

SnCl4 + 4H2O Sn(OH)4 + 4HCl

] { Psni Eu ssh[P
uzu kQx.
u vk
A. \ h uukzx GxP.
1.

d-uSv u[P x GUm A

a) (n-1)d1-10 ns0-2
c) (n-1)d0 ns1

2.

b) (n-1) d1-5 ns2

d) C Gx

\[P GuU PsiUS x { AP

EUSQ.
a) Cmh GUmP
c) uzu i GUmP

b) uzu GUmP
d) C Gx

3.

GzuSv u[P PuzuU xP

Psk.
a) p-uSv u[P
b) d-uSv u[P
c) s-uSv u[P
d) f-uSv u[P

4.

Ti(H2O)63+ A {zvSU Pn
a) d-d Cha]
b) }UTP u
c) AqUPUS Chmh GUm a]
d) T Gx

145

5.

Szv GUm A
a) 3d6 4s0
b) 3d4 4s2

6.

b) 3d5 4s1
d) 3d3 4s2 4p1

Puzu s HhU Pn
a) i GUmP
b) P {mh GUm ETkP
c) uzu GUmP
d) P PP E GUm ETkP

7.

d-uSv u[P { AP EUPU Pn

a)
b)
c)
d)

d-s Cha]US B Eg_u

p-d Cha]US B Eg_u
d-d Cha]US B Eg_u
Gu B Eg_v

8.

P Aq \ GUm A
a) 3d10 4s1
b) 3d10 4s2
c) 3d9 4s2
d) 3d5 4s2 4p4

9.

P Gvx zukUPkQx?
a) Sm
c) Pm

b) P Q
d) P mkP

10. Gu ]E Phz u kQx?

a) AgCl

b) AgNO3

c) AgF

d) AgBr

11. \i u \m Phzu kzu

kuSU Pn Auh
a) BU u
c) Ana \ ES u

b) KkUS u
d) Jv u

12. E \i mUk [Sh x

RUPsh Gu EUSQx?
a) Zn H2

b) Na2 ZnO2

c) ZnO

146

d) Zn(OH)2

13. RUPsh \[P Ga\ S Sk

\uUSUS Emhx?
a) CuCl2
b) HgCl2
c) ZnCl2
d) C6H5Cl
14. RUPsh Gu A { }UP\z uQx?
a) Ni2+
b) Fe2+
c) Cu2+
d) Cu+
15. RUPsh Gx { \[P?
d) K3[Fe(CN)6]
a) Na2CuCl4 b) Na2CdI4 c) K4 [Fe(CN)6]
16. Cu zukzu x ] |hUS
a) 2CuFeS2 + O 2 Cu2S + FeS + SO2
b) 2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2
c) 2Cu2O + Cu2S 6Cu + SO2
d) 2FeS + 3O2 2FeO + 2SO2
17. u T uukzx GxP.
a) Azx S EP }{P E
b) Ch{z u[P AvP v Pskx
c) Azx S EP {P E
d) S K } EP
18. K2Cr2O7&I zumi u T u \x
GxP.
a) Cx J ]u BU Po
b) Cx uuk u\ kzukQx.
c) Cx } PUTix
d) Cx LU \mh L \mhP SUQx
19. Ch{ EP A UP Puz vzv
mh BM & TP.
a)

n(n 1)

b)

n(n + 1)

c)

n(n + 2)

d)

n(n + 1)(n + 2)

20. d-uSv u[P zu \ T

a) A Azx EP[P
b) A mh CnvPU Psk.
c) A { AP, Ana \[P
EUSQ.
d) T Azx \.
147

21. P \mi }U P\h AvP E A KCN I

\US x ES \
a) Cu(CN)2

b) K2[Cu(CN)6]

c) K[Cu(CN)2]

d) Cu2(CN2) + (CN)2

22. RUPsh Gx AvP GsoUP uzu

GUmPU Pskx.
a) Mn2+

b) Ti3+

c) V3+

d) Fe2+

23. R Smh TP u J Gx?

a) P, ]hmk PmkP
b) Ahmk, Smk BUkP
c) [U sk, mkP \kP
d) Pmk, A_mk P uxUP
24. P EUQ zukzu x ES P\i
k
a) Cu2O + FeS

b) FeSiO3

c) CuFeS2

d) Cu2S + FeO

25. PUSu Aq GsnU Psh Ch{z u

a) Pi

b) hmh c) [U

d) u

26. Gu C--h{z u AvPm\ BU {U

PmkQx?
a) Sc

b) Ti

c) Os

d) Zn

B. K P h
27. d-uSv u[P G G?
28. d-uSv u[P G PkzukQ?
29. d-uSv u[P k BU {
u?
30. Ch{z u[P Ana \[P EUSx
H?
31. C Cnv Psh u Ch{ \ Mn(II)
AvPm\ PuzuU PmkQx H?
148

32. Ni2+ EP {P E. B Zn2+ EP

mk sP E. H?
33. [Ti (H 2O) 6]3+ {. [Sc (H 2O) 6]3+ {uP Ex.
USP.
34. J Puz vzv 3.9 BM G Ax Gzu
uzu GUmPU PsiUS?
35. Zn,Cd,Hg C ES{, Pv{ S H? USP.
36. Mn3+ AP h Mn2+ AP AvP {z uU
Psk. H? USP.
37. P Csk EPUP Gv Au PU
TP.
38. A &JkUP ] S P.
39. Cshx Ch{ \ E u
Cshx u[P PU TP.
40. Ch{z u[P AhzvU Psk P \
P P u[P P GxP.
41. RUPsh Guu AP {u Ana
\[P EUSQx.
Cu2+, Zn2+, Ti3+, Ti4+, Cd2+
42. P \mi }UP\h KI P\a \US x
G {P Hk?
43. P \m iP[P kzx x G
Hk?
C. 60 zuPUS P h
44. P Au UQ uxx G zx GkUPkQx
Gu P USP.
45. u[Pzv uxUP GxP. BkP so
Pix Pk G zukUPkQx Gu
USP.
46. ] uxUP mikP. ] G
Ahmix zukUPkQx Gu .
47. [U ix [U G zukUPkQx
Gu P USP.
149

48. Sm uxx h Sm G
zukUPkQx Gu USP. A[Pu K2Cr2O7
KI Ch \\mh \mh
GxP.
D. ] PnUSP
49. [Q UQ ux zukUS x A \zu
uQx. A& P zx JkUS x B \zu
PkUQx. A, B \[PU Pskizx, Au
vPz uP.
50. 11&x uSva \u K \m \ (A) Cua \
xzu (Blue vitriol) G AUPkQx. Ca\
{P ]uhx B,C,D G
\[PU PkUQx.

B 373K

C 423K

D
A 305K
A,B,C,D BQ \[PU Psh.
51. Szv uxx (A) mh Szv
\zv E Szv BU Gs +6 BS.
Ca\ A Cx kQx. (A) UPmk, EQ
Pzxh kzu (B) G \zuz uQx. B,
Azu (C) Iz uQx. C, KCl Eh
(D) Iz uQx. A,B,C,D,E BQP Psh.
uS
d- uSv u[P x sP P
UPmk. EP[P zukUS ,
ykzx Au sP UPmk.
\[Pz uUS , sP Au P P
UPmk.
P P

1.

New concise Inorganic Chemistry by J.D.Lee, 3rd Edition, ELBS.

2.

Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, P.L.Soni.

150

5. f - uSv u[P
P PmkP
( f-uSv u[P xsP, zukzu
P.
( uk BUikP sP Jmk
Au.
( ukP zukUS x P Au.
( uk BUikP P Ax
Pu.

EPz u u u 1939 B Bsk P

\h (Carl Mosander) G h |mha \u
v PskiUPmhx.
Ch{ G u[PU PskizuuPPP,
v A [QPP 1951 B Bsk Gm
U (USA) Q ^U (USA) G C
| \ Qx Psh. Q ^U (P
PU PP) P G uzu Pskizu.

151

1 3 -1 7
p -uSv

d -uSv
Ch{ u[P

1 8 u UP

1 -2 s-uSv

3 -1 2

f- uSv
E Ch{z u[P
Dy

u \ Amhn f &uSv u[P Ch

UPmkx.
( n- 2 )f BmhP Tku GUm ~ u[P
f- uSv u[P GQ. C E Ch{z
u[P G AUPkQ. H C Ch{z
u[PUS E Ch{ \ EshUSQ. fuSv u[P As u[P G AUPkQ.
C Csk \PP UPkQ.
i) uk \ (4f-uSv u[P)
ii) BUik \ (5f-uSv u[P)
5.1 f-uSv u[P x sP
zukzu
5.1.1 uk \
uzvx (57La) mj] (71Lu) E 15 u[P
uk \ u[P GkQ. u
152

mj]zv Sv {mh 4f xnUTkP C.

B 5d-xnUTmi GUmP E. Cu Cu C
u[P uk \ \UPhU Thx. C
Cu u[P uzu AvP A Jzx. G C
uk \ UPmk.
ukP xsP
1 . GUm A
ukP GUm A Amhn 5.1&C
PkUPmkx. Ce x Lu 14 GUmP {k
GUm A [54 Xe ]4f1-14 5d1 6s2.
2 . BU] {P
} P\P, vh { ukP
u BU { +3 (Ln3+) BS. ] u[P +2,
+4 BU { E.
3 . +3 uk AP B
uk \ uzvx mj] M3+
AP Sx Psh Qx. M3+ | AP
B iiP Sx u uk SUP Gk.
uk SUPzv Pn[P
E Tmi 4f GUmP ^ v
uk SUP EshQx. uk \, EmP
_, 4f GUmP GsoUP J i J
JP TkQx. C ^ v
EmP _ AvPQ, 4f-E Tmi SUP HkQx.
uk SUPzv P
uk SUPzv UQ P R
PkUPmk.
i) AP Pz u
uk SUPzu, Ln3+ AP , Aq Gs
AvPUP, AvPUP iiP SQx. vi,
Ln3+ AP Su, Ln(OH)3&C E Ln3+
OH-&AUS Ch E \Pn s
AvPQx. Ln3+ AP \
La3+ > Ce3+ ............... >Lu3+
153

A B iiP Sx Psh Qx.

Aq Gs AvPUP, AvPUP JkUS PoP \k
v SQx.
iv) Csh \ E d-uSv Ch{
u[P sP uk SUPzu AvP A
Jzx.
v) uk SUPzu Cuz u[P Gv UP iu
P CP P[P QhUQ.
5.1.2 BUik \P (5f uSv u[P)
1923 B Bsk } G uk \P,
BUik \P Jzx Cu Gkzxzu.
u \ Amhn BUjzvx ]
E 15 u[P BUik \P GkQ.
BUik \P xsP
BUik \P x GUm A
[Rn] 5f0,1-14 6d0,1-2 7s2. Rn Gx h GUm AU
SUS.
2 . BU] {
BUik u[P +2, +3, +4, +5 +6 BU]
{P E. C P x BU] {
+4.
3 . M3+ M4+ AP B
BUik \P BUik u[P A B
iiP Sx Psh Qx. EmP _ AvPUP
AvPUP A B iiP SxPsh x
BUik SUP Gk. Cx uk SUPzu
Jzxx.
BUik SUPzv Pn[P
5f GUmP ^ v BUik
SUPzvP PnS. BUik \ J
uzvx S \x EmP _ +1 BP
AvPzu v, 5f GUmP PPU S
v, C izv Tku EmP
_ \kzuh. Aq Gs AvPS H 5f
ii)
iii)

154

GUmP E C (inward pull) AvPQx. Cu P

BUik \P Aq iiP SQx.
5.1.3 \m sox ukP zu
\m sox uh zukzu E

{P
RUPq
JUP
hzv
UPmkx.
\m n
o |zvS H 2 S O 4 Eh `kkzxu
2 1 0 C
P\ s
Su }

u \m n
S iO 2 , TiO 2 , Z rS iO 4
( _]UP n)

i}
(L n 3 + ,T h 4+ , H 3 O + ,
H S O 4 - , S O 4 2- , H 2 P O 4 - ) E
\ A |k{UP
{US
Ax H F \zu

T hP O 4 i
Ax
T h & i

i} uk

m AP
N aO H Ax
BUU A
uk mUkP
Ax
BUmkP

zu C ukP uzuP
UP. } k SkP BP shzv
P]zv 1270 K {US `kkzumk
ukP uzuP kQ. P]
zvzv ukP m kP
kzv y EP kQx.
5 . 2 uk BUikP Jh J
P
Csi f-ETk {ku JP
155

E. CP u[P { A, S GUm
P u, AvP v, Pu s P
. C C kP Amhn
kzumk.
ukP
i)
ii)

4f GUmP
n B AvP
ukP
AvPm\ BU
{ +4 G.P. Ce4+

BUikP
i)
ii)

iii)

4f GUmP v
AvP

iii)

iv)

AP {

iv)

v)

vi)

5f GUmP n
B S
S n B
Eu C +4, +5
+6 BU {P
E. UF6, UO2Cl2&
zv BU { +6
5f GUmP v
S
AP
{. U3+ (]), U4+
(a\) UO22+ (g\)

C Puz u v)
Eh. B
C Puz u
Gv UP i

C Puz u
Eh. B C
Puz u USx
Pi

C Ana
\[P Gv
EUSv

C Ana \[P
EUS u AvP
A Psh

vi)

vii) v u
PUS PvUP
u C

vii) G u[PUS
PvUP u Esk

viii) C \[P
S Pzu
Eh

viii) C \[PUS AvP

Pzu Esk

ix)

BU\ | A
Eshv

ix)

156

UO2+, UO+, NpO2+,

PuO22+ BU\ |
A P E Q

5 . 3 uk BUikP P
ukP P
1.

^, u {i, C, A,
P], P ]P BQ Psh U
EPU P ]Pm , P, w
E umiP SskP BQP
kzukQx.

2.

^ (CeO2) u (ThO2) BQ USP

kQ.

3.

^ EP zv \h, \ m
PP, UQPP kQ.

4.

ukP AUPvP, JkUS u EP

JkUP P kQ. uh &
JkUP P y Nd, Zr, Fe, Co, Ni, Mn, Y, W,
U, B Si BQ .

5.

uk EPU P EP (mish - metal) G

AUPkQx. &EPzv Sv
Ce(45-50%), La(25%), Nd(5%). uk
EP[P, C P] BQ _PP
\x. u[S vh u GLQ
uUP &EP kzukQx. 30% & EP
1% Zr Pu U] P m Cvzv
P[Pz uUP kQx.

BUikP P
1.

U-235 hUTix. G Aq EP
GP, Aq Buzv J SvP kQx.

2.

mh & 238 uy s BU Pzv

G\UvP kQx.

157

u vk
A. \ h uukzx GxP.
1. ukP GUm A
a) [Xe]4f0 5d0 6s0
b) [Xe] 4f1-7 5d1 6s1
c) [Xe]4f1-14 5d1 6s2
c)
[Xe]4f1-14 5d1-10 6s2
2. BUikP GUm A
a) [Rn]5f0-14 6d0 7s0
b) [Rn]5f0-14 6d0-2 7s0
c) [Rn]5f0-14 6d0-2 7s1
d) [Rn]5f0-14 6d0-2 7s2
3. uk SUP RUPshS Qx
a) Zn Y Hzu J BzuU Pskx
b) Zr Nb J BU {U Pskx
c) Zr Hf Hzu J BzuU Pskx.
d) Zr Zn J BU {U Pskx
4. ukP x BU {
a) +2
b) +1
c)
+3
d) +4
5. ukP ________x zukUPkQ.
a) m b) \m c) Uhm d) Pmhm
6. (n-2)f BmhP Tku GUmP ~
u[P ________G AUPkQx.
a) s uSv u[P
b) p uSv u[P
c) d uSv u[P
d) f uSv u[P
7. uk SUP Ex_______
a) 4f GUm ^
b) 4f GUm ^
c) 3d GUm ^
d) 3d GUm ^
8. ^ RUPsh Gv kQx<?
a) P
c) US mP

b) SskP
d) C Gx

158

9.
10.

11.

12.

13.
14.

B.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

US mP kx_______
a) MnO2
b) CeO 2
c) N 2O 5
d) Fe2O3
ukP EPU P _____ G AUPkQx.
a) &EP
b) EP
c) umk EP
d) BUikP
ukPU Psk \k EP
JkUSUS _______G
a) A JkUS
b) uh JkUS
c) JkUP
d) BU
_______BU\ | AP EUSQx.
a) ukP
b) BUikP
c) E UP
d) P EP[P
ukP P AvP BU {
a) +1
b) +2
c) +3
d) +4
ukP zukUPk
a) izu
b) } izu
c) iPUP
d) u[Pu
K UQ[P hUP.
E Ch{z u[P (f-uSv) G G? C
\P uP.
Ch{zu[P E Ch{z u[P
GUm AP E k G?
ukP G G? ukP
BU {P ?
EP G G? A P GxP.
ukP BUikP P GxP.

C. 60 zuPUS P h GxP.
20 uk SUP G G? Au Pn[P
P ?

159

21. RUPshP Pn[P .

i) ukP +3 BU { P {x.
ii) ] 4f uSv u[P A ] +3
BU {h +2 Ax +4 BU
{ PmkQ.
iii) ukP J uSvP BUPmk.
22. La(OH) 3 Lu(OH) 3 BQ Jmh AvP
Pzu Pshx Gx? H G USP.
23. u \ Amhn ukP Ch
P GxP?
24. \m nx
zuk?

ukP

uS
(n-2) f BmhP Tku GUm ~ u[P
f-uSv u[P G AUQ. C E Ch{z
u[P G AUPkQ. f-uSv u[P
uk \P BUik \P G C \P
E. ukP x sP GUm A,
BU {P +3 AP B BQ
UPmk. uk SUPzv Pn[P,
P vUPmk. BUikP x
sP umk. \m nx ukP
zukzu Pmk JUP h umkx. uk
BUikP J
P
mihmk.
P
1)

Advanced Inorganic Chemistry F.A.Cotton, G.Wilkinson, C.A.Murillo and

M.Bochmann, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.

2)

Advanced Inorganic Chemistry Vol.I Gurdeep Raj, Goel Publishing House,

2002.

160

6. Ana \[P E
Ana \[P
P PmkP
( G E, Cmh E Ana \[P u
Au.
( DP, EP A, An Gs, An A
_, EP A BU H Gs,
PkUS n \[P Au.
( IUPAC vP i Ana \[P P
Au.
( Ana \[P E P [P Ax
Pu.
( PP, Cnv nU PP iP
PPP Pnu.
( Ana\ E Ana \[P
UQzx P Ezxnu.

161

6.1
K A, J Pzu |k{UPk x K E
EQx. P EP E. AP
A) G E
B) UT (Ax) \UP \ BS.
A ) G E
K A J Pzu |k{UPkx G E
EshQx.
KOH

+ HCl

KCl + H2O

xP, G EP } Px AQ. G
EP P\P, A AP sP
US.
B ) UT Ax \UP \
i)

Cmh E

Cmh E J UT \. Csk (A) CskUS

mh EP \ \mh C A Px
P\ iPUSu Cmh E QhUQx. C }
Px u Psk APz u. vh { mk
u sP US. CPUS iP \[P G
.
\P
K2SO 4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O

- mh B

FeSO4 . (NH4)2 SO4. 6H2O

- E

K2SO 4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O 2K+ + 2Al3+ + 4SO42- + 24H2O

Cmh EUP P\P AUP E G
APUP \uP u.
ii)

Ana \[P

A, P \x Ana \zuz u.
C u APU P\ uv.
162

\
Fe(CN)2 + 4KCN
\k

Fe(CN)2 . 4KCN (or) K4[Fe(CN)6]

4K+ + [Fe(CN)6]4An A

Fe(CN)2 . 4KCN

K4 [Fe (CN) 6] \zv Cnx Fe(CN) 2 KCN

BQ u s CUQ. Cmh E Ex
Ana \zv E EP A P\P uzx
C[Sv.
Ana \[P u
i)

K Gv An \zv K Gv An A,
J | G A E.
K4 [Fe(CN)6]

ii)

J | Ana \zv J | An A,
K Gv G A E.
[Co(NH3 )6] Cl3

iii)

4K+
+
[Fe (CN)6 ]4G | A An Gv A

[Co(NH3)6]3+ + 3ClAn | A G Gv A

[Cr(NH3 )6] [Co(CN)6] G \zv, | Gv

AP An APP E.
[Cr(NH3)6] [Co(CN)6]
[Cr(NH3)6]3+ + [Co(CN) 6]3An | A An Gv A

6.2 Ana\ v k A
Pa\P
(a) A
GUmP HS u PshP Azx
A[PS.
(b) P
GUmP [S u PshP Azx
P[PS.
163

(c) EP A
K An A Cn GUmP HS sh
Ax EP Aq Ax A EP A
Gk. CP Ah J Ax JUS mh
|k{ UTP Ax Gv AP CnUP
miUS. GUm Hz vh An \zv
Ax CP A J AS.
(d) BU H Gs
K EP Aq Cu GUmP GsoUP BU
H Gs SUQx. An A E Azx DP
A GUm CnPh }UQ Gg] {S EP
A _ Au BU H Gs BS.
Sk xP Cu Gs SUPk.
(e) D (zw Ligand G bind (n) G
S)
GUm [Sv Psh Gv A Ax UT
D Gk. BP EP Aq Ax Ah
|iP CnUPmk |k{ UTP Ax Gv
AP DP Ax Anz uSvP Gk. C
(hm) P[PS.
DP PP
K D K EP Ah J J Aq n
Hkzv [Cl-, H 2O (A) NH 3] AP J DP
Gk. K D JUS mh AqUP EP
Ah nUPmiu AP DPS.
K D C n AqUPU Psiu C D
Gk; nqUP Cu DS.
\P Gzv h A K C DS. Cv C
A uSvP J J GUm Cn [S
uh E.
NH2 - CH2 - CH2 - NH2

..

..

164

DP P
| DP
| _Psh DP P Cv G
i.
NH2 - NH3+ m^
|_ C |k{ |m Aq
n Hkzx.
|k{ DP
|k{ DP C SUPk. B }
AU (aqua) G A A (ammine) G
SUPk. CO-P, NO-|m\, NH2-CH2-CH2-NH2
-Gv h A (en) C5H5N & i BS.
Gv DP
Gv DP Ph O G mk CUS.
\P

F -, Cl -S, C2O42-BUmh, CN -\,

NO 2 -|m, Br -, SO 42 -\mh, CH 3 COO

A]hmh, SCN -u\mh, CNS -I\u \mh,

S2O32-u\mh S.
PkUQna \[P
EP Aq (A) Ah K D JUS mh
nP Hkzx, QhUS \ A
PsiUS. Cu A Psh \[P EP
PkUQna \[P Gk. CzuS DP
DP Ax PkUQn PoP BS.

165

2 N H 2C H 2C H 2N H 2 + C u

H 2C

..N H
..N H

2+

NH2

.. ..

H 2C

+2

Cu

NH2

CH2
CH2

AnU P
EP A, Azxh CnUPmiUS
DP J \x AhUS UPkQ. AhUS
CUS C A v. AS u
AhUS E.
[M(L)n](n-) (or) (n+)
[Fe(CN)6]4- ,
AhUS E
\uPz uv.

[Cu(NH3)4]2+
SvU

APUP

An Gs
K Ana \zv E EP Ah
DPx Cn AqUP TmkzuP An
Gs BS. G DP E [Q AqUPUS
EP AUS Ch CUS v nP zu
GsoUP An GsPU SUQx. \P K4[Fe(CN)6]
\zv Fe(II) An Gs B. [Cu(NH 3) 4]SO 4 &C
Cu(II)& An Gs |S BS.
An A _
K An A _ v Av E
EP A DP x _P Tmkz
uPUSa \S.
\
1. [Cu(NH3)4]2+ Gv NH3 D |k{ Pshx. G
Cu [Cu2+(NH3)4]2+ G Gu.
166

EP A _ DP _P
TmkzuP = +2
An A _U PnUQh.
(Cu2+) EP A x _ = +2
DP x _ (NH3) = 4 0 = 0
An A x _ = +2 + 0 = +2
2.

Cu [Fe(CN)6]4- Gu [Fe2+(CN)6]4- G Gu
(Fe2+) EP A x _ = +2
(CN-) DP x _ = 6 (1) = 6
An A _ = +2 6
= 4

6.3 JU P (mononuclear) Ana \[PUS IUPAC

x P
IUPAC A vP xzxx.
1.

Ana \zvS P k x G
An AP C u | A
Gv A (\i Sk ) SUP
sk.

2.

An AU SUSx u D Ax
DP EP A SUP sk
(mi CuS P Gu sk).

3.

Gv D Au O G i sk. (Cl-S, CN-&\, H-&m) |k{ DP P

C CUP sk. (MeNH2&zv A).
] DP P: }&AU, A&A,
CO&P, NO&|m\.

4.

QUP mkP (, h, i, hm, h,

U u) J D P GsoUPU
SUS (xP Gx SUPkv).
D , h, i G JmkUP Cu
(i ) D AhUS

167

usk. AzuS DP GsoUP Ax ,

i, hmQ G SUP sk.
\,
[Ni(PPh 3 ) 2Cl 2 ]
Gx
hS
(i) {UP (II) BS.

5.

EP Aq BU H GsP Ax
GsPP AhU SUS u sk.

6.

An A Gv _ Pshu EPzv
Hm (ate) G i sk. \: m, Sm,
{UPm, Phm u.

7.

JUS mh P DP \zv CUS

J P D GsoUPU Pzv P
B[Q AP \i DP P SUPh
sk. \ : NH3 G A (ammine) a G u
Gzx Pshx. G Cl- &S (chloro) GuS P
a sk.

] Tku SP
i) Gv An A ] EP[P ] PU
Psk.
B m Au Am Ag Ahm Fe m
Pb m Sn hm Cu Sm
Ni {UPm
ii)

AhU SP P

An A Ax |k{ Ana \ xP \x
AhU SUS uk.
\P
[Co(en)3]Cl3

i (Gzv h A) Pm (III) Sk

[Co(NH3)3(NO2)3] i A i |mPm (III)

K2[CoCl4]

mh] hm S Phm (II)

P AhU SUS u siv.

168

Ana

\[P

US

K3[Cr(C2O4)3].3H2O G Ana \zv

P1) EP A Gx?

1) EP S

P2) Au BU H Gs x? 2) B.H.Gs. III

P3) GUm A G?

3) GUm A d3

P4) An Gs G?

4) An Gs.6 (3
C DP E)

P5) An A A x? 5) An A
A GsQ
P6) CUS [P E? 6) B. J _
[P E.
P7) Cu IUPAC G?

7) mh] i
BUmh S (III)
imm

] JUP Ana \[P IUPAC P

[CoIII (NH3)5Cl]2+

- h A S Pm (III)
A

[CoIII (NH3)6]Cl3

- U A Pm (III) Sk

[CrIII (en)3]Cl3

- i (Gzv h A) S (III)
Sk

K4[FeII(CN)6]

- mh] U\m (II)

[NiII(CN)4]2-

- hm \ {UPm (II) A

[CuII(NH3)4]2+

- hmA P (II) A

[PtII Cl2(NH3)2]

- h A h Smi (II)

6.4 (Isomerism)
J UT mh mh A
kP, mh C v sP
169

 \[P [P Gk. C{PUS

G .
Ana \[P C P [P
kzxQ. A : A
G. C J
[PP Pkzumk.
A ) A
a) An
c) mm (A) }
e) D

b) A
d) Cn

B)
a) i \

b) J _]

6.4.1 A) A
a) An
C EP Ana \zv An | A,
An Gv A E. C AnU P[P
DP [Rk ku An EQx. |
Gv APP An APU Psh
\[P Czuz uP EnzxQ.
1. [CoIII(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6] and [CrIII(NH3)6] [CoIII(CN)6]
U A Pm (III) U A S(III)
U \ Sm (III)
U \ Phm(III)
2. [PtII(NH3)4] [CuCl4] [Cu(NH3)4] [PtCl4]
hm A mi (II) hm A P (II)
hm S Sm (II)
hm S mim (II)
b)

J U mh P\ mh AS
u Psh \[P A [P Gk.
As A BS.
\ : ]P&Fu { \[P A zu
|S USQ.
170

[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4 ]P Fu;
[Co(NH3)5 SO4]Br ]P
sh A Pm (III) \m
h A \mh Pm (III) k
]P \m A, ]P&Fu
k A P\ uQ.
[Co(NH3)4Cl2]NO2

[Co(NH3)4 NO2Cl]Cl
m A hS Pm (III) |mm
hm A S |m Pm (III) Sk

[Co(NH3)5 SO4]NO3
[Co(NH3)5NO3]SO4
h A |mmh Pm (III) \m
h A \mh Pm (III) |mm
c)

mm (})

CrCl3.6H2O G \zuUPsk Czu ]P

UP. Ca\ 4, 5 Ax 6 An } UTPU
Psk CUS.
1.

[Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl.2H2O - Ah a\ {

hm AUhSS(III) Sk hmm

2.

[Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2.H2O - \&a\{

h AU S S (III) Sk mm

3.

[Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 - Fu {
U AUS (III) Sk

Cu [P mh vsP
US. AgNO 3 h zx 1,2 3 Cl AP P\ Cu A.
d)

Cn (Linkage isomerism)

n Dq J D(Ambidentate)PU
Psh Ana\[P CzuS Ex. CP
JUS mh P EP Ah \
u. J DP SCN -/NCS - NO 2- /ONO Psh \[P CzvP Pa]u \PS.

171

\P
[Co(NH3)5ONO]Cl2 |mmh &\{

h A |mmhPm(III) Sk- O Cn

[Co(NH3)5 NO2]Cl2 |m&g\ {

hA |m Pm (III) Sk - N Cn

e)

DP i[P Cu Hk
D Gk. h A CuS uUP
\S. Ca\zv C A uSvP (1,3) {
Ax 1,2&{ Ax Czu Hkzx.
H2N - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - NH2 Ax H2N - CH2 - CH2 - CH3
|
NH2
6.4.2 n
J v DP J v EP Aqh
CnUPmk C \[PU Px. EP
Aqa _ hzv Cu DP Ax {
miu C \[P [P
Gk. C{PUS G .
zv (A) i \ (B) J _]
G C PP E.
a)

i \ (Geometrical) Ax ]&i

\x u GsQ i[ Psh Ana \[P

C Ex. B |Q izv C. ]
zv J v uSvP Akzukzx AvUS.
i zv CzuSvP mh GvP
AvUS.
[Ma2b2]n+ G \x u i \zv a, b G J
DPS. C ] i [P Ax
R UPhkx. \ [Pt (NH3)2 Cl2] [Pd(NH3)2
(NO2)2] \[PS. C ]&m [P
SUP.
172

b
b
]&

b
a
i
H 3N

NH3

H 3N

Cl
Pt

Pt

NH3
Cl
Cl
Cl
i
]&
]&h A hS i&h A hS
mi (II)
mi (II)
H 3N

H 3N

NH3

NO2
Pd

Pd

NH3
O 2N
NO2
i

]&
]&h A h |m i&h A h |m
i (II)
i (II)
O 2N

GsQ i \[P DP A {PUS

GsoUPz ukQx.

1
2

5
M

4
6

GsQ izv E sk P
sk ] {P E. AP: (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (2,6)
(3,6) (4,6) (5,6) (3,4) (4,5) (2,5) (2,3). S[Pz uuPP
1,2 {P ] {PPU Puk. (1,6) (2,4) (3,5)BQ

173

 i {P E. B 1,6 {P i
{PPU Puk.
[Ma4b2] G GsQ i \zv a, b G J
DPS. Cu C i \ [P R umk.
n+

n+

a
M

a
b
]&
i&
+
[Co(NH3)4 Cl2] A Czu USuS Pa ]u
ShzuSu \S.

[M(AA) 2 a 2] n G GsQ i A (AA) Gx

^ Gzv h A H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2 C
DS. a Gx J DS. [Co(H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2)2
Cl2]+ A CuS zu \S.
[Ma3b3]n, G GsQ i \zv a, b G J
DPS. Ca\ i \ x. \P [Rh(py)3
Cl3] G \zv ]-(1,2,3 i S \) i(1,2,6-iS \) G C [P R
umk.
Cl

Cl
py

py

Cl

Rh

Rh
py

Cl

py

Cl

py
Cl
i&

py
]&
174

b)

J _] (Optical Isomerism)

] P P \[P u Ja _
s . CzuS \[P J _] [P
Gk. C{PUS J _] G . C
_] [P Jzu C v sP
US. u Ja _ s mk
miUS. J x Ch
_.
[PtCl 2(en) 2]12+, Ana \[P C i\
[P E. A ] i BS. Cv ]
^ u u J _ sU
Pskx.
6.5

Ana \ PPP

6.5.1 PP
u |mk v Bm
(1866-1919) G Ana \[P v PP
mh. Au PPUPP, EP Ana
\[PU
Psk
A
{Pzv
Pmk
\uPUPP 1913 B BsiP v x \
| _ [Pmhx. P v x u u
| _ . C Ana \[P uu
G Pumh.
Ana \ PP _UP
Bm Ana \[P A Bx
Ax, 1893 B Bsk u Pshu EsP mh.
A AnU PP GkQ.
PP PxPP
1)

J EP Aq CP CnvP
UQ. AP:
i) u Ax A Cnv
ii) Csh { Ax A Cnv G.
175

2)

3)

4)
5)

6)

u Cnv EP A BU H
{U SUQx. Cu Cnv Gx Gv
AP mk { \kQx.
Csh { Cnv EP A (A) Aq
An GsnU SUQx. Cv Gv AP
(A) |k{ UTP { \kQx.
Csh { CnvP { \ UTP
(A) AP DP Gk.
Csh { CnvP { \ DP
Szu v\|UQ A. G Csh {
CnvP v\|UQ C Psh. u
CnvPUSz v\ |UQ C Qhx.
DP Q u GUm CnP E.
CQ GUm CnP J \zv E
EP A (A) AqS [PkQ. CPa
\[P Ana \[P GkQ.

A
[Co(NH3)6]Cl3 G \zv A
Szu. kmh PkP (dotted lines) Cl APh
\ u CnvPU SUS. vhUPkP (solid lines)
B A UTPh \ Csh {
CnvPU SUS.
NH3 Cl
H 3N
Cl

NH3
Co

H 3N

Cl
NH3

NH3
PP SP
u PPi Ana\[P
AP Bx PP AiP mh.
C AnU Pzv ES nP
u v P PP UP C.
176

6.5.2 Cnv nUPP(VB Theory)

[ (Linus Pauling) G UQ
BUPP Cnv nU PPS. Aq
BhP Ax CUP BhP x
u CUPP UPkQx.
Cnv nU PP PxPP
1)

EP Aq/A An GsqUSa \
BhP US.

2)

C BhP DP BhPh
v \P nP Hkzx.

3)

EPzv Bh, GUm {u D

Bh v \Pn Hkzx. Cu
AvPm\ Bh xu EP&D (]U)
n HkzxQx.

4)

BhP xu AvPP Cu
\Pn ES. EP BhP CUP
{Pzv mk CzuS AvPm\ Bh
xu Hk. CUP BhPh
CUP BhP | v\ |UQ A sP
US.

An Gs, Bh CUP A
Amhn |P.
An Gs
2
4
4
6
6

CUP PP

A
|UPmk A
|Q
\x u
GsQ
GsQ

sp
sp3
dsp2
d2sp3
sp3d2
177

Pu vz v
Sux K Cn \hu GUmU Psk
Puz u Pshx Gk. C
Pu zu DUPk. _]&mk (spin-only)
mi Puz vzv
PnUQhk.

s = n(n+ 2) BM
s = _]&mk Puzvz v
n = Cn \hu J GUmP GsoUP
BM = Puz vzvUP AS, Uh. J J
Cn\hu GUmUTh u P
hPuzu Psh Gk.
Cn \hu J
GUmP GsoUP

_]&mk
vzv (BM)

1(1 + 2) = 3 = 1.73

2(2 + 2) = 8 = 2.83

3(3 + 2) = 15 = 3.87

4(4 + 2) = 24 = 4.90

5(5 + 2) = 35 = 5.92

Cnv nUPP P
1)

{UP Aq
UP u GUm A 3d8 4s2
3d
4s

Ni Aq
Ni +2 A

178

4p

[Ni(NH3)4]2+

N
N

N
N

N
N

N
N

NH3 NH3 NH3 NH3

sp CUP
3

Cn \hu J GUmP = 2

s = 2(2 + 2) = 2.83 BM
sp CUP Eu Cu A |Q BS.
3

2)

[Ni(CN)4]2-

|S Du nP Hkzx dsp2 CUP Psh

\zv A \x uS.
4s
4p
3d
2+
N i A
CN- D x. G Cn \hu GUmP
Cn \ UQx.
4s

3d
[N i(C N ) 4 ]

2-

N
N

4p

N
N

NN

NN

CN CN CN CN

d sp CUP
2

CUT A \x uS.
GsQ i AnP
1)

Fe Aq
UPu GUm A

179

3d6

4s2

3d

4s

4p

3d

4s

4p

3d

4s

F eAq
F e + 2 A
[F e II (F ) 6 ] 4

4d

4p
N
N

N
N

F-

N
N

F- F-

N
N

N
N

F-

N
N

F- F-

sp 3 d 2 CUP

Cn \hu J GUmP = 4

s 4(4 + 2) = 24 = 4.90 BM
Puzu CUT A
GsQS.
2)

Fe+2 A
4s

3d

4p

[Fe(CN)6]4- A CN- D x. Cn \hu

GUmP Cn \ UQx. Cn \hu
GUm Cuu Cx h Puzu Pshx.
4s

3d
[F e (C N ) 6 ] 4 -

N
N

N
N

N
N

4p
NN

NN

NN

CN- CN- CN - CN - CN- CNd 2 sp 3 CUP

CUT A GsQS.
Cnv n PP SP
1950 P v A Cnv
nU PP Ana \[P Bx u.
180

B Pus GUm s {{ (spectroscopic)

sP CUPP UP Cux [ SS.
6.6 Ana \[P P
1.

\[P {miP (Dyes and Pigments)

u P u Ana\[P \[PP
{miPP mk Q. \P h ]P \
QUPP P kzumhx. Cx
mU BzS \S. }{ Pu
\ G {mi uPzv kQx.
2.

S v

\ua\ Ana \[P |iPU

Psk QP.
a) {a\u:
Ana \[P Ah {[
PshP Cu \[P { Pmk (colourimetric)
PoPP kQ. \: \{ 2,2-i
1,10-z \[P Fe 2+ AU Psh
kQ.
b) Gh S : PkUS nz uh, }
Pu Ana \[P EUS DP AvP A
kQ. \ Ni(DMG)2 Al(oxine)3.
c) \ Eu u zu U PoP:
EDTA P\ kzv S {Pzx x P
AvP A EP APh u UP. \: Zn 2+,
Pb2+,Ca2+,Co2+,Ni2+,Cu2+ u. si pH v
Azx, uUP {[PmiP kzv EPU
PP B \. \ Bi 3+ A Pb 2+
B \. P EDTA kzv
SURk \ A UP. EDTA u EP AUS
U PoP \k. Csh EPzu B
\.

181

3.

EP[P zukzu

] EP[P A uxPx {zu

Ana \P zukUP. \ Ag Au
EP[P \k \[PP zukUP.
4.

E&P v

CP ES E&P Ana \[P,

S, S mh 12 S.
PEP |g_US P PkUQn \[P EUS
DP zxz x kQ. u Ehx Pk
\ |g_zu PvUPz u Psh P
}US
\
EDTA
AnU
PoP
2+
kzxQ. (\ : Pb ) CzuS un[P P
uPsh EP PkUQn \[P EQ.
5.

v zx C

] Pt(NH3)2Cl2 G \ tumour Gk u
SPmiPUS GvuP zxzv kQx.
6.

\P \P (Synthetic detergents)

im PkUQn PoP \P
\P E. CUPoP } Piz uUSU Pn
| AP ukzv AP \Ph SURk
\uz ukUQ.
6.7 E&Ana \[P
u, P E \kP Ana \[P UQ
[PQ. ] UQ E&Ana \[P mi
R Amhnkzumk.

1.

2.
3.

S
hU ShU

\
BUz uUQ zu
Gkzxa \u
Ja\UP
GUm
182

E&Ana \[P S
S Csk CP \kP PUQ
oQ.
6.7.1 S
~x v_UPUS BU Gkzxa \ Czu
]qUP SPS. v_\ BU
_]zuUPP k x Cu Czu ]qUP
\{zvx Fu (purple) {P Q. Ax Czua
]q h si P h BUh
~USU Psk x _\ Qx.
S S u
Csk J v A . S
Ji Pshx S |Si PshuS. Cx
CPUS hS.
Csk C& \[PS. Csk Fe 2+
A, uSvPU PsiUS. C&
\ uSv Gk. Cx S SvS.
J S UT |S xn SvPU
Pshx. J Sv J izu J \[Q x BS.
S \k Sv uSvS.
CzuSv Fe 2+ A uSv |S
|m AqUPh ii uSv J |m
Aqh Du n HkzxQx. GsQ A
B BU UTh nUQx.
6.7.2 S
U], \ S BS. \
mh zv zv U]
Axx. EPzv BU] H Gs +2 (Mg 2+). \
mh DPa \kQx. UT A
\ mh P SP E.
S a G {mi J B vP
Qx. G u[P a\ { Fmk S
183

Ja\UP |h EuQx. ` J
S G a\ P PhBUk
}UTP PmmhP, BUP
\US Ja\UP G . CUQ \ S
Jukzx (light sensitiser) P \kQx.
xCO2 + yH2O chlorophyl
lCx (H2O)y + XO2
sunlight

Ja\UPUS S u |S EP \[P &

J [P_ \, C C \[P J u \ &
xn \Q.
BU _]US P[P Azx UT
BU S Ekzx CO 2
kQ. B S CO2 O2 UTP
\USz xn \Qx. O2 UT u Eh \
GP kQx.

u vk
A. \ hz u \P
1.

Cmh E Gx?
a) K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O b) NaCl

2.

3.

An Gs |S Psh \zvP \
a) K4[Fe(CN)6]

b) [Co(en)3]Cl3

c) [Fe(H2O)6]Cl3

d) [Cu(NH3)4]Cl2

[Cu(NH3)4]2+ An A A
a) |UPk b) |Q c)

4.

\x u d)u A

PkUQn \US DUP \

a) NO -2

5.

c) K4[Fe(CN)6] d) KCl

b) S

c)

d) en

[Fe(CN)6]4- An A A
a) |Q

b) \x u

c) GsQ
184

d) UPn

6.

[NiCl4]2- G An A {UP BU H Gs
a) +1

7.

d) -2

[Cu(NH3)4]Cl2
K3[Fe(CN)6]

b)
d)

K4[Fe(CN)6]
[NiCl4]2-

b)
d)

\x u
GsQ

[Ni(CN)4]2- A A
a)
c)

9.

c) +2

Gv An A \ Gx?
a)
c)

8.

b) -1

|Q
UPn

n Dq Psh D Gx?
a) CN-

b) Cl-

d) I-

c) NO 2-

10. [FeF6]4- Puzu Pshx H

a) F- S D
b) F- { D
b) F- u Psh D d)F- PkUQn \ D
11. [FeII(CN)6]4- A EP A
a) Fe

b) Fe+2

c) Fe+3

d) CN-

12. [Ni(CN)4]2- A Ni(II) An Gs

a) 2

b) 4

c) 5

d) 6

13. [PtIV(NH3)2Cl2]2+ Gv
a) hAhS mi(IV) A
b) hAhS mi(IV)
c) hAhS mi
d) hS hA mi(IV) A
14. K4[Fe(CN)6] 4K+ + [Fe(CN)6]4- Gv An A
a) K+

b) CN-

c) FeII

d) [Fe(CN)6]4-

15. u Ch{z u \ \u K EP A
GsQ Ana \zv Puz vzv 4.9 BM
APzv GsQ \ hPuz
uPshx. AP
a) Fe2+

b) Co2+

c) Mn2+
185

d) Ni2+

16. Puzu AS
a) i AS

b) Q c) BM

d) GU

17. [Co(NO2)(NH3)5]SO 4 [Co(SO4)(NH3)5] NO2 \[P

E G?
a) }
c) n

b) An
d) Au

18. Ana\zv Gs Cnv nU PP

UP C?
a) A b) Pus c) Dzu d) {
B. K UQ[P v uP
19. G E G G? J \ uP.
20. Cmh E G G? J \ uP.
21. An E
kQx?

Cmh

Ex

GPP

22. DP An Gs G G?
23. J, C PkUS n DPUS
J \ uP.
24. \[P E EP A _
PnUQkP.
a) [Fe(NH3)4Cl2] NO3

b) Na[B(NO3)4]

25. \[P Pz uP.

a) [Co(NH3)5(H2O)]Cl3

b) Na[B(NO3)4]

26. kP APz uP.

a) i (Gzv h A) Pm(III) A
b) hA\mhPm(III)
27. ] i [Pt(NH3)2Cl2] \[P AP
P.
28. PkUS n AnP G G? J \ uP.
186

C. Ax zuPUS P h uP
29. uUP \Ph An Au
[P USP.
30. Cnv n PP \[P
Bh CUP Pu sP USP.
a) [FeF6]4-

b) [Fe(CN)6]4-

31. K 4[Fe(CN) 6],

[Cu(NH 3 ) 4 ]SO 4
U SUP.

BQ

\[PUS

a) P b) EP AP c) DP
d) An GsP
32. \[P Puzu vzvUS
Cn \hu GUmP GsoUPUS G
uhkzukQx?
a) K4[Fe(CN)6]

b) K3[Fe(CN)6]

33. [FeF6]4- G [Fe(CN)6]4- x kQx?

34. [Ni(CN)4]2- hPuzu Pshx, [NiCl4]2- Puz
u Pshx. USP.
35. [Cu(NH3)4]2+ \x u, [NiCl4]2- |Q. USP.
36. Cnv nUPP SP ?
37. [FeF6]4- I \PU Psk, Cnv nU PP
Au A, d-Bh S u
PusP .
38. CP P S \ USP.
39. _a ` v S UQzx x?
Au \kP .

187

uS
Ana \[P u P vUPmhx.
Ana \zv k A Pa\P, Ana
\[P E P [P \Ph UPmh.
PP, Cnv nU PP UPmkx.
CUPPP { SP Jhmk. Ana
\[P P _UPP UPkQ. S
S BQ \P P
UPmh.
Bu P
1.

Coordination Chemistry, S.F.A.Kettle, The English language book society

and Nelson, 1969.

2.

Concise Inorganic Chemistry, J.D.Lee, Chapman and Hall, London, 1992.

188

7. EmP v
P PmkP
( EmP v Aih Au.
( EmP v P v P Au.
( Aq EmP, B, C EmPa ]u, EmP
Cn PU P.
( Aq EP Aih \ P Au.
( ` {P EmP P Au.
( PvUP I\hP P
PU P.
UP G |mk A AbUS
CPU PvUPzuU PshuuPP 1903&B
BsiP | _ [Pmhx.
U U BQ C |mk
AbPUS Au Bsk PvUP AP
BUPP | _ [Pmhx. U i
zuU Pshu. izu zx Gkzu.
P L G Czu |mk Ab 1938 B Bsk
SP {mP yshmh EmP PU
Pshu; AuPP | _ .

189

EmP v
*

PvUP: ] Aq EmPUP ua\P ]ux

]PU PvP kQ. CP {PPUSU
PvUP G .

PvUP Gx EmP\u {P, {, Azu

UPoP PvUPzu vUPx. UP
G Ab CUPvUPzu u u Pshu.

zuk \i G AbP PvUP EmP

]uUP PmkP mh JS |zv
]u PvUPz uzv A, B{ Cu
PvUPzuzv AS |Quzv CUS Gx
AUPmhS.
CUPmmii \k UPmhx.
t=

2.303

= ]u

log

N0
N

N0
Ca\mi
N

= B{ E PvUP
AqUP GsoUP
= t |zvS S Gg]
PvUP AqUP
GsoUP

AzxPU PvUP ]u P uP
va \uS.
*

AP: PvUP B A \vPU

SuSz uk P A P (t) Gk.
CP (t ) PvUP B{
Aha \uu. ]u ()-a \vUS.
PvUP \ {zu t vx
A t SP Cu A Gv ]u.
{zu S.

190

0.693

t =

\\ P, (Tau) =

1
t
= = 1.44 t BS.
0.693

PvUP Gx EmP \u {P Bu EmP

{ u \x CUS.

K B () xP Gx C mhP C
{mP Psh K EmP (2He4) BS.

J mh [] xP Gx PP CUS K GUm BS.

P Pva_ Gx {, _ Pu PvS.

PvUP ]u \: Pzu, PvUPz u Psh

EmPUP ]ux (A) xPP mh CvP
P [Pb] {z u AvP Psh
I\hPP Q. |S P PvUP ]u
\P E. AP:4n

- u \

4n+1 - |i \
4n+2 - \
4n+3 - BUi \PS
*

EmP n
J EmP ES x ]x { BP kQx.
BP, Aq {x, Aq E mhP
{mP GUmP {P Tmkz
uPhU SP CUS. C{ k {
S Gk. C{ Sx mh
{mhP n A A. { &
B uh E = m C2 G Ij \mi
A.

191

7.1 v PUS EmP PUS E

kP
\un
vP
AqUP
EmPUP
vhv. GUmP mk vP
DkkQ.
B CP \PU PvUPa ]u |h
x v EmPUP EshQ. Aq EmPUPU
Qh Ax Aq EmPUPUS, { S
mhP xPPh EmP x v
EmPUP EUS \US EmP P G .
vP
1. Aq UPu
E GUmP C,
u [Rk
\v vP
{PQ.
2. vP { mk
\ \miUS

EmP P
1.

2.

3. v Hk B 3.
EmP P
Hk B zuhU
S BS.

EmP P B, mh
P Pva_
EmPUPx {PQx.

EmP P {
B \ \miUS.
EmP B
v B zuh
P AvPS.

4. v B Q 4. EmP B MeV
/ AQ Ex.
( GUm m)
G AQ CUS.
5. vu[P Hx
Ev; H
EmP v
Dkkv.

5.

EmPP v
u[P/I\hP
EQ.

EmP P USx EsP

Pzv P sk.
i)

v EmP P kP
Chx P Gu sk.
192

ii)

uUS Chx R Aq Gsn, x

{ Gsn Gu sk. \ 7N14

iii)

vP C u[P AqUP
GsoUP \ \k. EmP P C
zu { GsP Aq GsP \ \k.

iv) uUS xPPUS SkP kzuk.

AvPP x xPPUS uUS xPP G .
A SkP Ak.
n1
H1 or p
1
He4 or
2
H2 or 1D2
1
e0 or e
1
e0
+1
0

{m
mh
xP
im
GUm (A)-xP
m

]uUP si EmP Shmh EmP Gk

]u ES v EmP P EmP Gk.
EmPa]u xPPUS zumh
xPP G .
7

N14

He4

18

O17

uUS xP

H1

zumh xP

Ca\k EmP S. Cx K (, p) P S.
C 7N14 (,p) 8O17G SUP.
EmP P \ \u
17

Cl37 + 1H2

17

C37 + 1H2

18

Ar36 + ?

18

Ar38

n1

BP Ca _UPP
SUP.

193

17

Cl 37 (D, n)

18

Ar 38 GU

EmPP Q vP
EmP {P x Eg\k
hk B A Q-vS.
Qv
Cv

mr
mp

Ax

(mp-mr) 931 MeV BS.

- k P zu {
- P zu {

B Eg\kx m p>m r, Q v |v (+)

PshuS.
B hkx mr>mp. Ax Q v GvUS
(&) PshuS.
7.2 EmP P PP
1.

] ]u (Spallation reaction)

CP EmP P AvP uUS xPP

Shmh Pzu EmPUP ] xPPPa ]uUQ.
29

2.

Cu63 + 2He4 + 400 MeV 17Cl37 + 14 1H1 + 16 0n1

EmP

Pzu EmPUP P, \US \ C

EmPUPP k S. CzuS {P x P
AvP A B hkQx. v
mh , GL. m G , 92U235
EmP SP {m EmP
uu
{Pzv.
CP
{mP
235
238
232
hkQ. U, U, Th Pzu EmPUP p,
n D xPP P EUSQ.
EmP
EmP Pzu EmP J {m
EmPsk {zu Tmk EmP
HkzxQx. CU Tmk EmP x C \ P
EmPUPz uQx.

194

\
EmP {m k {P uUP \S.
U235 + 0n1

92

56

Ba141 +

36

Kr92 + 3 0n1 + 200 MeV

Ps hk {mP
U235 EmPUP uUSQ. C J \[Qz uh
{PQx. P AvP B hkQx. U236G Tmk
EmP PP kQx.
140

93

B a + 36K r + 3 0n
144
+ 38 S r 90 + 2 0 n 1
5 4X e
144
90
1
+ 3 7R b + 2 0n
55C s

56
92

235

+ 0n

1
92

236

CP P u AvPUS P
PS. BP CP P PPU S
|zv PP AvP B hk. G, izu
{PQx. AqSsk izu CP {PQx.
EmP hk BU PnUQh
92

U235 + 0n1

42

Mo95

57

La139 + 2 0n1 + 7 1e0

G U Px.
92

U235 I\h { Gs = 235.118 amu

42

Mo95 I\h { Gs = 94.936 amu

57

La139 I\h { Gs = 138.95 amu

n1 - { Gs = 1.009 amu

235.118 + 1.009 94.936 + 138.95 + 2 1.009

236.127 amu 235.906 amu
{ k
= (236.127 - 235.906) amu = 0.213 amu
1 amu
0.213 amu

= 931 MeV
= 0.213 931.48 = 200 MeV
195

Ps hk B 200 MeV
BS.
1945& B Bsk BPm u u u |mk
G |Pzv x 92U 235 I\h Psh
AqSsk \mhx. Pu239 I\h Psh Cshx
AqSsk |P\Q G |P x \mhx. C AqSsk
a] {Pu Aq P PP AvP A
B mhx. 20 B h TNT G i
izu Hk Bh AvP B AqSsk a\
hmhx. Bk , J Pva_P
mh.
EmP & EzvU P
EmP P PP SPzv {Pa \x
hk B Pmkkzu. EmP {PP
(nuclear reactor) Ax EmP & P (nuclear
power generator) Gx J P EU PS. U235 I\h
kzv Ezv \kQx.
EmP {PPzv hk B S
Azu } UPnx, B
a_ } PvUP zx BUQ Au }
EzvUS C[Pa \x Ezv |hQx.
uPzv Aq Ezv { \ Akzu
PUPzv Ex. Aq Ezv { Th[S
G Chzv ux AUPmk Qx.
3)

EmP n

G P EmPUP Jk J nx \
P EmP EUS \US EmP n (nuclear
fusion) G .
CP P ES \ P EmP
{ nu ] EmPUP zu {hU SP
CUS. C Hk { S BP
hkQx. CP EmP n P PP AvP
196

{ (10 8 K) mk {P. BP CP
PUS EmP P G .
H2 + 1H3
ii ii

He4 + 0n1 + B

C Hk { S 0.018 amu BS. Au

ES B 1.79 109 Q &1BS.
m Ssk
Su |\ US m Ssk AqUP n
P EQx. m EmPUP nx
EmP ESx Su B Qx. m
SskP m n zv {PQx.
Czua _1H2 3Li6 [S EmP
{Px EmP n USz u {
EUSQ.
AqUP
+ {mP
6
1
3
4
Li
+
n

H
+
He
+ 4.78 MeV
3
0
1
2
2
3
4
1
H + 1H 2He + 0n
+ 17.6 MeV
1
7.3 PvUP P P {n
k G A AbP u
P[P u i[PP (fossils) Pzu AP
Gg] PvUPU P 6C14 APx PnUQk
EUQ. Eshzv PU Pv a\ C14
EQx.
i)
ii)

N 14 +

n1

C 14 + 1H1

C ES C14 BU H Ahx C14

Psh 14CO2 EQx. C J\UP {P
u[P ~Qx. Czu[P Esu C 14
P[Ph \Qx. Czu[P P[P Cu
C14 H {zumk C14 ]u uh[SQx.
6

C 14

N 14 +

-1

e0

PvUP P (C14) A P t = 5700 BskPS.

197

u izv (fossils) Gg] C14 AU Pshu

Ax J Q A APx hk xP Pva_P GsoUPU PnUQmh AP
PzuU PnUQh.
vuzv 14 A
C
log u i zv 14 A
C

2.303 t
t=
0.693

G \mh kzv u izv Pzu

PnUQh.
P
1)

PvUP P PnURk AP Ba]P

kQx.

2)

|PP[P a], a] E[P n

a] BQ Bu kQx.

7.4 ` (s P) {P EmP P
`x |iUS 3.7 1033 GU A B G
v\P \ A hkQx. C B
` uhx, u {P m EmPUP
nx EmP EUS \ HkQx.
` {P P P:
a)

mh & mh \[Q
H1 + 1H1

n
EmP

1H2

e0

+1

+ B

]m

H2 + 1H1

n
EmP

2He3

He3 +1H1

n
EmP

+ B

He4 + +1e0 + B

Ps P uS Gu.
4 1H1

n
EmP

198

He4 + 2 +1e0 + B

7.5 PvUP I\hP P

a) Au
i) u Ja\UP
*
C O 2 K BU PvUP BUPU
Psk Ja\UP {PzukQx. Ja\UP |hu
QhUS SP O2 BQ Bu O2
PvUP BU (O18) C. BP Ja\UP x
hk O2 UP UP }UTP Cu
EQ.
*
*
6C O 2 + 6H2O C6H12 O 6 + 6O2
ii)

Gh } S

Gh } SUPkQx. O 17 E } CUS
kzumhx. {Px QhUS A
BP Bu O17Azv Ex Amhx.
O
R -C

O
*
+ HOH

R -C

+ R - OH
*
OR
OH
zxz x k PvUP I\hP
I\h

H3

ii

Eh } Au

C 11

P - 11

C 14

P - 14

Pva_ Gvzu

Ii - 131

]uu Cu u\u E

53

I131

uk \k
Hg197

u\ - 197

]}P E

15

P 32

-32

Ps a]u

26

Fe59

C- 59

Czu \P Pshu

27

Co60

Pm- 60

| zx

80

199

Na24

\i- 24

zu Pmi Chu zu
Kmh uhu

Au198

u[P - 198

| zx

11

79

ux \z xP k PvUP
I\hP
38

Sr90

m] - 90

sna_P u
}zumiP }mh Au

] PnUSP
1)

U235 I\h 0n 1 Psk uUQ

{PQx.
92

U235 + 0n1

42

Mo95 + 57La139 + x 1e0 + y 0n1

x y vPU PshP.
[h : x = 7, y = 2]
2)

U235 I\h 0n1 Psk uUQ

{PQx.
92

U235 + 0n1

42

Mo98 + 54Xe136 + x -1e0 + y 0n1

x y vPU PshP.
[h : x = 4, y = 2]
w PnUSP
1.

J Q PvUP I\h 24 o |zvS 0.125Q

Gg] {x. A PzuU PnUQk.

w
N0 = 1 Q
=

N = 0.125 Q, t = 24 o
N
2.303
log 0
t
N

2.303
1
log
24
0.125
= 0.0866 o-1
=

200

2.

t =

0.693
0.693
=
= 7.99 oP

0.0866

J PvUP I\h A P (t) 100 |iP.

Au ]u \\ B PzuU PnUQk. 90%
]u uk Pzu PnUQk.

t = 100 |i
=

0.693
t

0.693
100

= 0.00693 |i&1

1
1
=
= 144.3 |iP
0.00693
N0 = 100; N = (100 - 90) = 10; = 0.00693 |i&1

\\ B =

t=

3.

2.303

2.303
0.00693

2.303
0.00693

log

N0
N

log

100
10

log 10 = 332.3 |iP

C 60
0 I\h t = 5.26 h. |PskPUS S Gg]

{S PvUPz u \uuzuU PnUQk.

t = 5.26 h
0.693
h&1
5.26
t
= 4 BskP G
N
PvUPz u \uu N BS.
0

2.303
N
log 0
t
N
201

log

t
2.303

N0
=
N

0.693
4

5.26 2.303
0.2288

0.2288 &C Gv Qu (Gv hUP)

1.693

N0
N

N
N0

PvUPz u \uu
4.

1
1.693

= 0 .59

= 0.59 100
= 59%

[P AS J, x zxsk J J
|iUS J Q AS 7.6 15.2 PvUPz xPP
kQ. A[P AS
uU PnUQk.

AS x

B t =
=

2.303

log

x zxsk Pva_

Pva_

0.693

0.693
t

L AS x

2.303 t
x zxsk Pva_
log
0.693
Pva_

2.303 5700
15.2
log
0.693
7.6
= 5700 h[P

202

5.

J PvUPz uzv AP 1500 h[P. ]u

v |i A PnUQkP.
=

0.693
0.693
=
t
1500 h[P

0.693
&1
1500 365 24 60 60 |i
0.693
4 730 4 10

|i&1

= 0.1465 10-10 |i&1

6.

Th 232 EmP 82pb208 EmPP x hk

xPP GsoUP x?
90

Th232

90

82

pb208 + a 2He4 + b -1e0

{ GsP Jmh
232 = 208 + 4a + b 0
4a = 232 - 208
= 24
a = 6
Aq GsP Jmh
90 = 82 + 2 a + (-1)b
= 82 + 2a - b
2a-b= 90 - 82 = 8
2(6) - b = 8
b = 12-8 = 4
L hk xPP = 6
xPP = 4
7.

Li, He mh BQ {P 7.01823
amu, 4.00387 amu 1.00715 amu BS. 1 amu = 931 MeV
G k BU PnUQk.
Li7 + 1H1 2 2He4 + E
3
203

w
k P { = Li { + H {
= 7.01823 + 1.00715
= 8.02538 amu
P { = 2 He {
= 2 4.00 387
= 8.00 774 amu
{ Hmh S = (8.02538-8.00774) amu
= 0.01764 amu
B
8.

E= 0.0176 931 MeV

= 16.423 MeV

X238 EmPx K B xP mh
Gg] EmP CUS {mP GsoUPU
PnUQkP.
92

w
92

X238 AXm + 2He4

C { GsP Jmh
238 = m + 4
m = 238 - 4 = 234
C Aq GsP Jmh
92 = A + 2
A = 92-2 = 90
X&C Aq Gs = 90
{ Gs = 234
{mP GsoUP = 234-90 = 144 BS.
9.

U238 EmP AP 140 |mP. CmP \\

PzuU PnUQkP.

w
t =

0.693

( \\ P, =

204

1
)

= 0.693
=

t
0.693

140
|mP
0.693
= 202.02 |mP
=

10. J PvUP I\h PvUPz u 90 |mP 12.5%

PU Sux. Cu APzu PnUQkP.
w
N0 = 100 N = 12.5 t = 90 |mP
]u =

N
2.303
log 0
t
N

2.303
100
log
90
12.5
= 0.02558 log 8
= 2.311 10-2 |mP-1
=

t =

11.

0.693
0.693
=
= 29.99 |mP

2.311 10 2

Al27 + 2He4 14Si30 + 1H1+ Q G EmP Q vU

PshP. 13Al27 26.9815 amu, 14Si30 29.9738, 2He4 4.0026 amu
H1 1.0078 amu BS.
1
13

m =
=
Q =
=

(29.9738 + 1.0078) (26.9815 + 4.0026)

0.0025 amu
0.0025 931 MeV
2.329 MeV

205

u vk
A. \ hz u \P.
1.

PvUP G {PU Pshu

a) h U
b) U
c) UP
d) zuk

2.

Fk B AvP Psh Pva_ Gx?

a) Pv
b) Pv
c) Pv

3.

U238 82Pb206 G EmP hk

xPP GsoUP
92

a) 7, 5
13

5.

7.

b) 6, 4

c) 4, 3

d) 8, 6

Al27 EmPz uUQ 15p30 EmP {mz u

uUS xP
a) xP b) im
c) mh
d) {m

4.

6.

d) Azx \ Fk u u

B8 4Be8 G hk xP
a) xP b) xP c) GUm Pu d) ]m xP

Pva_UP Pn
a) {zu GUm A
b) {zu EmP
c) {zu EmP
d) {z u GUm A
x232 89y220 G hk
xPP GsoUP
a) 3, 3
b) 5,3
c) 3, 5
d) 5, 5

92

8.

U235EmP J {m Eg] 54Xe139, 38Sr94 x.

Pz uQx. Cv x Gx
a) 3 {mP b) 2 {mP c) xP d) xP

9.

-xP C _________GuS \
a) J mh AvP b) J {m C
c) a b
d) C Hx

92

206

10. {m Eg]P Aq EP k
a) }
b) imj
c) \ d) Pm
B. K UQ[P hUP.
11. PvUPzu .
12. AP G G?
13. vP EmP PUS E C
kPz uP.
14. EmPP Q &v G G?
15. EmP P PP ? J PUS J
\ uP.
16. m Ssk \v A Pzu USP.
17. PvUP P Psk P{n \u G G?
18. PvUP P P {n C P .
19. EmP n G G?
20. EmPP { \P.
i) 42Mo96 (....., n) 43Tc97
ii)

.......(, 2n) 85At211

iii)

96

Cm246 + 6C12 .....+4(0n1)

iv) 7N15 (p, ) .........

v) 11Na23 (n, ) ........
vi) 19K39 (p, d) ..........
vii) 27Co59 (d, p) .......
viii) 13Al27 (, n) ..........
ix) 11Na23 + ......... 12Mg23 + 0n1
C. 60 zuPUS P hUP.
21. PvUP G G? C{P G Pshmhx?
22. EmP G G? Pmkkzumh
Pmkkzuhu EmP P USP. EmP
P hk B oPUS
kzx P .
207

23. EmP n G G? EmP n PUS

PUS E kP ?
24. vPUS EmP PUS E kP
?
25. uUP \Ph PvUP I\hP P .
D. PnUSP
26.

A 218 G EmP {z u 82B 206 EmPP

x hk xPP
GsoUPU PnUQk.
84

27. Ag108 EmP AP 2.31 {h[P. Au ]u

G?
28. Th233 & AP 1.4 1010 h[P. Au ]u
U PnUQk.
29. EmP P { \P.
i)

18

Ar40 +

ii)

30.

iii)

88

Ra236

iv)

92

U238

19

K40 + 0n1

+ 1H1 2He4 + 2He4

?
56

+ 2He4

Ba143 + ___? ____+0n1

U238 EmP xPP mk Cv 82pb206

G {zu EmP AhQx. hmh xPP
GsoUP x?
92

31. Th EmP { Gs. 232 Aq Gs. 90. B xPP,

|S xPP mh QhUS EmP
{ Gs Aq Gs ?
32.

Au 198 EmP AP 150 |mP Au \\

P PshP!
79

33. { \P.
N14 +2He4 8O17 +

i)

ii)

92

U235 +0n1

56

Ba137 + 36Kr93 +
208

.
?

iii)

29

Cu53

28

Ni58 +

iv) 21H3 2He4 +

34. EmPP uUS xPPU PshP!

i)

13

Al27 + ?

11

ii)

34

Se83 + ?

34

iii)

Na24 + 2He4

Se84 + Pv

N14 + ? 8O17 + 1H1

35. 6C 14 EmP ]u 2.31 10 -4 Bsk -1 G

APzuU PnUQkP.
uS
*

EmP v
UPmh.

Bu

PzxUP

EmP PUS v PUS E kP

umk.

EmP , EmP n P uUP

mk.

Aq Ezv {[P \k PPP.

A[S {P EmP P, PvUP I\hP
P Azx |S UPmk.

P P
1.

Inorganic Chemistry by Puri and Sharma.

2.

Inorganic Chemistry by P.L.Soni.

209

Chzv

C v
| v EhUQ { Pou
C v Axx.

210

PnUQ uhP
hUP HP

ln x + ln y + . . . = ln xy . . .
ln x ln y = ln (x/y)
a ln x = ln xa
PUP

d ( f + g) = df + dg
d ( f g) = fdg + gdf
d( f / g) = 1/g df f / g2 dg
dxn/dx = nxn-1
deax /dx = aeax
d ln x /dx = 1/x
uPP
xndx = xn+1/ n+1
(1/x) dx = ln x + constant

211

8. vh { - II
P PmkP
( X-Pv Psk iP i S \u.
( A iP[P sP PP Au.
( iP[P Phzxzv Av Phzxzv
Aih PzxUP P.
( iP i vs[P u Au.

212

vh{ _UP { Tu
vhP _UP Czu, PmiUP
Azuzv S u C BQ
sP . vhP xP iP
vhP iP i vhP G
PkzukQ. iP vhP E AqUP /
AP ^P J[PP }zuP Ax
}sh G \ Gk. C wUP ES{
. Psni, C vhP iP
vhP K _UP Czu
PmiUP BQ sP u, A UPmh
i v. A
{P ESQ. G, iP i
vhP Es vhPP Pu
AvSUPmh }[PP Pu sk.
iP : iP[P EPmh izu. 1913&B
Bsk U (uu P)
BQ X-Pv iP kzxuPP iPzv
AqUP Ax uzu UP SURmk
S vP EUQ. AP X-PvP
AzuUP \u UQ. 1915 & Bsk
U BQ X-Pv iP
BPP C | \ .
ASUTk
ASUTk Gx iP vh G Aih
AS. Cu Au iPx nzv
Axx G A.
ASUTmi UQ sP
z

iP Aa_UP : ox, oy, oz

PU Pn[P : , ,

mkzxskP : a, b, c

a
x

213

P\x ASU Tmi PP

G P\x P\x P P\x

P\x AoUP uzv ASUTmi E AqUP

GsoUP
G P \x
G P\xzv AqUP P\xzv P mk
Ax. E J Aq _ Gmk
P\x[P QxU PkQx. ASUTmi E J
Aq Q 1 BS.
8
G K ASU Tmi E
Nc
AqUP GsoUP
Nc
1
= 8 = 1
=
8
8
Nc Gx E
AqUP GsoUP
P P\x
P E K Aq, Csk ASUTkPUS xP
Cu, P Aq

1
Nf K ASUTmiS QxU
2

PQx.
P A K ASUTmi E
AqUP GsoUP

Nc Nf 8 6
+
= + = 1+ 3 = 4
8
2
8 2
214

Nf = Gx P E AqUP GsoUP

Nf

P\x
P\x A, zv E Aq J
P\xzvS mk xP Axx. G, K
ASUTmi E AqUP GsoUP
=
Nb

Nc Nb 8 1
+
= + = 1+1 = 2
8
1
8 1

Nb= zv E AqUP GsoUP

Aq
zv E K Aq |S ASUTkPUS
xP Axx. P\x A sk P
E. G, J Aq Ne/4 AS
[PUQx.
=

Nc Ne
+
8
4

8 12
+
= 1+3=4
8 4

Ne = zv E AqUP GsoUP

215

Ne
Ne

8.1 X-PvP, iP A
X-PvP P Su A} Psh PuU PvPS.
X-PvP Asx \u P
{n \mhx. H, \uUS J
\.mh 40 PkP Psh Psnimh
ukQx. CzuP ~so A ux P
PiS. Au \, iP P J iPzv E
AqUP 10 -8 \. u J[PP Ax G
|. , X-PvP A}x 10-8 \.. AU
Pskx. CUPzxUP AihPU Psk,
G iP[P X-PvP n S
kzu G T. Ax \u ][U \k
iPzuz Psk \ T {zu. \u
mh Jhx h Gmhx.
\ux X-PvP As, J
iPzv AqUP Ax AP J[P n
A Ax Gu {UQx.
\u iP[P ^ A UP[P
Pkzu, Au A S \x PiS.
8.1.1 U \k
W.L.U W.H.U BQ X-Pv
\u P AqUPUS Chmh u {nUP
216

Pou uh J EUQ. iPzv X-PvP ]u

Ahx iPzv Akzukzukzu u[P E AqUP
A GvuS. X-Pv Gvx \un
J Gv A X-PvP A}
iPzv E u[PUS Ch u
BQ AhUTi Smh Pnzv {PQx.
X-PvP A}, iPzv E u[PUS Ch
u GvU Pn BQQh
uh US G \hx U \k Gk.
U \k
Aux, n

n = 2d sin

Gx Gv i
Gx X-PvP A}
Gx iPzv E u[PUS Chmh u
Gx GvU Pn

8.1.2 U \mi UQzx

1)

2)
3)

A} () uu X&PvP kzv J iPzv

AqUPUQhmh u (d) PnUQh. P,
J iPzv AqUPUQhmh u (d) kzv
X-PvP A}zuU () PnUQh.
U \k |huS u
Pn[Pz uQx.
\u {Pzxx J Smh Pnzv ()
AvPm\ Gv |hQx. Cu Pn
AhkQx. Cx ui (n=1) Gv BS. Cu
Pnzu () Ezxx AvPm\ Gv
Eu Pnzv |hQx. Cx Csh i
Gv (n=2) BS. Cu, , |P
Ei GvP Smh Pn[P |hQx.
QhUS Pn[P vP U \mkh |S
xQx. C U \k \u
\UPkQx.

8.1.3 U {{
Cx X-PvP iP[P AUTi UQ
P JS. CUP X-Pv Sx k X217

Pv Px _ \ x E iPzv x
Ax Ex. _ \ E A
BQ (xnk) kPv Pn & Ah.
X -PvS

v \
P

v
X -Pv

AUS
Sv
kPv

_ \

iP
A

h 8.1 X-Pv {{
iP \ Aa_h E Sh AUS Sv
Cnxx. iPzv GvUPmh X&PvP
AUS Sv \ A[S AUP
\Q. AUP {Pu EshUS mhzu
GUmmh AkQx. AUS mhzv
Ax. iPzvx GvUPmh P Ahzv
AS \S. kPv Pn[PUS QhUS
AUS mhzv AP GUmmh
AhkQ.
CvP
hzv
v
\kQ.
\i Si E (100) uzvS AvPm\
Gv Ax Phx = 5.9, 11.85 18.15&
{PQx. C \ (sine) vP 0.103, 0.205 0.312
BS. C 1:2:3 G Quzv E. G, Cu PkP
u, Csh i GvP BS. Cu
Qux U \mi \zu {UQx.

218

8 . 2 iP[P PP
iP[P AoUP E ASP
u zx iP[P |S PP
PkzukQ.
1.
3.

UT iP[P
EP iP[P

2.
4.

\Pn iP[P
A iP[P

8.2.1 UT iP[P
UT iP[P E AoUP P
_ UTP Ax. UTP nx
\P CPk. A (i) C&C Pa] \
(ii) sh \P. C&C Pa] \

UTPU
Psk
iP[P
PnkQ. \: } sh \P xP
Azx P UT iP[P PnkQ.
8.2.2 \Pn iP[P
\Pn iP[P E AqUP uha] \P
nP nUPmkx. CuS J ]u
\S.
8.2.3 EPiP[P
EP iP[P C[S GUmP Ph
|_ AP vx. G, J GUm
Au | AP, J | A
Au GUmP PsiUS. EP A
GUmPh nUS \ EPn Gk.
Pa] \x P Cu EP[P vs
A |[Q Axx.
8.2.4 A iP[P
AiP[P AoUP P |
Gv AP Ax. Smh _
J A Gv _
219

APh T Pa] \ nUPmkx.

Cu \P P uS. AiP[P RUPsh
] sP .
1.

AiP[P Bu AvPS.

2.

\un { AiP[P B Azu[P

P SS.

3.

A iP[P Pv{ ES{ P

AvPS.

4.

AiP[P P PiP, Eh uh
E.

5.

AiP[P vs{ Phzuz uh.

6.

AiP[P } PP P
uh.

7.

} Pxx
uh.

AiP[P

Phzx

8.2.5 AiP[P PP
AiP[P Ax, GsoUP Qu[P,
E Qu[P i ASP BQ
{nUPkQx. xP AiP[P AB AB2 G
CPP PkzukQ.
AB P \[P xP RUPsh B
A Hu J iPS u.
AB
AoUP A: CsCl
An Gs
:8

AB
NaCl
6

AB
FeS
6

AB
ZnO
4

AB AB
ZnS BN
4
3

AB Pa \u CsCl iPzv A . Cx
P\x PPa \uuS. Sk AP
P\xzv P AvUSx Cs+ A P\xzv
zv AvUS Ax Cs + AP P\xzv
P AvUSx Sk A Au zv
AvUS. J Cs + A Gmk Cl- APh
220

Cnxx. J Cl - A Gmk Cs +
APh Cnxx.
+

Cs
Cl

K ASUTmi E Sk AP GsoUP
Nc 8
= =1
8 8
K ASUTmi E ^] AP GsoUP
=

Nb 1
= =1
1 1
G, K ASUTmi E CsCl ASP GsoUP J
BS.
=

AB2 Pa \u \[P RUPsh iP A Hux

K A iPS. A CO2, SiO2, TiO2, CaF2, Cu2O, FeS2, CdI2
MoS2 BS. \P, h, TiO2 RUPsh A
x.

- Ti
- O x y g en

8.3 vs[P E AqUPmkzv SkP

|h E iP[P
P SkP . J[P iP Gx J
ASUTmh iP x J AqUP uzu
US. J[P Ax UP Ahx
iPzv A USuS AqUPmkzv SkP
kQ.
221

8.3.1 SkP
Cha] AqUP Ax AvP GsoUP
AqUP Ax {hu AqUP BQ Hk
SkP SkP G AUPkQ. CzuP
SkP iPu x {P u Pmh
Ax Eu {P AqUP {P
Av HkQx. CzuP P x SkP
mQ Sk [P Sk BS.
SkP EP AvP Sk EP
Sx Sk BS.
mQ Sk
iP AoUPP ] {h Cu
CzuP Sk HkQx. {hu P AoUP
h[P GkQ. {hu | Gv
AP
GsoUP
\P
Cu
iP
|k{zuh CUS. h 8.2 {hu Csk
P J Na + A Cl - A
Pmhmkx.

C l C

N a C

h 8.2 iPzv E mQ Sk
xP J iPzv E | Gv
AP E k AvP Cux mQ
Sk HkQx.
[P Sk
AoUP P Ch K A
{kx CzuP Sk HkQx. CuP

222

Sk xP AiP[P E Gv A
E | Ah uP CUSx HkQx.
CUSkUS \P AgBr GkzxUP. Ag+ A
J Auh AoUP A PUS
Chmh Ch Axx. Cu h 8.3&
Pn.
+

Ag
Br
+
Ag
Br

Br Ag
+
Ag Br
Ag
Br
+
Ag Br

Br
+
Ag
Br
+
Ag

Ag
Br
+
Ag
Br

Br
+
Ag
Br
+
Ag

Ag
Br
+
Ag
Br

Br
+
Ag
Br
+
Ag

Ag
Br
+
Ag
Br

h 8.3 J iPzv E [P Sk
| AP GsoUPx Gv AP
GsoUPUS \P Cu iPx |k{
US.
EP AvP Sk
NaCl iPzu \i B kzxx g\
{P Qx. Cu g\ {zvS Pn \k
Aihu NaCl \ EuS. Ca\zv
\i AP GsoUP \ AvPP CUS. Cx
EP AvP Sk Gk.
EP S Sk
CP Smi AoUP E J |
A C kQx. Cu ES Gv
u \ \uPP C |u Psh
A AoUP uzv Ex. Cx EP S
Sk Gk. CzuP Sk xP JUS
mh Cnv Psh Ch{ u[P HkQx.
FeO FeS BQ Cu SkUS \PS.
8.4 iPvhP sP
iP vhP UQ s A Phzxzv
BS. J Phzxzv Gx Ax u
223

mhzu AvUS \S. Phzxv Psh

P xP PhzvP, SPhzvP
PhzuP G PkzukQ.
xP EP[P ]u Phzx PP
\kQ. ]UP u[P
\un { Phzu PP E. B
Ah B\U _UP \USx
K Phzx v Q. G, A SPhzvP
GkQ. AvPP E GUmP Phzxzv
SPhzvP n-P SPhzvP G, AvPP |S
xP Cu Phzxv SPhzvP p-P
SPhzvP G AUPkQ. SPhzvP
i]h, Gk P ` P | q
P kQ.
8.4.1 Av PhzvP

uh

Av SUPmh ] \[P GzuP uh

\zu
Phzx
\
AvPhzxzv
(superconductivity) Gk. AvPhzxzv { E J
x uh x. Cs
\[P AvPhzvP GkQ.

\un
EP

AvPhzv

Tc
{

J AvPhzx { { (Tc) Gx
J Smh { J uhx
vj a]zu AhuS. Au { x
\un { Cx AvPhzvP kQx.
224

PUSu { ] AqUP EmP Avx

P Sx mh v E GUm APh
\Qx. C{Pa] |hx mhzvP uh
xkQx.
8.4.2 Av PhzvP P
1)

C v u B \ v AP
AihS. Av Phzv mhP \un
mhPh Su Gh, ] E
. C Su B kzxu
AvP B \UP.

2)

AvP v Psh ux zukUS Cv[P

AvPhzv Pu[P kzukQ.

3)

AvPhzv \kP Eh B \
EPnP AqUP Pu Jzv\ h EPnzv
kQx.

8.5 iP E vs[P
iP E vs[P Azuzv _UP Czu
PmiUP sP u, A
UPmh i v.
8.5.1 PsniP
] }[P P SUSx Smh
{ iP[P EUSv. B xP
SUSx A Q u ^P AvPzx Cv
Psnia \ EQx.
Psni UQ sP: Pizu, PmiUP
\ \zxx u[S u vh
{ sP UQ. B P C J
v\ sh. Aux kzxx wUP
Hx }Qx. E{ PsniP
AvSUPmh }zu { iP[PP
Q. G Psnix iP E vhP
Ax AvSUPmh }[P GkQ. G,
225

Psni Ax m { (Vitreous state) Gx vh

} {PUS Ch E { GkQx. ]
\[P C{ E.
w PnUSP
1)

J iP NaCl& Gzu ASP E Gu PnUQk.

NaCl Bx fcc Ahx.

w
fcc A E AP
1
= Cl A
8
1

P E Cl- AP
= 6 = 3Cl AP
2
1
+
zv Na+ AP = 12 = 3Na AP
4
+
zv E Na A
= 1 1 = 1Na + A
___________________

P E Cl- AP

= 8

zu 4 Cl- 4Na+ AP
G, K ASUTmi |S NaCl ASP E.
2)

Ba iPzu 2.29A A} Psh X Pv

S Emkzxx ui Gv 278 &
|hQx. iPzv u[PUQhmh u x?
U \k

n = 2d sin

= 2.29 A

n = 1,

d=?

= 278

vk \u, 1 2.29A = 2d sin 278

2.29A = 2d (0.456)
d=

2.29A
2 0.456

= 2.51 A

226

3)

J fcc A E AqUP A P P
zv E B PS. \zv G mh
GxP.

w
1
ASUTmi E A P AqUP GsoUP = 8 = 1
8

ASUTmi E B P AqUP GsoUP = 6

1
=3
2

G, k AB3 BS.
J fcc A, A P AqUP , B P
AqUP P zv Ax. J
ASUTmi, E J A Aq {h
Ex \zv G mh GxP.
w
4)

1 7
ASUTmi E A P AqUP GsoUP = 7 =
8 8

ASUTmi E B P AqUP GsoUP = 6

1
=3
2

G, k A7/8 B3 Ax A7 B24
] PnUSP
1.

J iPzu 2.31A A} X&Pv S

Emkzxx 28.9& ui Gv {PQx G
u[PUS Chmh u PnUQk.
[Ans : 2.447 A]

2.

UPn 2P Ex 14.8 BS. 0.400

nm u[PUQhmh u Psk CiPzv
Csh i Gv {Px X-Pv A}zu
PnUQk.
[Ans : 0.0515 nm]

227

3.

P X-Pv S ( = 1.542 A) u i Gv Pn
23.2 BP Ex u[PUQhmh u PsQk.
[Ans : 1.9573 A]

4.

1.5A A} Psh X&Pv 1.6A u[PUQh

u Psh iPzv kQx G ui
Cshi GvP Pn[PU PnUQk.
[Ans : 2757; 6938]

5.

1.54A A} Psh X-Pvx 4.04A u[PUQh

u Eh iPzv kx ui
Cshi GvP Pn[PU PnUQk.
[Ans : 1059 ; 2224]

u vk
A. \ h uukUP
1.

NaCl iPzv Na + A `x Cl - AP
GsoUP
(a) 12

2.

(b) 8

(c) 6

U \k
(a) = 2d sin (b) nd = 2 sin

3.

(c)2 = nd sin (d) n = 2d sin

J[P n A Eh PU Pshx
(a) ASU Tk
(c) mkzxsk

4.

(b) AoUP u
(d) iP

J iPzv E sk sk AUTi Pa]

AS
(a) AoUP
(c) ASUTk

5.

(d) 4

(b)
(d)

iP AoUP
I\\

CsCl iPzv A
(a) SC

(b) fcc

(c)|Q

228

(d) bcc

6.
7.

[P SmiS \
(a) NaCl
(b) AgCl
(c) CsCl

AvPP E GUmP Phzxv

SPhzvP
(a) AvPhzvP
(c) p-P SPhzvP

8.

(b)
(d)

n-P SPhzvP
Phzu P

U\mi, n Gx
(a) P GsoUP
(c) Ssh Gs

9.

(d) FeS

(b)
(d)

APm Gs
Gv i

Pa\x A An Gs
(a) 6

(b) 4

(c) 12

(d) 8

10. ]u PhzxvPsh iP[P

(a) AiP[P
(c) EP iP[P

(b)
(d)

UT iP[P
\Pn iP[P

11. G P\x A E Aqx

[Rhmk ASUTkP GsoUP
(a) 1

(b) 2

(c) 8

(d) 4

12. AvSUPmh { ] \[P uhx

Phzx u
(a) SPhzv
(c) AvPhzv

(b) Phzv
(d) Phzu

13. bcc iPzv K ASU Tmi zu AqUP

GsoUP
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4
14. mh Gx
(a) TiO2
(b) Cu2O
(c) MoS2
(d) Ru
15. SPhzvP P
(a) SP
(b) P
(c) ` P
(d) C Azx
229

16. S EPU SmiP \

(a) NaCl

(b)

AgCl

(c)

CsCl

(d)

FeS

B. K P h
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.

AoUP u AUTk .
UvU T.
Av PhzvP G G?
(a) sc (b) fcc (c) bcc AP h P.
iP[P G PkzukQ?
UT AiP[PUS \ uP.
m { G G?
AB AB2 P AiP[PUS \ uP.
vhP E SkP ?
An Gs G G?

27. fcc A ASU Tmi AqUP Ax u

S P.
28. EP iP[P S P.
29. Psni G EQx?
C. P h
U \ k G G? Au UQzxzu US.
AiP[P sPz uP.
mQ [P SkP .
Av Phzx v G G? Au P ?
uUP \h AB AB2 P AiP[P USP.
iPzv AU Psh U \k G
kQx?
36. UQ { { USP.
37. Psni u USP.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.

230

uS
X-Pv iP[P B \ UPmhx. AB
AB 2 P iP[P uUP \Ph UPmh.
vhP E SkP G UP, A
iP[P sP Psni u sP
UPmh. U \k Au UQzx
vUPmh.
P P
1)

C-Kittel, Introduction to solid state physics,Third edition, John Wiley,1966.

2)

A Text book of Physical chemistry, A.S.Negi, S.C.Anand, Fifth

Edition,1997.

3)

Problems in Physical chemistry, K.K.Sharma, Second Edition, 1997.

4)

Physical Chemistry, Peter Atkins Julio de Paula, 7th Edition 2003, Oxford
Press.

231

9. CUP & II
P PmkP
( CUP uv { Tu Au
P Avzu.
( CUP Csh v Au Pou
A Pu.
( ua\ ua\ \PUS
Ch E kP \Ph P. Gm
Gu PouU SkP Ax Pu.
( Q Pmi B Ax Pu. Pmi B
G =H-TS G \mh AxP.
( G& UQzx Au.

232

9.1 CUP u v P
CUP uv i Bx J
Px PP UTix Gu J
\ B BUP Ax AUP Cx.
Pou i CUP u v E = q-w BS.
E Gx A w A \ x A
Eu B Hk BS. Aux Ax q
A zu Eg] w A \Qx. Cv
P .
1. CUP uvx J \
x {P B [P TQx.
B, AzuP B [P {PuP \zv[P
USv.
2. J \ {P v\x ua\u Ax
ua\u Gu Gu Pzu
CUP u v T.
9.2 CUP Csh v
CUP Csh v TUP
:&
i)

ii)

iii)

J _ J x zu Eg],
A GzuP ] zu Hkzu, xP
P U Ti K Cvzu iUP Cx.
Cx CUP Csh v P&[U
T Gk.
GzuP \ zu Su
x `h US x Cx.
Cx CUP Csh v Q] T
Gk.
Gm
AvPUPUTi
\x
ua\uS. CUTx CUP Csh
v Gm T Gk. Gm Gx
J[Pzu Ak s Ax K A
233

UTP J[Pz u SUQx. Cx J

{a\S. K A ua\P Gx
J[P
{x
J[P
{US
UPsiUS. G, J ua\ \
Gm ^P EQx.
iv) K Cvzv v Gx \uuzu Ahx.
v) Gu K Cvzv v Gx kzv BUS,
Eg\mh BUS E Quzv vS.
kzv Bx Hux J AhUTi
BP Ax { P CUP.
Eg\mh Bx BP Ax
BP UTi G AP CUS.
G, % v =

kzv B
x 100
Eg \mh B

Cvx CvPUTh CUP. J

Cvzv uhUP { T1 G, Cv { T2
G P. T1>T 2 P CUSx Smh A
x P kQx. T 2 Gx Su
{S.
T T

1
2
v Bx, % v = T x 100
1

CUP Csh vi, Eg] B

xP, ]u Ax B Eg\,
kzx BP UTi K Cv Ax
Cvzu EUP Cx.
G, \uu v Jx Ah Cx.

T2
% v = 1 T x 100

1
Csh vi, T2<T1 G % v 100&I h SS.

234

9.3 Gm
CUP Csh v APkzumh
Gm \ S Bx UPkQx.
G \ S Gx Ek zvS (q) \
q
{US E QuS. Aux, S = .
T
Czuh \PUS mk uU TiuS. K
Ax u { { 1&x {&2US
uP, q rev Gx Au \ Ek
G GkzxUPsh, \ Gm (S)
A.
2

S2 S1 = S

= =

q rev
T

\x \S. Gm (S)
\ Gm (S) BQ {a\PS.
q q BQ a\PS. J \,
Ashzv Gm Ex.
SAsh = SA + S_ =
CUP \PUS Gm
UPkQx.
{ (T = ) \
1
q q
q rev = 2 1

T
T
2

{ Azu (T P = )
\
2

1
= T q p, rev
1

235

{ P A (T V= )
\
2

1
= T q v, rev
1

CPa \ Gx ua\ \S
Ca\
yshkv.
C
uP
|hQ. J Smh \x ua\
\ C Gu A _zv
Gm zv Psh. Cv |US
USx, Ashzv Gm AvPUS. G, \
x ua\P, |hQx.
Ashzv Gm x a]P Ax
GvUS (S<0) USx, Ax
ua\ \ C[S.
J { A Azux Em
Azuzuh AvPP CUSx, x ua\P
hQx. h x PA AvPu,
UTUP J[PP C[S u AvPUQx.
G, ua\ \ J[P u
AvPUQx. Cx ua\P {Pu Gm
|US x. G, Gm Gx K A
{P ~so J[Pz u, ua\
\ SUQx.
J \ ,
SA = - S_
SAsh

= SA + S_ = 0.

J a \ (ua\)
SAsh > 0 (|US Ehx)
K C ({) zv x {P Gm
zu, SP }[P A Pv{ Bu,
imh v {nUP. Cvi, J }zv
236

Bu zu (Hvap) (P/) Au Pv{

(P) SUSx 21 P iQ&1 &1 G u
v QhUQx.
S

vap

Tb

vap

= 21 P iQ&1 &1

Hvap = Bu Gu = Bu E
. Ca\k Pv{z uu }zv Bu
zu {nUP kQx. Cvx P
Ahx \[P :
i)

m Su Pv{ Psh
}[P. C Pv{ 0K&I h Pa ]u
EvUS.

ii)

} BP \[P m
n Psiu AvPm\ Pv{P,
AvPm\ HBu v .

iii)

A]miU A }zv UTP B {

SvP Au, PUSu Bu Gm
. Aux 21 P/iQ/ h PUSu
v .

imh vUS Emmk \k }[P |

u .
\ 1
CCl4, CHCl3 H2S BQ Pv{P
76.7oC, 61.5oC -59.6oC BS. A |z u
\kx A Bu {U
PnUQk.
}[P |zu \ku, imh
vUS EmkQ.
Svap =

H vap
Tb

= 21cal.deg

.mole

237

-1

-1

Hvap of CCl4

= (21 cal. mole . deg 4.184J) (273 + 76.7)K

= 30.71 kJ mol.-1

Hvap of CHCl3

= (21 cal. mole-1.deg-1 4.184 J) (273 + 61.5)K

= 29. 376 kJ mol-1

Hvap of H S

= (21 cal mol-1.deg-1 4.184 J) (273-59.6)K

= 18.74 kJ.mol-1

Gm (S) ]P
i)

Gm (S) Bx CUP Csh vx

CUP {a\P UPmkx.

ii)

J Smh \ {P A Gm
(S) Gx u { {P
zvS A {US Ch
QuS. Ax Au Smh \
{PU TiuS.
Srev =

q rev
T(K)

, q Gx {a\ A. B J
\ q = (q2-q1)& \ { (T)
B Szx Qhx {a\S.
iii)

J ua\ \ x J[Pzu Ax
UTP J[P u A AvPUQx.
Azx ua\ \P Gm AvPUQx.
G, Gmx K A JUPzu
Ax UTP J[P A BQ
Ak sS.

iv) K Ax C Ax v [PUS
Emkx A _ BQ
Gm h. A _
BQ zu Gm zv TmkzuPx
Ashzv Gm GkQx. J {
a \ (T=) x, \
Ashzv Gm S.
238

J a\x Ashzv Gm
AvPUQx.
v)

Ashzv B Cu, Ashzv Gm

AvPm\ A |UQ ExUPsh CUQx.

vi) J ua\ \ u { (T), S

|S x (S>0)
J \{ \ S Bx S.
J ua\ \
S GvUS x (S<0)
vii) Gm AS: Gm APx B AS
X {-1 BS. Gmx P /
iQ G P Gm AS (eu) GkQx.
Gmx \zv A zuu
Gm AS P/iQ/ Ax eu/
GkQx.
cgs AQ Gm AS cal.K-1 Gx eu BS. SI AQ
JK-1 Aux 1 eu = 4.184 EU BS.
viii)
Gm Gu zxh uh
Pskx.
q rev
. H Gx u { T u
T
Azu P& J \ Eg\k Ax Ek
S. S Bx H P PnUQhkQx. G,
S =

H
, H Gx u Azua \ {
T
T& Gu zv AS.

H =

\ 2
0oC 1 atm& J UPmi 0oC 1 atm&
}P x Gm zuU PnUQk. UPmi
ESu Gu 6008 J mol-1.

239

H2O (s)

0o C

UPmi 273 K
S

fusion

H2O (l)
}

H fusion
6008 J.mol 1
=
=
Tm(K)
(0 + 273) K

Sfusion = 22.007 J mol-1 K-1.

\ 3
} (373K) } (373K) G \ Gm
zuU PnUQk. Hvap = 40850 J mol-1
Hvab
40850 J/mol
= 109.517 J.K.1 mol1
Svap = Tb (K) =
373 K

Svap = 109.52 J mole1 K-1

\ 4
RUPsh { zvx Gm zuU
PnUQk. H transition = 2090 J.mol-1
1 mole Sn (, 13oC)
T

1 mole Sn (, 13oC).

= 13+273 = 286 K.

transition

Strans =

H trans
2090 J.mol 1
=
Ttrans (K)
286 K

Strans = 7.307 J.K 1 mol.-1

\ 5
J \x Gx Gm E?
a)

J v, P UTP
GsoUPx k P UTP
GsoUPh AvPP CUSx Gm
AvPUQx.
240

J vs }u, J } Bu J vs
Bu BQ { C \P
x Gm AvPUQx.

b)

\ 6
55oC { K Ax 75J x
20 C E _zvS \x A, _
Ash BQ Gm zuU PnUQk.
o

TA

= 273 + 55 = 328 K.

T_

= 20 + 273 = 293 K.

SAsh

= Szu = SA + S_
q A

75J

SA = T A = 328K = 0.2287Jk

S_

q _
T_

+ 75J
= + 0.260 JK1
293K

SAsh = Szu = (0.2287 + 0.26)

= + 0.0313 JK-1
\ 7
4.1 atm E 1 | J Smh
{ 3710J zu Eg] 2 mhUS
hQx. h \ Gm zuU
PnUQk.
J | S,
PV = RT,

P = 4.1 atm

{ =

V = 2 lit

4.1 atm 2lit 1 mole

0.082 lit atm K 1 mol 1

241

= 100 K.

S =

q 3710 J
=
= 37.1 J.K 1
T 100 K

Shu = 37.1 J K-1

vmh Gm
25C 1 atm Azuzv J y \zv u
Gmx vmh Gm (S) GkQx. 0K& E
Azx \[P vmh Gmx Gx |S
v US.
\[P vmh Gm (S) uu, J
v Gm zu Gu.
S = S Sk P
S Gx vmh Gm zuU SUQx.
Eu vmh Gm Sf Gx vmh{
u[Px 1 \ Eu GmS. J
vUS Sf Bx u[P S vPx
PnUQhkQx.
Sf \ = S\ Su[P
\ 8
CO2(g) Eu vmh Gm zuU PnUQk.
CO2(g), C(s) O2(g) BQ vmh GmUP
213.6, 5.740 205.0 JK-1 BS.
Sf

= S\ - Su[P
= SCO2(g) [SC + SO2(g)] JK-1
(s)

= 213.6 5.74 205.0

Sf, CO (g) = 2.86 JK-1
2

\[P ESu vmh Gm ux,

J \ \mh v UP vmh Gm zu
Gu.
S = Sf

242

Sf k P

\ 9
}Shx A P&h&
BU\h uSQx. , H2O(l), CO2(g) NH3(g) BQ
vmh Gm vP 41.55, 16.72, 51.06 46.01
cals. mol-1.K-1 BS. C vmh Gm zuU
PnUQk. ua\u GU T.
S

= S P Sk P

x
CO(NH2)2(aq) + H2O(l) CO2(g) + 2NH3(g)
S

= (SCO (g) + 2SNH3(g)) (S(aq) + SH O(l))

2

= (51.06 + 2 46.01 41.55 16.72) cal.K-1

= 84.81 cal. K-1.
S Gx |S v Pshx. Aux S
AvPUQx. G }Sh J ua\
S.
9.4 Q Pmi B G
CUP Csh vi J \
ua\a \ Gu A Ashzv Gm
kzukQx. SAsh& vx SA S_
BQ TkuS. C
v \P x S_ PnUQkx PiS.
G ua\ \ AuS A mk
\vUPUTi J CUP \ ukQx.
CuPP CUP Cshv Pmi B \
APkzvx. Au Pmi B \, Q Pmi B
\ G G G SUPkQx. Pou i
G = H TS G UPkQx.
H = A Gu Ax UP, T = {
(P) S = Gm
Cu Pou x u {
243

Azuzv |h \PUS x. J
{ a \, H S BQ
A Gu Gm [P G, Pmi
B G x
G = H TS
1 2 BQ { \ x
A uhUP Cv {P G
G = (G2 G1) = (H2 H1) T(S2 S1)
CUP u vx
H = E + PV G
G = E + PV TS.
J ua\ \, u Azuzv Gu
GvUS US. J E \
Cv Gm (H2) Bx uhUP Gm (H1) I h SP
Cu (H 2H 1 ) GvS US. G, \
x ua\P Gu S { |UQ
{P. Cu, ua\ \x Gm
(S) AvPUS. CuS Pn Cv Gm (S2) Bx uhUP
Gm (S 1) I h AvPP Cu (S2S 1) = S Bx
|US uS. H GvUS S |US
BQ Pmi B G \mi Szxx
G = H TS QhUQx.
u {, J ua\a \ G&
zu Gs v GvUS US. C[S, H S
BQ Aa \uuS.
J \ Pmi B (G) zvx J
{P GuS, CUP ua\
\US Pn[P .
A u { Azuzv
G > 0, G = +ve, \x ua\ \ A
{Px.
244

G = 0, \x \{ Ehx.
G<0, G=-ve, \x ua\x
{PUTix.
v CUP, ua\ \P a
\P Ax {P \PS. ua\
\P, {Pu \P GkQ. CzuP
\PUP |UPo PnUQhkv.
Azx \P \{a \PS.
ua\ \{ \PUP
CUP AihU Pn[P
ua\x
()

\{x
()

ua\
({Pux)

G = 0
H = 0
S = 0

G > 0
H > 0
S < 0

u P T
G < 0
H < 0
S > 0

Pmi B G& ]P
i)

G x (HTS) G UPkQx. H S BQ
A Gu GmS. T=2
{. H S { \PP Cu G x
{a\S.

ii)

G Gx s \sS. G = (G2G1) G Pmi

B x A Cv (2) uhUP (1)
{P \vu s \ sS. Aux,
Cv uhUP {PUS Ch { CUP
sk Ax Ax i AP
CUPsk.

iii)

G Bx A J vh CUP
sS.

iv) G G& vP A mk \uS.

\ u A G& PP
245

ukQx. G < 0 (GvUS) BP E x, \

ua\x {PUTiuS. G = 0 G
\ \{hx. G > 0 (|US) G
\ ua\uP, {PuuP Ex.
v)

G = H TS. CUP uvi,

H = E + PV E = q w G
G = q w + PV TS
B S =

q
G TS = q = \ |h
T

G = q w + PV q = w + PV
Ax G = w PV = zu
u { Azuzv J Smh
\x Pmi B Sx (G)
h z u A \ AvPm\
U SUQx.
Cu Ax A \ AvPm\ Gk
(w PV)&US \S.
zu = G = w PV.
G Gx PV z u Ax k
, v Ax Azx P SUS.
vmh Pmi B (G)
\[P Eu vmh Gu vmh
Gu BQ \[P Eu
vmh Pmi B P vmh Pmi B
PukQ. Azx u[P \[P vmh
Pmi B v (G) Bx vmh {P {
(298 K) Azu (1 atm) BQ H S
vPx PnUQhkQx. Aux \ vmh{
EuPU PukQx.
Aux

G = H TS
246

u[P Eu vmh Pmi B vP

S. G, J \\mh vmh Pmi
B x vmh{ E k P vmh
Pmi BP TkuPUS, P vmh
Pmi BP TkuPUS E k BS.
G = GP G k P
G& vx H S BQx
PnUQhkQx. H S BQ u
{ Azuzv k
UTP H S vPx PnQh.
\ 10
300 K J v H S& vP
-10 k cal mol-1 20 cal. deg-1 mol-1 BS. G v
G? H S vP CUSx 400 K&
G v PnUQk. u {nUP.
G = H TS
300 K& G = 10,000 20 300
= 16,000 cals. mole-1
400 K& G = 10,000 20 400
= 18,000 cals. mole-1
300 K 400 K& G vx GvS (<0)
x. G x C {P
ua\uS.
\ 11
25C& 3C2H2(g)
C6H6(l) G H v 631 kJ.
mol BS. G&U PnUQk. J atm Azuzv
x Gu v\ ua\x G {nUP.
SC H = 200.8 JK-1mol-1 SC H =172.8 JK-1 mol-1.
-1

2 2

6 6

3C2H2(g)

C6H6(l)

S = S P S k P
= SC H

6 6(l)

3 SC H

2 2

247

= 172.8 3 200.8

= 429.8 JK-1

G = H TS; T = 298K
H = 631 KJ. mol-1
G = 631000 + (298 429.8) = 502.979 kJ.
G Bx GvS v u,
ua\uS.

\ 12
300 K& CO(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) x ua\x
E G {. vmh Gm
0.094 kJ mol-1K-1 BS. CO2 CO BQ
Eu Q Pmi B vP 394.4
137.2 kJ.mol-1 BS.
CO(g) + O2(g)

CO 2(g)

G = Gf Gf k
= Gf CO Gf CO GfO2
2

= 394.4 + 137.2 0
= 257.2 kJ mol-1
G = 257.2 = H

300 S

H= 257.2 300 (-0.094)

H= 285.4 kJ. mol-1
G GvS
vhx.
G,

ua\uS. H GvS u Cx
E S.

248

u vk
A. \ h uukUP
1.

u { Azuzv _zxh
\ zv A _______Gk.
a) E

2.

b) H

c) S

Azx CP \P ua\P _______

v\ |UQ \kQ.
a) Gm Su
c) Pmi B AvPzu

3.

d) PV =0

Gm EQx
Gm SQx
Bu EQx
Pmi B AvPUQx

ua\x
uhx

b)
d)

ua\x
ux

RUPsh Gx Gm AvPUPx?
a)
b)
c)
d)

7.

c) E = q

J G GvS u, Av Hk

a)
c)

6.

b) q = 0

J } PvUS x Au
a)
b)
c)
d)

5.

b) Gu AvPzu
d) Pmi B Su

J a \ RUPsh Gx
EsS?
a) q = w

4.

d) G

P\ E _U iPUSu
C xizu
UPmi }P u
Pzu u[PUSu

RUPsh Gu \ Gx \zvPx?
a)
c)

H>0, S>0
H>0, S<0

b)
d)
249

H<0, S>0
H<0, S<0

8.

Q Pmi B Hk
a)
c)

9.

G = H + TS
G = H TS

G = H - TS
\ Gx

a)
d)

2Cl(g)Cl2(g), H S vP SP
a) +,

b) +, +

c) ,

d) , +

B. K UQ[P h
10. Gm G G? Au ASPU T.
11. RUPsh {P Gu {nUP
i) H S BQ Csk AvPzu
ii) H S BQ Csk Su
iii) H Su S AvPzu
12. Q Pmi B G G?
13. CUP Cshv P T GxP.
14. G G H S h uh Pskx. G = 0
Gu G?
15. J v ua\ \UP Pn[PU
T.
C. 60 \PUS P h
16. CUP Cshv TP GxP.
17. ua\ P G G? J \
ua\ {UP Pn[P T.
] PnUSP
18. J Cv 110C 25C {PUS
Ch \kQu Au AvPm\ \uu vU
PnUQk.
[h : 22.2%]
19. 100C& E K CvzvS 453.6 k.cal zu
\zxx Au Gm zuU PnUQk.
[h : S= 1216.1 cals K-1]
250

20. 1 } 100C { PvUSx Bu

540 cals\gm G Bu Gm zuU
PnUQk.
[h : S = 26.06 cal K-1 mol-1]
21. N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g), G Hr = 179.9 kJmol-1
Sr= 66.09 JK-1 mol-1 BS. 300K& Gr&I PnUQk.
[h : Gr = 160.07 kJ. mol-1]
22. H2(g) + I2(g) HI(g) G vmh Pmi B
(G)I PnUQk. H = 25.95 kJ mole-1. HI(g), H2(g) I2(g)
BQ vmh GmUP 206.3, 130.6
116.7 JK -1 mole -1BS. 373 K& {P G
{nUP.
[h : ua\x ]
23. H2O(l) Eu vmh Pmi B zuU PnUQk.
H2O(l) & vmh Eu Gu 285.85 kJ BS. H2(g), O2(g)
H2O(l) BQ vmh GmP 130.5,
205.0 70.3 J.K-1 mole-1 BS.
[h : -237.36 kJ mole-1]
3
H NH3(g) G N2(g), H2(g) NH3(g)
2 2(g)
BQ vmh GmP 191.6, 130.5
192.5 JK-1 mol-1 BS. Pmi B -16.67 kJ
G 298K& NH3 Eu Hr I PnUQk.
[h : - 46.19 kJ]

24. N2(g) +

25. CO(g) + H2O(g) CO2(g) + H2(g) x ua\u G

{nUP. CO(g), H2O(g) CO2(g) BQ vmh
Eu Pmi BP - 137.27, -228.6 394.38 kJ mole-1 BS.
[h: Gr = -28.51 kJ]
26. 4NH3(g) + 5O2 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l) G vmh Pmi
B zu PnUQmk {P G {nUP.
NH3(g), NO(g) H2O(l) BQ Eu vmh Pmi
251

BP 16.65, 86.61 -237.20 kJ. mole-1 BS.

[h : -1010.02 kJ mole-1]
27. H2O(l) Au u[Px Eu vmh Gu
-285.83 kJ. mole-1 25C& Au vmh Gm
-327 JK-1 BS. 25C& ua\u GU
T.
[h : Gr = -ve; ua\x]
28. ^ Pv{ 1 atm& 80.2C BS. Au Pv{
Bu Gu PsQk.
[h : 30.022 kJ.mol-1]
29. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) G 25C vmh
Gm , Sr = -242.98 JK-1 BS. CH4(g), CO2(g)
H2O(l) BQ Eu vmh Pmi B
-50.72, -394.36 - 237.13 kJ mol-1 G vmh GuU
PnUQk.
[h : Hr = -890.31 kJ.mol-1]
30. u Gu vmh Gu -890 kJ mol-1 vmh
Gm -242.98 J.K-1 BS. 25C& G&
PnUQk.
[h : 817.6 kJ mole-1]
9
O
3CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) G US 25C&
2 2(g)
vmh Gm -339.23 JK-1. C3H6(g), CO2(g) H2O(l)
BQ Eu vmh Pmi B
-62.78, - 394.36 -237.13 kJ.mol-1 BS. vmh
Gu zuU PnUQk.
[h : -2058.2 kJ mole-1]

31. C3H6(g) +

uS
*

CUP uv \ v\|US
ua\ {PuP BQ P x.

CUP Csh v P
TkQx. Gm \ S Bx {a\P qrev/T G
252

UPkQx. J \ S Bx |US
n9A) (A) GvS v USx
ua\ (A) \{ (A) ua\ {P.
imh v, Svap =

H vap
Tb

S = S S k
*

Gm S Gx \ J[Pz u
AkuS. S Bx \ ua\
SUQx.

Q Pmi B G = H TS Gx J {a\S. u
{ Pmi B G = H TS. G v
A UQs \ {P \zv
T A EuQx. u {, G > 0 (A) = 0
(A) < 0 BP Ex \x ua\ (A)
\{ (A) ua\ \k.

P P
1)

Thermodynamics for Chemists by S.Glasstone, TMH Publishing.

2)

Physical Chemistry by P.W.Atkins Oxford University Press.

253

10. va\{ & II

P PmkP
( { E k
PU Psh \{ PUP {uUP
v kP P.
( Kp Kc&I Kp = Kc (RT)ng G uhkzv, ng = 0, |S
GvS BQP \{U P.
( &\m PP izu.
( \, PhUm \
Usm&k \PUP &\m
PP kzxuU P.

254

10.1 vP \{ Ahx Au
\{ E J v Csk Gvv P
{PQ. A J P
Ex US G,
P mk k Pz ux US
G AUPkQ. va\{x J
C[Sa\{ Gk. \{ k
UTP BQ Csk UP
Smh A CUQ. u {, u Azu
UQ k
P \{ \P v.
u { {P x \{

kf

aA + bB

kr

cC + dD

{uUP vi, US P
Rf = kf [A]a [B]b
US P
Rr = kr [C]c [D]d
k f k r BQ US US
P P P BS.
\{ Rf = Rr G
kf [A]a [B]b = kr [C]c [D]d
k f [C]c [D] d
=
k r [A]a [B] b
kf
= K c = \{ S.
kr

255

Kc =

[C]c [D]d
[A]a [B]b

Kc \hx \{v \k G AUPkQx.

\{ , Kc x k P
\P P EnzukQx. k
Ax Ax Csk {
CUSx \S vP Sv Azu
kzxx GuQx. G K c UP \{ v
\hx Kp GkQx. Kp Gx Svzuzv P
\{ S.
10.1.1 Kp Kc&US Ch uh
{ E k
PUPsh x va\{ U
Px.
aA + bB + cC + ........
Kp =

lL + mM + nN + .....

p lL p mM p nN .....
paA p bB peC ......

p Gx UP Sv AzuS. k
P \ P \{
Kc =

[L]l [M]M [N]n ....

[A]a [B]b [C]c ......

P E Gu UT i US Au Sv Azu
pi US \ Ci US E uh
Ci =

pi
RT

, pi =

ni
RT
V

ni
= Ci = J mh E T i& UTP
V
GsoUP, V = P A mh BS.

Aux

256

\P Svzuzv P zxx,
Kc =
=

(p L /RT)l (pM /RT) m (p N /RT)n ...

(pA /RT)a (pB /RT)b (pC /RT)c ...

p lL p mM p nN ..... 1

p aA p bB p eC ...... RT
=

Kp
(RT) ng

(l+ m + n +....)(a + b + c +...)

Kp = Kc(RT)ng

Aux ng = \k Aih P
P GsoUP & \k Aih k
P P GsoUP.
n g & S zx K p K c BQ
PP uh Psk.
P (i)
n g = 0, BP CUSx, { zu
P P GsoUPx
{ zu k P P
GsoUPUSa \S.
EunP, HI Eu \{,
H2(g) + I2(g)

2HI(g)

ng = 2-(1+1) = 2-2
Kp
Kp

= 0

= Kc (RT)O
= Kc

P (ii)
ng = +ve (|US)BP CUSx, { E
zu P P GsoUPx
{ zu k P P
GsoUPh AvPP CUS.

257

\P,
2H2O(g) + 2Cl2(g)

4HCl(g) + O2(g)

ng = (4+1) - (2+2)
= 5-4=1
Kp

= Kc (RT)1

Kp

= Kc RT

Kp

> Kc

P (iii)
ng = -ve (GvUS) BP CUSx {
zu P P GsoUPx
{ zu kP P
GsoUPh SP CUS.
\P, A Eu \{ Pxx,
3H2(g) + N2(g)
ng = 2 - (3+1)
= 2 - 4 = -2
K p = Kc (RT)-2

2NH3(g)

Kc
(RT) 2
Kp < Kc

Kp =

10.1.2 Eu \{ u P
uUP
K Eu \{ , k
P Ch P \{ S
C GukQx. Au UP Pa \{
k Px Chzv,
Px k Chzv
\{ S Chx x [P GukQx.

258

Cu P P \{ \{ x
P G AUPkQx. P x Eu
\{ uR vS. \P, SO 2 O 2
UPx SO3Eu \{ Px.
2SO2(g) + O2(g)

2SO3(g)

\{ Kc Bx
Kc =

[SO3 ]2
dm 3 /mole
2
[SO 2 ] [O 2 ]

SO3 Pa \{ k P
P, P k P
\kQ.
2SO3(g)

2SO2(g)+ O2(g)

P \{ \{ Kc
K 'c =

[SO 2 ]2 [O 2 ] 1
=
mole/dm3
2
[SO3 ]
Kc

Kc x SO3 P S. P \{
\{ x Eu \{ \{
uRS.
10.1.3 Jizu
kP

\{US

v\{

HI Eu \{
H2(g) + I2(g)

2HI(g)

Cua \{ P P
GsoUPx k P P GsoUPUS
\S (ng = 0). H2 I2 UP P a
b P V mh P Ex G Px.
\{ x P H2 I2 mk 2x P HI
EQx. P H2, I2 HI BQ \{a
\P
259

(a-x)/V, (b-x)/V 2x/V BS. ng = 0 G Kc = Kp BS.

[HI]e2
Kc =
[H 2 ]e [I 2 ]e
(2x/V) 2
=
(a x) (b x)

V
V

4x 2
V2

V 2 (a x)(b x)

4x 2
= Kp
(a x)(b x)
x Bx {P G G AUPkQx.
=

PnUS
J 8.07 P H2 9.08 P I2 mk
448C & 13.38 P HI I \{ EQx. Kc I PnUQk.
\{
H2(g) + I2(g)

2HI(g)

(2x) 2
(a x)(b x)
a = 8.07 P b = 9.08 P
x = 6.69 P 2x = 13.38 P
Kc =

Kc =

(13.38)2
(8.07 6.69)(9.08 6.69)

= 54.29.
\{ Kc & vx {P G
v\ BQ {nUQx. u {, Azu,
k Ax P uhUPa \ BQ
{ AvPm\ \{ u Kc
{nUQx.
J \{ Gzv\ {PQx Gu Psh
uhUP \PU Psh k
260

 P U SnPzu (Q) Psk

PshkQx. U SnP Q Gx \{ {
k P \S, P
\S Ch Qu G UPkQx. \P,
Cu \{
aA + bB

lL + mM

[A], [B], [L] [M] BQ \{ AhuS E

\PS. Cu \P \{ \P Gk.
C{ SnP Q

[L]l [M]m
Q=
[A]a [B]b
Kc Gx J \{ \P P
\{ G, Kc Q BQ Jh.
Q & vx Kc & h AvPP CUSx, (Q>Kc)
x Q & v Su |UQ {PQx. G,
Px AvPA k P
EQ. Aux US {Px \zvQx.
Q& vx K c & h SP CUSx, (Q<Kc )
x P \ AvPu |UQ
{PQx. Aux, US {Px \zvQx. Q
Kc BQ J Azu E {
\ T \zvQx.
PnUS
u P A E P uhUPzv 0.1
H2, 0.1 I2 0.02 HI UP 300K {
PUPkQ. Kc = 3.5 x 10-2 G Gu v\ {P
Gu {nUP.
Eu \{
H2(g) + I2(g)
Kc =

2HI(g)

[HI] e2
= 3.5 10 2 at 300 K
[H 2 ]e [I 2 ]e
261

\{ {
[HI]2
Q=
[H 2 ][I 2 ]

(2 10 2 ) 2
=
= 4 10 2
0.1 0.1

G, Q>Kc.
BP, uhUPzv x \{ AhuS
Q vx S v\ |UQ |hQx. Aux H2
I 2 & \P Ezu sk. Cx US
S.
x HI Eu \{ Chx UPzu |UQ
|hQx. Q = Kc BS H2 I2 BP HI ]uhQx.
PCl 5 ]uh \{
{ PCl5 ]uhu \{
PCl5(g)

PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)

a P PCl5 V mh uhUPzv CuP

P. \{ x P PCl5 ]uhx PCl3 Cl2
UP uQx. \{ PCl5, PCl3 Cl2 UP
x
\P a x , x
BS.
V
V
V
[PCl 3 ][Cl 2 ]
Kc =
[PCl 5 ]

x/V x/V x 2
V
= 2
(a x)/V V (a x)

Kc =

x2
(a x)V

x Gx P u G AUPkQx. k
mP J Sv ]uhu P u
GkQx.

262

]uhu P GsoUP
______________________________________
uhUPzv E P GsoUP

x =

uhUPzv 1 PCl5 CuP GkzxU Psh

x2
_____
=
(1-x)V

Kc

x2P
______
(1-x)RT

ppCl , ppCl pCl BQ Sv Azu[P G, A

5
3
2
P,
K

p PCl 3 .p Cl 2
p PCl 5

Kp =

atm

x 2P
atm
(1 x 2 )

Jh Jkx P u (x) Pa]x G (1-x)

uP 1.0 US \S.
Kc =

x2
Ax x2 = Kc V
V

V B V

1
G
P

1
P

x SP CUSx, P ux Azuzv uR
UPzu zx Ax PA UPzu
zx .
PnUS
1 atm 25C& PCl5& P u 0.2 BS. 25C& PCl5
Bx vP ]uhx AzuzuU PnUQk.
263

PCl5 ]uh \{
Kp =

x 2P
1 x2

P = zu Azu= 1 atm
x = 0.2

(0.2)2 (1.0)
0.04
0.04
Kp =
=
=
= 0.042 atm
2
1 (0.2)
1 - 0.04 0.96
x = 0.5 E x P = ?
P=

K p (1 x 2 )
x2

0.042(1 (0.5)2 )
0.042(1 0.25)
=
2
(0.5)
0.25

0.042(0.75 )
= 0.126 atm
0.25

10.2 \m PP
\{ u UQ PoP
Q. A, \, { Azu BS.
UQ \u \{ GzuP
Hkv. UQx \{ AhuP |zu
kzxQx.
\m PP
CUPPi, \{ E K A x
v Gkzv \{x Au v Hk
\ \ v\ |UQ |P. \{ {P
P u , \ Azu BQ
P A u \m PP
uUPzu .
\ ku Hk
RPsh \{ Px.
N2(g) + O2(g)

2NO(g)

\{, UP k
UTP E. Aux, N2, O2 NO UTP E.
264

k UTP \P P,
\{UP vP ^P Ex E. A
UP NO& \zx zu Esk sqx
\ AvPUQx. Ax \{a
\PP k P
u, \UPk NO mk US v\
k Pz uQx. Cu N2 O2& \
AvPUQx. Cu, \{ A N2 O2&
UP \USx, \UPk N 2 O 2
mk US v\ z
uQ. G, UP NO& \ AvPUQx.
xP, J va\{ k P \
AvPUSx \{x P ES
v\ |UQ |PQx. P \
AvPUSx \{x k P ES
v\ |UQ |PQx.
{ ku Hk
va\{ Csk Gvv P |hQ.
J P ES v\
k P ES v\ |hQ. J
va\{ US P P
CUSx, US E P CUS.
\PU Px.
N2O4(g)
2NO2(g) ; H = +59.0 kJ/mole
Cua \{, (NO2) ES
PP, k (N2O4) ES
E P Axx. Psh \{
UP kzxx, Au {
EQx.
\m
PPi,
\{x
{ SUS v\ |UQ |PQx.
G, \{x NO2 Eu v\ |UQ |PQx.
G, N 2O 4 ]uhu AvPUQx. xP J
va\{ { Ezxx, US
265

US P, AvP P \zvQx.
Cu, \{ { SUSx, Aux
SUSx, US US P, AvP
E x \zvQx.
Azu ku Hk
\{ E K A E k
P \{ CUSx, A zu
Azuzu u Av E Azx TP
\P C. {
\{U Px,
N2O4(g)
2NO2(g)
\{ A zu Azuzu AvPUSx AuS
Dh PA SQx. \m PPi,
Cx \{ kP P S
v\ |UQ |Pzxu \\kQx. G, NO 2
UTP Cnx N2O4 ES , Eu
\zvQx.
{ \{ P
P GsoUP S Azuzv
.
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
Azuzu Ezxx, AuS Dh PA SQx.
G, \{x zu P S v\ |UQ
|PQx. Aux NH3 ES \zvQx. C[S |S
P k Px Csk P
NH3EQx. G AvP Azuzv, A AvPm\
A uUPkQx.

A |m E uuS P, |mU
Azu, |m E zx P
u
x
kQx.
u\P
266

Ax { P
u |m m BQx
uUPkQx. A Eu x J \{
S.
Fe
N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g)

H0f = -22.0 kcal/mole

US x k P P
GsoUP SuU PmkQx. \m PPi,
Azuzu Ezxx AUS \zvP, \{x
P ES v\ |UQ Axx.
G, 3:1 H2:N2 P UP
AvPm\ A 300&500 atm Azuzu \zu
sk. A Eu x E
S. \m PPi, { Ezxx
A ]uhu FUSUQx. B, Su
{ \{ AhuP | AvPP Ex.
G, J \ \mh { G 500C-550C&
{PzukQx. UQP C \{
AhuP Pzu AvPUP kzukQx. \{
xPUP, } \zv A Eh EhiP
}UPkQx. Cu \{x
UP kQx AvPm\P 37% A C
EQx.
uk (Contact Process)
Cu \{ P E { BU]
SO 2 BU] Ahx AvP A SO 3 Ezv
\kQx.
v2o5
2SO2(g) + O2(g)

2SO3(g)

H0f = -47 kcal/mole

SO 3 ES k P zu
P GsoUP SQx. \m PPi,
Azuzu AvPUSx US {Px
267

\zvQx. UP y SO2 O2 UP 2:1

Quzv 700 atm - 1200 atm Azuzv GkzxU PkQx.
SO 3 Ex E S. G, {
Ezxx SO 3 ]uhu \zvQx. ,
{ SUSx \{ AhuP |
AvPQx. G, \{ 400C u 450C {
xPUPkQx.
SO3 Eu i hU\k (V2O5)
UQP kzukQx. Du Cx
UQ \v SUQx. G, Eu y SO2

O 2 UP
UQ
x
\zu
kzukQ. SO 2 BU] Su Pzv
|hu, V2O5 UQ \{ Ahu xukzv Su
|zv AvPm\ A SO3 Ezv \ EuQx. SO3 Bx
H2SO4 & } BS. G C SO3 Bx }h
\x K H2SO4 uUP kQx. C
97% SO3 QhUQx.

u vk
A. \ h uukUP
1.

va \{ u
a) C[Sa \{ b){x c) J d) Csk

2.

P \{ P 2A
B
2A&US K2& BS G
a) K1 = 2K2

3.

2HI

N2 + 3H2
Qhx
a)

d) K1 = 1/K22

H2 + I2, G \{ Kp Bx

a) Kc&Ih AvP
c) Kc&US \
4.

c) K2 = (K1)2

b) K1 = 1/K2

B&US K1&

b) Kc&I h S
d)

2NH3 G \{ AvP A A

Su Azu AvP {
268

b)
c)
d)
5.

Su Azu Su {
AvP { AvP Azu
AvP Azu Su {

600 K { {P Jizu \{
Kc& AS
4NH3 + 5O2
(g)

4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

(g)

a) (mol dm-3)-1
6.

7.

b) (mol dm-3) c) (mol dm-3)10

d) (mol dm-3)-9

P mh 1.0 dm 3 P Pzv
CP NH3 \zumhx. E { NH3
]ux \{ J NH 3 mk Gg] {x.
Ca]u Kc v
a) 27/16 (mole dm-3)2

b) 27/8 (mole dm-3)2

c) 27/4 (mole dm-3)2

c) C Hx

J P \{ T 1 T 2
{P \{ P K 1 K 2 G
{ T2 Bx T1 h AvPP CUSx (T2 >T1)
a)

K1 < K2

c) K1 = K2
d) Hx C
[h: 1-a; 2-b; 3-c; 4-c and 5-a]

b) K1 > K2

B. K UQ[P hUP
8.

Cl2& PCl5 ]uhu Sx H?

9.

\{ PUS \{ PUP
\kP Gx.
i) H2O2(g)
H2O(g) + O2(g)
ii)

CO(g) + H2O(g)

iii)

N2O4(g)

CO2(g) + H2(g)

2 NO2(g)

10. \m PPU TP.

11. \{ G G?
12. \{ P C[Sa \{P G AUPkx
H?
269

13. ng = 0, ng = -ve ng = +ve BP CUSx J

G {P?
14. PUS ng vU PnUQkP.
i)

H2(g) + I2(g)

ii)

2H2O(g) + 2Cl2(g)

2HI(g)
4HCl(g) + O(g)

C. 60 \PUS P h uP.
15. Kp = Kc (RT)ng G \mh x J va \{
US UP.
2NO(g) G
16. \m PPU TP. N2g) + O2(g)
Azu, \ { P
.
17. PCl 5 ]u US K c K p PUP
\kP UP.
D. ] PnUSP
18. A (g)
B (g) G \{ Kc=2.5 x 10 -2
US P 0.05 sec -1 G
US P PnUQk.
[h : 2.0 sec-1]
19. H 2 + I 2
2 HI H 2, I 2 HI& P
GsoUP 1,2 3 P BS.
UP zu Azu 60 atm G H2, I2
HI& Sv Azu[PU PnUQk.
[h: 10 atm, 20 atm, 30 atm]
20. J mh PA Psh UP, PCl5
PCl3 + Cl2
\{ 2 x 10-4 lit-1 BS. PCl5 Pa]u
]uh x 1 PCl5& P uzuU PnUQk.
[h: x = 1.414 10-2]
21. { T1& J \{ K 1 BS.
Eu { T2& K2 Bx 10% K1 BS. \{x
P Ax E \{ G {nUP
[h: E]
270

22. 35C& N2O4

2NO2 Kp v 0.3174, P= 0.2382 atm
Ex P uzu PnUQk.
[h: x = 0.5768]
23. 2NOCl(g)
2NO (g) + Cl 2(g) K c v 790C&
3.75 10-6 BS. Kp& v PnUQk [Hint. Kp = Kc(RT)ng]
[h: Kp = 3.29 x 10-4]
24. 2SO 3(g)
SO 2(g) + O 2(g) G 700C& \{
v 4.8 10 -3. \{ SO 3 SO 2&
\P 0.60M 0.15M Ex O 2&
[h: 0.0768M]
\U PnUQk.
25. J P 458C { HI \zukQx.
Smh HI ]uhx H 2 I 2 &I uQx.
\{ HI \ 0.421M H2 I2 BQ
J \ 6.04 10-2M BS. Au {
Kc&I PnUQk.
[h: Kc = 2.06 10-2]
26. HI ]uhu \{ 458C { 2.06
10-2 BS. \{ HI I2& \P 0.36M
0.15M BS. H2& \{a \U PnUQk.
[h: [H2] = 1.78 10-2M]
27. 2SO3(g)
2SO2(g) + O2(g) G 900 K& \{
v 0.15 G 2SO2(g) + O2(g)
2SO3(g)
\{ v Au { PnUQk.
[h: 6.67 mol-1 dm3]
3C G 25C& 3 mh P 1,2
28. A + B
4 P A, B C BQ \{ E.
25C& Kc& PnUQk.
[h: 10.66 mol dm-3]
29. J mh P A Psh P 250C& 0.1 Cl2
\ QhUP G PCl5& \UP sk.
PCl5
PCl3 + Cl2 Kc v 0.0414 mol dm-3
[h: 0.341 moles PCl5]
30. 540K 1 atm& PCl5 ]uhu Kp =1.77 atm G
Kc v PnUQk.
[h: Kc = 4 10-2 moles/litres]
271

uS

\{ PUS { uUP v kzv \{

{nUPmhx.
aA + bB
K=

lL + mM

[L]l [M]m k f
=
[A]a [B]b k r

\ Sv Azu[P P \{
PUS Ch uh Kp = Kc(RT)ng
ng = 0 G Kp = Kc; ng = -ve G Kp< Kc ng = +ve
G Kp> Kc.

\{ k P
SnP (Q) \{ (K) Eh uh
Pskx. , Q<K G, AvP
ES. Q=K G \{ Ah, Q>K G AvP
k EQx.

P u x = ______________________________________

]uh P GsoUP

uhUPzv zu P GsoUP

\m PP kP: Azu, {
\ BQ \{ Hk P
USP. i) \{ zu P GsoUP Sx,
Azu AvPx, Ex
\zvQx. ii) P \{, { Ezx
x Ex \zvQx. iii) k
P \ Ezxx Ax
P \ SUSx \{
P Ex \zvQx.

P P
1.

Text book of Physical Chemistry by S. Glasstone, Mac Millan, India Limited.

2.

Physical Chemistry by G.Castellan, Narosa Publishing Company.

272

v Pa\ APv
(B[Q & u)
Acceleration

kUP

Acidity

Azu

Affinity

Pa]

Anion

Gv A

Allotropy

Alloy

EPUP

Anhydrous

Adiabatic Process

a \

Basicity

Pzx

Blast Furnace

Fx E

Buffer Solution

u[P P\

Cyclic Process

_a\

Cation

| A

Component

Critical Temperature

{ {

273

Chemical Equilibrium

va\{

Close Packed Structure

|[Q vu i

Chelation

PkUQnzu

Degree of Dissociation

P u

Distillation

Pa] izu

Decomposition

]u

Dual Nature

D u

Endothermic Reaction

Equilibrium Constant

\{

Exothermic Reaction

Electrolysis

Szu

Frequency

Avs

Furnace

Fractional Distillation

UPa] izu

Free Energy

Pmi B

Gravimetric Analysis

Gh S

Group

uSv

Hybridisation

CUP

274

Hydrolysis

} S

Ideal Gas

Inert Electron Pair

u GUm Cn

Internal Energy

Eu B

Infinitesimal Change

~sn

Isomerism

Isothermal process

{ a \

Ligand

Metallurgy

EP

Momentum

Eu

Molecularity

UT Gs

Nomenclature

ku

Nucleus

EmP

Non metal

AP

Nascent

Osmosis

\k

Ore

ux

Phase

275

Precipitate

Polarised Light

Polymer

Polydentate Ligand

Qualitative Analysis

s S

Quantitative Analysis

A S

Radiation

Pva_

Radioactivity

PvUP

Spectrum

Sublimation

u[Pu

System

Spontaneous Process

ua\ \

Thermodynamics

CUP

Titration

uzu

Unit Cell

ASUTk

Uncertainty Principle

{ Pmk

Valency

Cnv

Visible Region

PmS Sv

276