THE PRINCIPLES oF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS BY ALEXANDER MACFARLANE, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. Feiiow oF Tux Royat Soctery or Eprvauran; PRorzssor oF PHYsICa a tue Univensiry or Texas Nortosod Press J. 8. CUSHING & CO., PRINTERS BOSTON, MASS., U.S.A. OX ALTHERFORCE548821 C oe ee Br ALEXANDER MACFARLANE. ALTHERFORCETHE PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. [ABSTRACT READ BEFORE THE MatuEmaticaL Conoress at CHICAGO, Avovsr 24, 1803.4] In several papers recently published, entitled “Principles of the Algebra of Physics,” “The Imaginary of Algebra,” and “The Fundamental Theorems of Analysis generalized for Space,” I have considered the principles of vector analysis; and also the princi- ples of versor analysis, the versor being circular, logarithmic, or equilateral-hyperbolic. In the present paper, I propose to con- sider the versor part of space analysis more fully, and to extend the investigation to elliptic and hyperbolic versors. The order of the investigation is as follows: The fundamental theorem of trigonometry is investigated for the sphere, the ellipsoid of revo- lution, and the general ellipsoid ; then for the equilateral hyper- boloid of two sheets, the equilateral hyperboloid of one sheet, and the general hyperboloid. Subsequently, the principles arrived at are applied to find the complete form of other theorems in spherical trigonometry, and to deduce the generalized theorems for the ellipsoid and the hyperboloid. At the end, the analogues of the rotation theorem are deduced. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM FOR THE SPHERE. Let a! and 8? denote any two spherical versors ; their planes will intersect in the axis which is perpendicular to « and B, and * Jan. 8, 1894, I have rewritten and extended the original paper so as to include the trigonometry of the general ellipsoid and hyperboloid. At the time of reading the paper, I had discovered how to make this extension, but, had not had time to work it out. 1 ALTHERFORCE2 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. which we denote by af. Let OPA (Fig. 1) represent a4, and OAQ represent 8; then OPQ, the third side of the spherical tri- angle, represents the product «B*. To prove that a” = cos A cos B— sin Asin Bcos «B + {cos Bsin A-a+cos Asin B-B —sin Asin Bsinap ap}. The first part of this proposition, namely, that cos a4f* = cos A cos B— sin Asin Bcos af, is equivalent to the well-known fundamental theorem of Spherical Trigonometry ; the only difference is, R that @B denotes, not the angle included Q by the sides, but the angle between the planes; or, to speak more accu- rately, the angle between the axes « O 4 and B. It is more difficult to prove the complementary proposition, namely, that Y Sin «!f*=cosBsin A-a-+cos Asin B-B Fra. 1, —sin Asin Bsin op -«p, for it is necessary to prove, not only that the magnitude of the right-hand member is equal to V1—cos*«*8*, but also that its direction coincides with the axis normal to the plane of OPQ. At page 7 of “ Fundamental Theorems,” I have proved the above statement as regards the magnitude, but I was then unable to give a general proof as regards the axis. Now, however, I am able to supply a general proof, and it will be found of the highest importance in the further development of the analysis. In Fig. 1, OP is the initial line of a‘, and O@ the terminal line of B®; let OR be drawn equal to cos Bsin A-e+cos Asin B- 8 —sin Asin BsinaB- 0B; it is required to prove that OR is perpendicular to OP and to 09. Now, OP = a~+aB = (cos. A—sin A-a®).@B : =cos A- a —sin A-a! ap. ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 3 Similarly, OQ= ff =(cosB+ sin B.p!).ap = cos B-af + sin B- B' ap. By a! a is meant the axis which is perpendicular to « and 8, after it is rotated by a quadrant round a. In Fig. 2, let OA and OB represent a and B, any two axes drawn from 0, then @@ is drawn from O upwards, normal to the plane of the paper. Hence a! af is OL, which is of unit length, and drawn in the plane . N of the paper, perpendicular to a. Tt is required to find the components of OL along a and f. Draw LN par- allel to, and LAF parallel to «, B Now OM or NL is -= g’P and = p ON is 8.9; hence, cae sin a8 Fp 008 ab, 1. B= nap snap” Bo = — COS @| aes Similarly, Bt ap—=— pi Ba = —os.8. a B+ a @ Consequently, the three lines expressed in terms of the axes «, B, and af, are OR= cos Bsin A -a+cos Asin B-f—sin Asin Bsinap- ap; OP =—sin ASS sin a8 008 «8 -a—sin BS sin af +B +cosB- af. So Og= sinBS Hence cos(OR)(OP) = — 00s Bsin?A (288 _ 008 4 sin @f sin of — eos A sin Asin B( 8 wat? i) =0. Similarly, it may be shown that cos(OR)(0@)=0; hence OR has the direction of the normal to the plane of OPQ. ALTHERFORCE4 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. To jind the general expression for a spherical versor, when refer- ence is made to a principal axis. Let OA represent the principal axis (Fig. 3), and let it be denoted by «. Any versor OPA, which passes through the prin- cipal axis, may be denoted by #*, where 8 denotes a unit axis perpendicular to a. Similarly, OAQ, another versor passing through the principal axis, may be denoted by y*, where y denotes a unit axis perpendicular to a. The product versor OPQ is circu- lar, but it will not, in general, pass through O4; let it be denoted by @ Now fapy = cos u cos v — sin u sin v cos By + feosvsinu- 8 + cosusiny-y—sinusinvsin By -By}®. We observe that the directed sine may be broken up into two components, namely, cosusinu-8+cosusinv-y, which is perpendicular to the principal axis, and —sinusinv sin By- By, which has the direction of the negative of the principal axis, for By=a. Draw OS to represent the first component cosvsinu-f, OT to represent the second component cosusinv-y, and OU to represent the third component —cosucosv sinBy-a. Draw OV, the resultant of the first two, and OR, the re- sultant of all three. The plane of OA and OV passes through OR, which is normal to the plane OPQ; hence these planes cut at right angles in a line OX; and the angle between OA and OX is equal to that between OV and OR, for OV is perpendicular to OA, and OR to OX. Let ¢ denote the angle AOX, then Veos'v sin’u+ cos" Vi— (cos cos v — sinwsinv cos By)? cos p= and aoe sinwsiny sin By : Vi— (cos w cos v — sinu sinvcos By)? ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 5 Figure 4 represents a section through the plane of OA and OV. Let XM be drawn from X perpendicular to OA; it is equal in magnitude to sing; and OM is equal in magnitude to cos ¢. R Vv x Hence the axis ¢ has the form cos p-e—sing-a, where e tenotes a unit axis perpendicular 7 oe tow. And - £ = cos 6 + sin 6(cos p-«—sing-a)* is determined by the equations, cos @ = cos u cos v — sin u sin v cos By, ay sin @ sin ¢ = sinw sinv sin By, (2) sin cos $-e= cos v sin u-B + cos.u sin v-y. (3) The unit axis « may be expressed in terms of two axes B and y, which are at right angles to one another and to a, and the angle which makes with @. Hence the more general expression for any spherical versor is £ =cos6 + sinO{cosp(cosy- f+ siny-y)—sing-a}?. We observe that the line OX is the principal axis of the produet versor POQ. To find the product of two spherical versors of the general form given above. The two factor versors may be expressed by € = cos u + sin u(cos - 8 —sing-«)!, and af = cos v + sin v (cos g!- y—sin g'- a), where B and y denote any unit axes perpendicular to « The product has the form "= cos w + sin w(cos $!-y— sin ga), Since —_%y" = cos u cos v — sin usin v cos &y + foosusinu-€ + cosusiny-7 —sinusinvsingy- &} 4, ALTHERFORCE6 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. and cos gy = cos ¢ cos ¢' cos By + sin ¢ sin ¢', and Sin gy = cos ¢ cos ¢' sin By- By — (cos ¢ sin $': Ba + cos $'sin p- ay), therefore cos w = cos cos v —sin u sin v(cos ¢cos ¢! cos By+sin ¢ sin ¢'), (1) sin w sin $” = cos u sin v sin g' + cos v sin u sin p +sin usin v cos $ cos ¢ sin By, (2) sinw cos $"-¢ = cosu sin v cos ¢'- y + cosvsinucosd-B + sinusin v(cos p sin ¢': Ba+cos $'sin g- ay). (3) From equation (1) we obtain w, then from (2) we obtain $", and finally from (3) we obtain « When the factor versors are restricted to one plane, the axes coincide; that is, 7 =¢. ‘The above formula then becomes &+" = cos 8 cos 6'— sin 8 sin 6’ + (cos sin 6'+ cos6'sin6) {cos +B —sing- a}, which is the fundamental theorem for trigonometry in any plane. When the axes are coplanar with the initial line, we have y identical with f, but ¢', in general, different from ¢. The theo- rein then becomes x?" = cos 6 cos 6’ — sind sin! cos(¢'— ¢) +{ (cos 0 sin6' cos ¢'-++c0s 6! sin 8 cos $)- B +sin@sin6' sin(¢'— ¢)- Ba —(cos6sin6’ sing! + cos6' sin 8 cos )- a}! If, in addition, the middle term of the sine vanishes, the axis of the product will also be in the same plane with the other axes and the initial line. To prove that the sum of the squares of the three components of the product of two general spherical versors is unity. For shortness, let x=cos0, y=sin@cosg, 2=sindsing; a! =cos6', y!=sin6' cos¢', 2’ =siné'sing!. Then i ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 7 00876" = (ax! — yy' cos By — 22')? =an!? + yy!" cos'By + 2%2!? — 2aa'yy' cos By — 2an'z2! + 2yy'z2' cos By, (sin 6" cos $"- «)?= fay!-y + 2'y-B + y2! «Ba —ay'- ya}? = aly? + aly? + yal? + aty!*-+ 2aa'yy! cos By+2ayy's! cos Ba — 2yz'a!y' cos Bya — 2yzy'! cos Ba--ya, (sind sing")? = {az'+ 2'z + yy' sin By}? = aia! + tal? + yty? sin® By + 2arw'aa' + 2ayy'e! sin By + 2x'yy's sin By. The sum of the square terms is (2? + y?+2*) (x? +y"+2"), that is, 1; and the sum of the product terms reduces to 2yy'az! (cos By — cos Ba - ya) + 2ayy'z'(cos yBa + sinBy) — 2yz'z'y! (cos Bya — sin By). Now, Band y both being perpendicular to «, cos By = cos Ba. ya, and sinBy=— cosyPa=cosBya. Hence the sum of the product terms vanishes. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM FOR THE ELLIPSOID OF REVOLUTION. Imagine a.circle APB (Fig. 5) to be projected on the plane of AQB, by means of lines drawn from the points of the circle, perpendicular to the plane, as PQ from P; the projection i of the circle is an ellipse, hav- ing the initial line for semi-major J axis, Let A denote the axis of J : the circle, and f that of the | plane al tine perpendslar \ the initial line are in the pro- jected figure, diminished by the ratio cosA@, while all lines parallel to the initial line remain unal- tered. Any area A in the circle will be changed into A cosa in the ellipse; and this is true whatever the form of the area. For shortness, cos 48 will be denoted by k. Fro. 5. ra ” ALTHERFORCE8 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. The projecting lines, instead of being drawn perpendicular to the plane of projection, may be drawn perpendicular to the plane of the circle; the ratio of projection then becomes seca, which may likewise be denoted by k, but & is then always greater than unity. ‘The figure obtained is an ellipse, having the initial line for semi-minor axis. By the revolution of the former ellipse round the initial line we obtain a prolate ellipsoid ; by the revo- lution of the latter, an oblate ellipsoid. Tue Funpamentat Equation or Extiptic TRIGONOMETRY. The elliptic versor is expressed by a OP (Fig. 6), and The problem is, to find the correct analytical expressions for these three terms. If by w we denote the ratio of twice the area of the sector AOP to the square on B OA, then, p ou cos and oP kein’. A Hence, if @ denote a unit axis nor \ mal to the plane of the ellipse, the equation may be written @ Fra. 6. (kp) = cost + sin *. (Kp)*, But we observe that it is much simpler to define u as the ratio of twice the area of AOP to the rectangle formed by OA and OB, the semi-axes; for then we have (kB)" = cosu + sinu-(kp)! We attach the & to the axis rather than to the ratio, because in forming a product of versors it does not enter as an ordinary multiplier. When the elliptic sector does not start from the principal axis, the element u must still be taken as the ratio of twice the area of the sector to the rectangle formed by the axes. ‘The index ¥ is due to the rectangular nature of the components; it expresses the circular versor between OA and MP. When ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 9 oblique components are used, the index is then w, the angle of the obliquity. ‘This is proved in Fundamental Theorems, page 10. To find the product of two elliptic versors which are in one plane passing through the principal azis, Let the two versors be represented by OQA and OAP (Fig. 6); then their product is represented by OQP. Let B denote a unit axis normal to the plane; the former versor may be denoted by (p)*, and the latter by (k8)". ‘Then (k8)"(kB)" = {osu + sin u- (kB) *y feosu + sin v- (KB) *} =cosucosy+cosu siny - (kB)! + cosusinu - (kB)! + sinusiny- (kp)! (ap) '. Now (B)"(kB)"=(kB)"*" 08(u + v) + sin(u + v)- (kB)? =cosu cosy — sinu sinv + (cosu sinv + cosysinu)- (x)! Hence (k8)'(k8)! =8"=—1. From this we infer that kis such a multiplier that it does not affect the terms of the cosine. To find the product of two elliptic versors which intersect in the principal axis of the ellipsoid of revolution. Let Gpoa and qe (Fig. 7) represent the two versors; their axes are 8 and y, respectively, each being perpendicular to a, the direction of the principal axis OA. Let u denote the ratio of twice the area of OPA to the Zz Q rectangle formed by the semi-axes of its ellipse, and v the ratio of twice the area of OAQ to the rec- > ea) Vi tangle formed by the semi-axes of its ellipse. ‘The versors are denoted by (kB)* and (ky). Now (KBy* = cosu-sinu-(KB)}, and (ky)" = cos v+sinv-(ky)%, therefore (X8)"(ky)* = cosu cosy + cosy sinu- (kB) * + cose sine -(ky) 1+ sinw sinv-(KB)" (ky)? Fig. 7. ALTHERFORCE10 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. By means of the principle that the first power of k is k, we see that the second and third terms contribute k(cosv sinu-B + cosusinv-y) to the Sine component. It remains to determine the meaning of the fourth term, that is, the values of the coefficients « and y in the equation (8) * (ky) ¥ = xeon By + y sin By: By. From the form of the product of two coplanar versors (page 9), it appears that 2 is —1; the value of y appears to be either —k* or —1. On the former hypothesis the directed sine OR would be keosv sinu- 8 -+kcosusiny-y — I sinu sinv sin By-a. Now OP =cosu-a—ksinu-pipy, and 0Q=cosv-a+ksinv- yBy; a i ‘cos By _ cos By consequently cos(OR) (OP) =— kos» sintu & os o) . sain »(CostBy 1 Hcosw sinw sino (SS if aay +sin sr) which vanishes, as before (page 3). Similarly cos(OR)(0Q) = 0. Hence the above expression gives the direction of the normal to the plane of the product versor. But suppose that e OA and ad OQ are quadrantal elliptic versors, then cosu = cosv = 0, and sinw=sinv=1; consequently the cosine of the product would then be — cosy and the sine of the product — #sinBy-a%. But it is evident that in this case the product versor is circular, namely, — (cos By + sinBy-a!). Hence it appears that 4? cannot enter as a factor of the third term of the Sine. On the other hypothesis the directed sine is k(cosv sinu- 8 + cosusinv- y)—sinusiny sin By-a. This expression satisfies the test of becoming circular under the conditions mentioned ; but its direction is not normal to the ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 11 plane of the product versor. How then, is its direction related to that plane? It will be found that it has the direction of the conjugate axis to the plane. Draw OV (Fig. 8), to represent k(cosy sinu-B + cosusinv-y), the component perpendicular to the principal axis QA, and OU" in the direction opposite to the a uu Oo MA Fie. 8. principal axis to represent — sinw sin sin By, also OU to repre- sent the same quantity multiplied by-A?; and draw OR! and OR, the two resultants. The plane through OA and OV will cut the ellipsoid in a principal ellipse AXB, and as it passes through the normal OR it will cut the plane of the product ellipse at right angles; let OX denote the line of intersection. Draw XA! parallel to OA and XD the tangent at X, and let 6 denote the circular versor between AO and OX. Now ksinu sinv sin By ——— 1 V cos’ sin*u + cos*u sin*y + 2 cos wu cosy sin u sinv cos By but tan. A'XD = — i? cotand __ kV cos*v sin’u-+ costu sin’v +2 cos uw cosy sinu sin sin w sinv sin By = cotan VOR' = tan AOR’. Thus the direction of OR! is that of the conjugate axis of the plane of the product versor. Let ¢ denote the ratio of twice the area of AOX to the square of OA; it is equal to the angle which OX made with OA before the contraction, ‘The direction of the axis was then cos ¢ along OB, and sing along O.'; by the contraction, cos has been a - ALTHERFORCE12 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. changed into cos; hence the axis of the ellipsoid, along the direction of OR, is keos-e—sing-a, where « denotes a unit axis in the direction of OB. ‘The magnitude of the product versor is determined by the cosine function, cosu cosy — sinu sinv cos By. Suppose that an elliptic sector OXZ (Fig. 7), having the area of the third side of the ellipsoidal triangle, starts from the semi- major axis OX, and let OY and OZ be the rectangular projec- tions of the bounding radius vector OZ. As the small ellipse OPQ is derived from a prineipal ellipse by diminishing all lines parallel to OX in the ratio of OX to OA, that is, in the ratio of Vos" + sin’ to 1, while the transverse lines remain unal- tered; the ratio of OF to OX is equal to the corresponding ratio in the principal ellipse; hence the ratio of OY to OX is equal to cos cosy — sinw sin cos By. Let w denote the ratio of twice the sector OP@ to the rectangle formed by OX and the minor semi-axis of the ellipse OPQ; this ratio is equal to the ratio of twice the corresponding circular sec- tor to the square of OA. By the corresponding circular sector is meant that circular sector from which the elliptic sector was formed by contraction along the two axes. Also, let ¢ denote the elliptic axis, cosp-ke—sing-«. ‘The product versor then takes the form & =cosw +sinw(cos¢-ke—sing-«)!, the quantities w, ¢, and « being determined by cosw = cosu cosy — sin u sin cos By, () sing= sinw sinv sin, By, (2) V1 —cos*w = C082, sinu-B + coswsinv-y (3) sinw cosd Consequently we have for the elliptic axis OP, g— (cose sinu- B + cosusinv-y) — sinw sinv sin By-« Vi costo : ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 13 The locus of the poles of the several elliptic areas is the original ellipsoid. To find the product of two ellipsoidal versors of the above general form. The two factor versors are expressed by £ =cosu+ sinu(cos-k8 —sing-a)', and x =cosv-+ sin v(cos¢' -ky — sing!-a)F; it is required to show that their product has the form & =cosw + sinw(cosg"-ke—sing"-«) 4, ‘We have : ® oy" =(cosu + sinu-€¥) (cosy + sinv- 9!) = cosu cosy — sin u sin coséy + feosu sinv- 9 + cosy sinu-¢—sinusinv Sin gy}! The problem is reduced to finding the value of coséy and Sing. Now & means the elliptic versor between the elliptic axes cos@-kB—sing-a and cos¢'-ky—sing!-a. To find them, we apply the following principle: Restore the elliptic axes to their spherical originals, find the versor between these unit axes according to the ordinary rule, and reduce its axes back to the ellipsoidal form. Applied to the above, the rule means: suppose k=1, form the cosine and the directed Sine, and introduce & as a multiplier of those components of the directed Sine which are perpendicular to «. Hence cos éy = cos ¢ cos ¢' cos By + sin ¢ sin ¢', and Sing =cos¢ cos ¢' sin By- — k(cos $ sin ¢' - Ba+sin ¢ cosg'- ay). If we express Sing as singy-&, what must & now mean? Its length is not unity, nor is it normal to the plane of € and y. It means : cos ¢ cos $! sin By- « — k(cos ¢ sing! - Ba + sing cos ¢!- ay). Vi — cos'ty : that is, the elliptic axis conjugate to the plane of £ and ». ALTHERFORCE14 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. Hence cosw=cos u cosv—sin u sin v(cos ¢ cos ¢' cos By+sin > sin p'), (1) sinwsing" =cosusiny sing! + cosusinusing +-sinu sin v cos $ cos ¢' sin By, @) sinw sing" «= cosu sinv cos ¢'-y + cosy sinu cos +B +sin usiny(cos¢ sing'-Ba+cos¢' sing-ay). (3) FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM FOR THE GENERAL ELLIPSOID. To find the product of two ellipsoidal versors whose axes have the same directions as the minor axes of the ellipsoid. In the general ellipsoid there are three principal axes mutually rectangular; in Fig. 9 they are represented by 0.4, OB, OC. We shall suppose the greatest semi-axis to be taken as the initial line, but either of the others might be chosen. o : Let unit axes along OA, OB, and OC be LN denoted by a, B, y, respectively ; let k! de- note the ratio of OB to OA, and k that of LEN OC to OA. A versor POA in the plane a COA is expressed by (kB)*, while a versor ia.9, “4 AOQ in the plane of AOB is expressed by (k'y)";, u denoting the ratio of twice POA to the rectangle COA, and v that of twice AQQ to the rectangle AOB. Now ()"(iy)"= feos + sin u-(kB) 4} {eos + sinv-(k'y)}% =cosu cosy + cosy sinu- (kB)! + cosusin-(k'y)! sin usinv- (kB) # (ry) 6. The fourth term, as it involves two axes which are at right angles, can contribute nothing to the cosine; the cosine is cosu cosy. * The second and third terms contribute kcosy sin u- 8 + cosusiny-y to the directed Sine; while the fourth con- tributes either — Ak! sinusinv-« or —sinusinv-a. It may be shown, in the same manner as before (page 2), that keosvsinu- B+ k'cosw sinv-y—kk'sinu sinv-« ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 15 is perpendicular to both OP and OQ, hence has the direction of the normal to their plane; and, by the principle stated at page 18, it is seen that koosv sinu-B +k! cosusinv-y—Sinusinv-« is the axis conjugate to the plane of POQ. Let a plane pass through the principal axis and the perpen- dicular component keosvsinu- B+ k'cosusiny-y; as it passes through the normal to the plane POQ it must cut that plane at right angles, and OX, the line of intersection, is the principal axis of the ellipse PQ. Let $ denote the elliptic ratio of AOX, and y the angle between # and cosv sinu- 8 + cosu sinv-y, and w the ratio of twice the elliptic versor POQ to the rectangle of the semi-axes of its ellipse; then the product versor takes the form & = cosw + sinwfcos $(k cosy-B +k! siny-y)—sing- aj! For cos w = Cos u cos”, (ty sinw sing =sinusinv, (2) sin.w cos $ cosy = cosy sinu, (3) sinw cos sin y = cosu sinv. (4) To find the product of two ellipsoidal versors of the above form. Let the one versor be ¢*, where €= cos p(k cosy-B +k'siny- y)—sing-a, and let the other be 7', where n= cosg'(kcosy'-B + k' siny'-y)—sing!- a; it is required to show that é*y" has the form ¢*, where C= cos $"(k cosy" 8 +k'siny-y)—sing"-a. Since gy’ = cosu cos v — sinu sin v cos gq + feosv sinu: ¢ + cosusinv-y—sinusinv Sin éy}F, the problem reduces to finding cos é and Singy. By é is meant the elliptic angle between the elliptic axes and 7; the ratio of the sector to the rectangle of its ellipse is the same as the ratio of the sector of the primitives of g andy to 1. Hence the cosine is obtained by supposing & and k' to be one, and the Sine is ALTHERFORCE16 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. obtained by the same method, and then reducing by k the compo- nent having the axis f, and by k’ the component having the axis y. We obtain coséy = cos $ cos p' cos(y — p') + sing sing’, and Sin gy = cos ¢ cos ¢! sin(y —y')-a + k'(cos $ cosy sin g'— cos p' cosy! sing)-y — k(cos¢ siny sin '— cos ¢' siny’ sin ¢)- B. Hence cosw =c0s u cosv—sin usin vfcos ¢ cos $' cos(y—y") +sin psin '},(1) sin wcos $" cosy" = cosusiny cos ¢! cosy'+cosv sinu cos g cosy + sin usin v(cos sin y sin ¢'—cos¢! siny' sin ¢), (2) sinw cos ¢"siny" =Cos u sinv cos ¢' siny' + cos v sin u cos} siny —sinw sin v(cos ¢ cosy sin ¢'—cos $'cosy'sin ¢), (3) sinwsing" = cosu sinv sin g' + cosv sinu sing —sinw sinv cos ¢ cos $! sin(y — y'). (4) The elliptic axis is given in magnitude and direction by —Sinén__. ‘The locus of these axes is an ellipsoid derived VI — cosy from the original ellipsoid by interchanging the ratios k and k'. FUNDAMENTAL PHEOREM FOR THE EQUILAT- ERAL HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS. In order to distinguish readily the equilateral from the general hyperbola, it is desirable to have a single term for the equilateral hyperbola, The term ezcircle, with the corresponding adjective excireular, have been introduced by Mr. Hayward, in his “Algebra of Coplanar Vectors.” ‘These terms are brief and suggestive, for the equilateral hyperbola is the analogue of the circle. If we consider the sphere, we find that its hyperbolic analogue consists of three sheets. ‘Two of these are similar, the one being merely the negative of the other with respect to the centre, and are classed together as the equilateral hyperboloid of two sheets; the ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 17 third is called the equilateral hyperboloid of one sheet. For brevity we propose to call these the exsphere of two sheets, and the exsphere of one sheet, the two together being called the exsphere. In treating of the exsphere of two sheets, we shall generally consider the positive sheet. To find the expression for an exspherical versor, the plane of which passes through the principal azis. Let OA (Fig. 10) be the principal axis of an equilateral hyper- boloid of two sheets, QAP a section through OA, AOP the sector of a versor in that plane, and PM perpendicular to OA. The versor is denoted by a OP, or (04)(OP), if OA is of unit length. Now a 1 opt Gq OP = Gy (OM + MP) i Va = 2 \ W =oatoa The problem is to find the proper analytical expression for this equa- o tion. Let 8 denote a unit axis normal to the plane of QAP, and u the ratio of twice the area of the sector AOP to the square of OA, or rather to the area of the rec- tangle AOB, and let i denote V—1. The above equation, if the starting line is indifferent, is expressed by Fra. 10. A =cosiu+siniu- pt =coshu + isinhu-B% We observe that coshu= 2” ana sinbu = 2, and that pF A expresses the circular versor between OA and MP. What is the geometrical meaning of the i? It expresses the fact that coshu and sinh w are related, not by the condition cosh?u + sinh?u=1, but by the condition cosh? — sinhtu = 1. ALTHERFORCE18 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. With this notation, we can deduce readily from any spherical theorem the corresponding exspherical theorem. A plausible hypothesis is that the i before sinh uw may be con- sidered as an index § to be given to the axis 8, making cosh u + sinhw- B*; but this would leave out entirely the axis of the plane, for the equation would reduce to BY =coshu —sinhw. The quantity here denoted by i is the scalar ~—1, while the index § expresses the vector V—1. The series for e“ is wholly scalar; but the series for e-67 breaks up into a scalar and a vector part. In specifying an exspherical versor, it is necessary to give not only the ratio and the perpendicular axis of the plane, but also the principal axis of the versor. ‘This is the reason why the spherical versor has to be treated with reference to a principal axis, in order to obtain theorems which can be translated into theorems for the exspherical versor. To find the product of two coplanar exspherical versors, when the common plane passes through the principal azis. Suppose the versors shifted without change of area until the line of meeting coincides with the principal axis. Let QOA (Fig. 10) be denoted by #, and AOP by A", expressions which are independent of the shifting. Then BY =coshu + isinhu- BF, B® =coshv + i sinhy- BF; therefore 6g" =(coshu + i sinhw- 8) (coshv + sinhv- 6%) = coshu cosh v+i(cosh u sinhv-+coshv sinhu)-pt +isinhu sinhv- Br; but i? =—, and 6 =—; hence B%B" = cosh w cosh + sinhw sinh v +i(coshu sinh» + cosh» sinhu)- BE. Hence pr = pi“), ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 19 Suppose that the sector QOP is shifted without change of area till it starts from OA, and becomes AOR. Then on =coshu coshy + sinh usinh», NR and R — cosh u sinh» + coshv sinhw. OA To find the product of two diplanar exspherical versors when the plane of each passes through the principal axis. Let the two versors POA and AQ (Fig. 11) be denoted by B™ and y, the axes and y being each perpendicular to the princi- pal axis a. ‘Then By" = (cosiu + siniu- B¥) (cosiv + siniv- y¥) = cosiu cosiv — siniu sin iv cos By + foosiv sin iu-B+cosiu sin tv-y—sin iu siniv sinBy- a}? But cosiu=coshu, and siniu=isinhw, therefore, BY," = cosh u coshv + sinh u sinh v cos By, + ifeosh vsinhu- 8 + coshu sinh v-y—isinhw sinhvsin By- a}? Hence cosh Ay" = cosh v cosh v + sinh w sinhv cos By and Sinh@y" =coshv sinhu- 8 + coshw sinhv- y —isinhw sinhv sin By-a. By expanding, it may be shown that (cosh By")?— (Sinh By")? = 1, or (cosBy")? +(Sing%y*)? =1. The function Sinh is the same as Sin, only an i has been dropped from all the terms of the latter. ‘The product versor is also represented by a sector of an excircle of unit semi-axis. ‘The first and second components of the excircular Sine are per- pendicular to the principal axis; hence their resultant, cosh» sinh u- 8 + coshu sinh v-y, is also perpendicular to the principal axis. Let it be represented by OV (Fig. 11). The difficulty consists in finding the true direction of the third component, —isinhusinhvsinBy-a. At ALTHERFORCE20 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. page 53 of The Imaginary of Algebra, I suggested the following construction : With V as centre, and radius equal to sinhusinhv sinpy, describe a circle in the plane of OA and OV, and draw OS or OS’ a tangent to this circle. But another hypothesis presents itself; namely, to make the same construction as in the case of the sphere. Draw OU opposite to OA, and equal to sinhusinhy sin By; and find OR, the resultant of OV and OU. We shall show that OR satisfies the condition of being normal to the plane POQ, while OS or OS! does not. The reasoning at page 2 applies to give the expression for the vectors OP and OQ. Hence the expressions for the three vectors OR, OP, OQ, are OR =coshv sinhu- 8 + coshu sinhv- y — sinhusinhy sin By - By, OP =— sinhu 288. + sinhu <1 -y + coshu- Bi 0Q =— sinh» —1_. g — sinh v°BY. y + coshu- By. sin By sin By It follows, as there, that cos(OR)(OP)=0, and cos(OR)(0Q)=0. Hence OR is normal to the plane POQ, and OS is not. ‘The function of the i before the third component of the Sine is to indicate that the magnitude of the Sine is not VOV?+ VR but VOV?— VR. This gives ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 21‘ sinh By" = y{cosh*e sinb*u + cosh*u sinh*s + 2cosh u cosh» sinh u sinhv cos By — sinh?n sinh? sin?py} = V (cosh u cosho + sinh u sinh v cos By)? — 1. ‘The expression —_-O” gives the excircular axis both . vOV?—VR in magnitude and direction. The plane of OA and OV cuts the exsphere in an excircle, and as it passes through the normal OR, it must cut the plane POQ at right angles. Let OX be the line of intersection (Fig. 12). Draw XM perpendicular to OA; T 0 AM draw XD a tangent to the excircle at X,and XA’ parallel to OA, and OR' the reflection of OR with respect to OV. Let ¢ denote the excircular angle of AOX; that is, the ratio of twice the area of AOX to the square of OA. As OR is normal to the plane POQ, it is perpendicular to OX; but OV is perpendicular to OA; therefore the angle AOX is equal to the angle VOR. Also as the angle AOR! is the com- plement of R'OV and A'XD the complement of AOX, the line OR’ is parallel to the tangent XD. Hence cosh ¢ = 2@— ___OV. yet sinh*u +cosh*x sinh*y +2 cosh u cosh v sinh u sinh v cos By (cosh w cosh v + sinh u sinh v cos By)? — 1 and sinhw sinh sin By V(coshu cosh v + sinh sinh v cos By ALTHERFORCE22 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. ‘The above analysis shows that the product versor of POQ may be specified by three elements: first, « a unit axis drawn perpendicular to QA in the plane of OA and the normal to the plane of POQ; second, $ the excircular angle of AOX determined by OA and OX drawn at right angles to the normal in the plane of OA and the normal; third, w the versor of a unit excircle determined by the conditions of passing through the points P and Q and having its vertex on the line OX. When u and » are equal, half of the line joining PQ is the sinh of half of the versor of the product. Let y denote the sinh of each of the factor versors, then it is easy to see from geomet- rical considerations (v. The Imaginary of Algebra, page 53), that i a a sinh 9 = Tg VI + cosy therefore cosh = Yop cosy)” ve But it is also evident that the distance from O to the mid- point of PQ is fe = cos By) + 2? +1), y'(1 + cos By) +2 The excess of this distance over cosh gives the distance by which the axis has been displaced along OX. Hence the product versor may be expressed by an excircular axis and an excircular versor as ¢*, where €=cosh¢-e—isinh¢-a. To determine these quantities, we have, as in the case of the sphere, the three equations cosh w= cosh ucoshv-+sinh usinhveosPy, (1) sinhw cosh ¢ = sinh u sinh v sin By, (2) sinhw sinh-e=coshvsinhu-B+coshusinhv-y. (3) The axis « may be expressed in terms of two axes @ and y forming with « a set of mutually rectangular axes, and the angle y which it makes with 8; so that for the excircular axis we have &=cosh¢(cosy-8+siny-y)—isinh¢-a. ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 23 In the above investigation it is assumed that the magnitude of the perpendicular component of the Sine is necessarily greater than the component parallel to the principal axis. This means that cosh’ sinh’w + cosh*u sinh*v + 2cosh w cosh » sinh w sinh cos By is necessarily greater than sinh*u sinh'y sin’By. Let sin@y=1; then cos@y=0; and we have to compare cosh’v sinh’u + cosh’u sinh’y with’ sinh’u sinh*y, Now each term on the left is greater than the term on the right; therefore their sum must be greater, for each term is the square of a real quantity. Next let sinfy=0; then cosBy=1; the for- mer term becomes a complete square while the latter is 0; hence the former must always be greater than the latter. To find the product of two exspherical versors of the general kind. The two versors are expressed by & =coshu +isinhu(cosh $-B—i sinh g-a)§, and af” =coshv + isinhv(cosh ¢'-y —isinh¢'-a)?; it is required to show that their product has the form & = coshw + i sinhw(cosh $"-e—isinh¢"-a)4, We have é =coshw + sinhu-é! and a? =coshv + isinhv-y!, therefore $"q" =coshu coshv + sinhw sinhv cos éy +4feosh« sinhv-»-+eosh v sinhu-¢—dsinhu sinh vsingy -&} It remains to determine cosy and Sin gy. Since €=cosh¢-B—isinh¢-a, and = cosh $!-y —isinhg!-a, and as we have seen that the i is merely scalar, and does not affect the direction, we conclude that oo an ALTHERFORCE24 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. c08 € = cosh ¢ cosh ¢' cos By — sinh ¢ sinh ¢’, Sin é = cosh ¢ cosh ¢ sin By. a —i(cosh ¢ sinh ¢'. Ba + cosh ¢' sinh ¢-«y). Substituting these values of cos¢y and Sin gy, we obtain cosh w = cosh u cosh» +sinh u sinh v(cosh ¢ cosh ¢! cos By—sinh ¢ sinh ¢'), (1) sinhw sinh ¢” = cosh sinh sinh ¢'-+ cosh sinhusinh ¢ + sinh x sinh v cosh ¢ cosh ¢' sin By, (2) sinh w cosh $"- «= cosh u sinh cosh $'-y-+cosh sinh u cosh $+ 8 —sinhu sinh v(cosh ¢ sinh $' Ba-+cosh ¢ sinh $ -ay).(3) Let us consider, more minutely, the above equations 08 £y = cosh ¢ cosh ¢! cos By — sinh ¢ sinh ¢', and Singy = cosh ¢ cosh ¢' sinBy- a — i(cosh ¢ sinh ¢'- Ba + cosh ¢' sinh ¢- ay). If we square these functions, we find (cos én)? = cosh’¢ cosh*¢! cos’By + sinh’¢ sinh’! —2cosh $ cosh ¢' sinh ¢ sinh ¢! cos By, (Sin éy)? = cosh’ cosh’¢’ sin?By — cosh’ sinh’ —2cosh¢ cosh ¢! sinh ¢ sinh ¢! cos Bu ay; cosh’¢! sinh*¢ but cosBa ay =— cosy, and cosh?=1 + sinh’, therefore, (coséy)? + (Sin)? =1. As the symbol i does not affect the geometrical composition, Sing must be normal to the plane of ¢ and 7; hence, if we analyze it into singy-&, we must have singy = V1 — (coséy)’, and @=——Singy_. VI=(cos&)* Consider the special case, when y=. Then cos £ = cosh cosh $'— sinh¢ sinh ¢', and Singy = — i(cosh ¢ sinh ¢! — cosh ¢' sinh ¢) Ba. ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 25 ‘Hence gy becomes an excircular versor. Copet case where y is perpendicular to 8. ‘Then cos) =— sinh ¢ sinh¢', and Sin é = cosh ¢cosh ¢'-a+i(cosh¢sinh¢'- y+: It appears that the locus of the poles of all th equilateral hyperboloid of one sheet. (v. page 27.) next the special ERAL HYPERBOLOID OF ONE SHEET. To find the product of a circular and an eacircular versor, wher they have a common plane. Q Tip a K MLA Fra. 13, Let AOP represent a circular, and POQ an excircular, versor (Fig. 13); and let them be denoted by #* and B". We have BYB* = Br cosu + sinu- A!) (coshv +i sinh v-B%) =cosu coshv — isinu sinhy + (cosh sinu + i cosw sinhv)- BF. What is the meaning of the i which occurs in these scalar func- tions? Is the magnitude of the cosine V (osu coshv)? — (sinwsinhey, or is it, cosu cosh v — sinwsinhv? a rc ALTHERFORCE26 PRINCIPLES OF-ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. At page 48 of Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions, I show that : oe Ok ae goaket v)= 7, and sin(u + ivy= Os and thatthe ordinary proof for the cosine and the sine of the sum of tvid-angles gives c0s(u + iv) = cosu cosh v — sinw sinh», EQ _MPON , OM NQ, OA OA OP” 0A OP’ that is, sin(u + iv) = sin u coshv + cosu sinh. What, then, is the function of the ¢? It shows that if you form the two squares, taking account of it, their sum will be equal to unity. Also, in forming the products of versors, it must be taken into account. When it is preserved, the rules for cir- cular versors apply without change to excircular versors. Here we have the true geometric meaning of a bi-versor, and consequently of a bi-quaternion; for the latter is only the former multiplied by a line. 3 we then have As a special case, let v= BY" = — isinhv + coshv-B; this versor evidently refers to the conjugate hyperbola. Again, let w=; we have r+ = —(coshv + i sinhv-p!), which refers to the opposite hyperbola. In the following table, the related excireular versors are placed in the same line with their circular analogues, and the diagram (Fig. 14) shows the related versors graphically. ‘ ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 27 Circurar. Excirccrar. cosu + sinu: Bam coshu+isinhu-B*|40P, sinu-+cosu-4/pi" = isinhu+ coshu- 6 |40P, —sinu + cosu-p!| ai" =—cosutsinu-g! pe" =— coshu+isinhu- 6540p, =—cosu—sinu- Bilge =— coshu—isinhu-f*|40p, B= —isinhu+ coshu- 6 |40P, BY" =—sinu—cosu-g4|g t= isinhu— coshu-*|40p, BE = sinu—cosu-pilg "= isinhu— coshu-B*|40p, B* = cosu—sinu-pi|p-“ = coshu—isinhu-A*|40p, It is evident that AOP, is the complement, AOP, the supple- ment, and AOP, the reciprocal, of AOP, It is not the circular Fig, 14. term of the complex exponent which is affected by the V—1, but the excircular term. Thus space analysis throws a new light upon the periodicity of the hyperbolic functions. a rae ATHERFORCE28 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. To find the product of two versors of the equilateral hyperboloid of one sheet, when each passes through the principal axis of the hyperboloid. Let P be a point on the excircle of one sheet (Fig. 15), OP its radius; draw OB equal to OA, in the plane of OA and OP; AB is joined by a quadrant of a cir- cle, and BOP by a sector of an excircle, Let u denote the ratio Q B of twice the area of the sector POB to the square of OA; Fis the ratio of twice the area of BOA to the square of OA. ‘ V, Hence if @ is a unit axis per- Fia. 15, pendicular to OB and OA, the expression for the versor POA isgi, Similarly, the expression for the versor AOQ is yi. P Now gf!" — (—isinhu+coshu- B4) (—i sinhv-+coshv-y!) =—(sinhw sinhv + coshw cosh v cos By) —{i(coshw sinhv- 8 + coshvsinhu- y) + coshu cosh sinBy-a}?. Now the magnitude of coshusinhv-@+coshvsinhu-y may be greater or less than coshucoshv sinfy. If it is greater, then the directed sine may be thrown into the form —if(coshw sinhv- 8 + cosh» sinhu-y) — icoshucoshv sin By-a}, consequently, the ratio is excircular, and the axis excircular; hence the product takes the form —#*, where = cosh-e—‘sinhg-«. But if coshucoshvsin@y is the greater, the directed sine takes the form —{eoshu cosh» sin By-« + i(coshu sinh v-f + coshv sinhu-y)}. The ratio of the product is circular, but the axis is excircular. Let w denote the ratio; the axis has the form cosh #- «—isinh ¢-¢, 80 that the product is of the form — £ =—cosw— sin w(cosh$-a—isinh¢-e)!. ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 29 In the former case, the locus of the poles of the axes is the exsphere of one sheet; in the latter, the opposite sheet of the exsphere of two sheets. To find the product of two general versors of the equilateral hyper- boloid of one sheet. The one versor may be represented by —je+(y-B+2-a)8, where a?—y?+2'=1, and @ is perpendicular to «. Similarly, the other versor may be represented by ~ fal + (iy 2a), where 2”—y?42=1, and y is perpendicular to a. The cosine of the product is wa! + yy! cos By — 22', and the Sine of the product is tay! y+ 2'y-B) + (a2! + 2's + yy’ sin By)-a. As before, if (xy')?+ (z'y)?+2az'yy' cosy is greater than (x2! + 2'z + yy' sin By)?, the ratio of the product is excircular; but if less, it is circular. In the former case the axis is an axis of the exsphere of one sheet, in the latter it is an axis of the exsphere of two sheets. To find the product of two versors which pass through the prin- cipal azis, when the one belongs to the exsphere of two shects, the other to the exaphere of one sheet. Let the former versor be denoted by A, and the latter by yi+w, Then + — (cosh u+isinhu- B¥) (—i sinhv-+coshv- 7!) = — i(coshw sinh + sinhw cosh v cos By) + {cosh u cosh. y + sinhw sinhv- 6 — isinhwcoshv sin By - a} ¥. As the magnitude of coshucoshv-y+sinhwsinhy-B is by reasoning similar to that at page 23 seen to be greater than sinhucoshv sin By, we see that the axis is excircular; and the i before the scalar term shows that the ratio is excircular. From a ALTHERFORCE380 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. comparison of the table, page 27, we see that the product versor has the form €!, where ¢= cosh $-«—isinh $-a, the equations being sinhw =coshw sinhv + sinhucoshvcosBy, (1) coshw sinh =coshu sinhv-+sinhucoshvcos fy, (2) cosh w cosh $-e = coshu coshv-y + sinhw sinhv-B. (3) FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM FOR THE HYPERBOLOID. ‘The theorems for the hyperboloid are obtained from the theo- rems for the exsphere in the same manner as the theorems for the ellipsoid are deduced from those for the sphere. Two general versors for the hyperboloid of two sheets are expressed by {* and 9, where £=cosh$ (cosy -kB + siny -k'y)—isinhg-«, cosh $'(cosy'-kB + siny'-k'y) —isinh p!- a. cosh u + i sinh w- 4) (coshv + isinhu-n®) and 7 Now én" =coshw coshv + sinhw sinh v coséy + {i(coshv sinhu-¢ + cosh u sinh v.) + sinhw sinhy Sing}! ‘The problem is reduced to finding the versor é. We apply the same principle as that employed in finding the versor between two elliptic axes (page 13), namely: Restore the axes to their excireular primitives, find the versor between these excircular axes (page 23), and change its axis according to the ratios of the contraction of the hyperboloid. This gives coséy = cosh ¢ cosh $'fcos(y — y') }— sinh ¢ sinh ¢', Sin gy = cosh ¢ cosh ¢! sin(y — y!) -« —i(cosh ¢ sinh ¢' sin y—cosh ¢' sinh ¢ siny’) - kB +i(cosh ¢ sinh $! cosy—cosh $' sinh $ cos y')-k'y. In this manner, each theorem proved for the exsphere may be generalized for the hyperboloid. ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 381 DE MOIVRE'’S THEOREM. To find any integral power of a versor. Let n denote any integral number. For the general spherical versor we have (£*)" = £™, because the axes of the factor versors are all the same. Hence cosnu + sinnu- =(cosw-+ sinu- gf)" = costa +n cost tu sinu- + "=D cosrtu sintu é+, from which it follows that cosnu = costa — "AD coss-ty situ +, and sinnw = ncos*v sin u— wecYGl) cos"Su sin’ +. Similarly for the exspherical versor (£")*, as the axes are all the same (¢")" = g, and coshnu + é sinhnu-¢! = (coshu + i sinhu- ¢¥)* = cosh"u +-ni cosh"—'u sinh u- ¢f +20) pooshu sinh’u-g"+; therefore coshnu = cosh"w ++ 2 =D cosht-*u sinh’u+, and sinh nu = n cosh'“'u sinh + "*——2) coshr-ty sinhtu+. ‘The only difference in the case of the general ellipsoidal versor is that u is measured elliptically and ¢ is an ellipsoidal axis. So for the general hyperboloidal versor, u is measured hyper- bolically and @ is a hyperboloidal axis. ALTHERFORCE82 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. To find any integral root of a versor. Consider first the case of an ellipsoidal versor. If w is defined as the ratio of twice the sector to the rectangle formed by the 7 semi-axes, it cannot be greater than 2x, ‘Then (¢*)" is unambigu- ously equal to é, Hence 1 cose -+sin =. gf = (cosu + sinw- £4), If cosu is not less than sinu, then ; cos + sing = (cosu)s 1 + tanu-€8]* 1 1 ao oe = (cosuys {1-4 Ztanu. @ 4 tanta e+ by therefore : cos * = (cosu)= {14+ CSD tanta —1)(2n—1)(3n—1) -@=) m4! tantu tf, | 141 (n—1)(2n—1) and sin” = (cosu)= { jtanu — Oe tante + . But if sinw is not less than cosw, we have the complementary series “ aes 4,2 $F =(sinu)"Ef1 + cobu-g Fp". Consider next the case of a hyperboloidal versor. A versor for the hyperboloid of two sheets is denoted by &”. Now ere i 1 = fooshu + ¢ sinhu. g8j* 1 1 =(coshu)"f1 + étanhu- éty, for coshu is always greater than sinh w; therefore - u = n—1 cosh = (coshu)* { 1-25 Hani _(n=1) 2-1) O0=Dtandtupn i ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 33 su 1 n—1)(2n—1 and sinh (coshu)+ { Ftanhu — CoD Er—D tanbiut } But a versor for the hyperboloid of one sheet is expressed by ee" Now (8 EF i sinh + coshu-gy =(coshu)*@{1 — itanhu-€%}% which is expanded as before. POLAR THEOREM. To deduce in the trigonometry of the sphere the polar theorem corresponding to the fundamental theorem. The cosine theorem, which is the fundamental theorem of spherical trigonometry, expresses the side of a spherical triangle in terms of the opposite sides and their included angle. In tréatises on spherical trigonometry, it is shown how to deduce from the cosine theorem a polar or supple- _ mental theorem which expresses an angle a in terms of the other two angles and the opposite side. It is our object to find the polar theorem corresponding to the com- plete fundamental theorem. e b Let the versors of the three sides of the spherical triangle (Fig. 16), taken the same 2 way round, be denoted by é*, 7%, £%, where on &m € are unit axes, and a, b,c denote the & ratio of twice the area of the sector to the area a of the rectangle formed by the semi-axes of its circle (which, in this case, is simply the square of the radius). ‘The angles in- cluded by the sides are usually denominated .A, B, C, respectively, but what it is necessary to consider in view of further generali- zation is the angles between the planes, or rather the versors between the axes. These in accordance with our notation are denoted by nf, £é, and & respectively; the axes of these versors, which are also of unit length, are denoted by xf, %& and &, i ALTHERFORCE34 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. respectively, and they correspond to the poles of the corners of the triangle as indicated by the figure. The fundamental theorem is é1) = cosa cosb — sina sind coséy + {cosb sina-¢ + cosa sinb-» — sina sind singy-&y} "5 but as ¢* is taken in the opposite direction, we have £ = cosa cos) — sina sind coséy +{—cosb sina-¢— cosa sinb-y+sina sind singy-é}? The polar theorem is obtained by changing each side into the supplement of the corresponding angle and the angle into the supplement of the corresponding side. Hence cos (# — £7) = c08(m — nt) cos (w— £6) —sin(w — nf) sin(w — £€) cos(w —c); that is, coséy—=— cost cos {é — sin nf sin¢é cose. When A, B, C, are used to denote the external angles between the sides, the above equation is written cos C = — cos.A cos B— sin A sin Bose. Apply the same rule of change to the Sine part, and we obtain Sin (w—£) = —cos(w—££) Sin(x—nf) —cos(w—nf) Sin(w—£é) + sin(x — nf) sin(w — &) sine-£; that is, Sin gy = cos ¢é Sin nf +-cos nf Sin £é+sin nf sin é sinc. ¢. To deduce the polar theorem for the ellipsoid. Let é, 7, € denote the three versors of the original ellipsoidal triangle taken the same way round; then the corresponding versors of the polar triangle are nf, ¢é, and é. ‘The third versor of the original triangle is given in terms of the other two by the theorem £ = cosa cosd— sina sind coséy +{—cosd sina-¢ — cosa sinb-9 + sina sind Sin gy}? ' ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 85 The third versor of the polar triangle is obtained in terms of the other two by changing each versor into the supplement of its corresponding versor ; hence cos éy = — cos nf cos fé — sin nf sin Zé cose, and Singy = cos£é Sin nf + cosnf Sin g¢ + sin nf singé Sing”. In form it is the same as for the sphere; the only difference is in the expressions for the ellipsoidal axes é », ¢, and the manner of deducing the cosine and Sine of the versor between two such axes. (See page 13.) The polar ellipsoid is not identical with the original ellipsoid; the ratios of the two minor axes are interchanged. To deduce the polar theorem for the exsphere of two sheets. Let £, 9, ¢* denote the versors for the three sides of a triangle of the exsphere of two sheets, taken in the same order round. The axes é ,¢ have their poles on the exsphere of two sheets (page 23); it is required to deduce the theorem for that polar triangle. For the original triangle, we have £* = cosia cos ib — sinia sin ib cosy +{—cosid sin ia -—cosia sin id- n-+sinia sinib Sinéy}®. By changing each versor into the supplement of the correspond- ing versor, we obtain & =—cos nf cos — sin nf singé coshe + foosfé Sin nf +cos nf Sin {+i sin nf sin ¢é sinhe-¢}7. The above cosine equation has a marked resemblance to the fundamental equation of non-cuclidean geometry (see Dr. Giin- ther’s Hyperbelfunctionen, pages 306 and 322). It is true that nf and {¢ are not simple circular versors, but the functions are cos and sin in a generalized sense. I venture the opinion that non- euclidean geometry is nothing but trigonometry on the exsphere; and that the so-called elliptic and hyperbolic geometries are iden- tical with the ellipsoidal and hyperboloidal trigonometry developed in this paper. ALTHERFORCE36 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. To deduce the general polar theorem for the exsphere. Let £*, 7, ¢¢ denote the three sides of an exspherical triangle; the axes é, 7, ¢ are exspherical, but the ratios a, b, ¢ may be cir- cular or excircular, or be compounded of » or § and an excircular ratio. For the original triangle, we have : £ = cosa cosb — sina sind coséy +{—cosa sind- ¢—cosa sind-y-+sina sind Sin gy} §, and for the polar triangle, &= cosnt coséé — sin ng singé cose + foos¢é Sin nf +cos nf Sin £é-+ sin nf sin {é Sin 4]. Here the functions cos and sin are used in their most general meaning. SINE THEOREM. To prove that if &, 1, & denote the three versors of a spherical triangle, then sinnt _ singé_ singy, sina sind” sine ‘We have cose = cosa cosh — sina sind cosgy, and = sine-£ =—cosb sina- ¢—cosa sinb- y+sina sind sinéy-Ey. By squaring the second equation, we obtain sin*c = cos*b sin*a-+cos*a sin®b + sin?a sin®d sin’ gy + 2cosa cosb sina sin b coséy; then, by substituting for cosy from the first equation, and redue- ing, we obtain sina sinb sin éy = -V1—cos*a—cos*b— cos*e-+ 2.008 a c08b cose. Henee singa _ sinnt _ singé, sinc sina sind This theorem is also true for an ellipsoid of revolution, for then sina sind sing = k-V1 — cos*a—cos*b—cos*e-+2e08a cosb cose. ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 37 To find the analogue for the exsphere of the sine theorem. Let & 7, ¢ denote exspherical axes, and a, b, versors which may be circular, or excircular, or both combined. ‘Then, with the general meaning of the sin and cos functior's, sina sind sin gy = Vi — cos*a—cos*b—coste +2.c08a cosb cose. Hence singy _ singt _ sing, sinc sina b We have seen that, if a and } are both simply excircular, it does not follow that ¢ is (page 28). SUM AND DIFFERENCE THEOREMS. The reciprocal of a given versor. By the reciprocal of a given versor is meant the versor of equal index but of opposite axis. Let denote the given spherical versor; its reciprocal is (—é)*. But it may be shown that €"=(—é)". For £" =cos(—u)-+ sin(—u) .gF =cosu—sinu. 7 =cosu + sinu-(—£)7 =(-)" Similarly the reciprocal of an exspherical versor ™ is (—é)" or &, and &" = coshu—isinhu-é%. The reciprocal of an éllipsoidal versor ¢* is also é~*, the only difference being that ¢ is no longer a spherical, but an ellipsoidal axis, So for the hyperboloidal versor. To find the analogues of the sum and difference theorems of plane trigonometry. ‘At page 45 of “The Imaginary of Algebra,” I have shown how to generalize for the sphere the following well-known theorems in plane trigonometry, namely, cos(A + B)+0os(A'—B)= 2cos.AcosB, cos(A + B)—cos(A — B)=—2sin Asin B, a ALTHERFORCE88 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. sin(A + B) + sin(A — B)= 2cos B sin A, sin(A + B)—sin(A— B) = 2cos.A sin B, and cos CH e0sD= 2eos Tt P eos CHP, cos C — cos D=—2sin2 +2 gin P—D, 2 2 sinC+sinD= 2sinPtP oogP—D 2 2 sin C—sin D= 2e0s OP sin C= P. The generalized formule of the first set for the sphere are, using general axes ¢ and 7, cos fy? + cos fy = 2c0s.A cos B, cos fy" — cos fy" = — 2cos(Siné Siny?), Sin fy? +Sing4y-"= 2cos BSin¢, Sin é4y? — Sin gy Corresponding to the latter set of four equations we have 2 {cos A Sinn” — Sin(Sing# Sing?) }. cos f° +08 w= 2 c08fw?(w~"L")#} cos(w-E°) §, 008 £° — cos w? = — 2cos [Sin {w?(w~7¢°)$ Sin(w" 7°) #], Sing?4+Sinw®= 2c03(w-¢°)! Sinfw?(w-C°) #1, Sing’—Sinw?= 2cosfu? (we?) Sin(w-%¢°)! — 28in Sinfw?(w-¢?)#{ Sin(w-?¢2)4, The corresponding theorems for the ellipsoid are the same, excepting that €=cosg-kB—sing-a, =cos¢!-ky—sing!-a. Consequently coséy is the same as before, but Sin &y = cos ¢ cos ¢! sin By. a—k(cos ¢ sin ¢' - Ba +-c0s ¢! sing - ey). For the general ellipsoid the only difference is in the expres- sions for é 7, and singy-é. ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 39 EXPONENTIAL THEOREM. To find the exponential series for an ellipsoidal versor. In the expression ¢ for a spherical versor, the u and é are truly related as index to base, for logé* =u log¢' = u- ¢¥, and therefore eset! Consequently In the case of the spherical versor, = cos$-8 —sing-a, or cos p(cosy- B+ siny-y)—sing-a, where a, B, y are unit axes mutually rectangular. The expansion for the ellipsoidal versor ¢ differs only in the way in which w is measured, and in the expression for é, which is now cos$-kB — sing- a, or cos ¢(cosy+ kB + siny-k'y) — sing-a. To find the exponential series for a hyperboloidal versor. The expression for a versor on the exsphere of two sheets is é Now nent? att i Og GN ty ti{ut Sete Le The expression for a mixed exspherical versor is é*+*. Now gots = geting = 14 (ut i) A CED pg GEN ory =1— +r)? , (utiv)t_ “et 4! + {u+io— Ge ey ha ALTHERFORCE40 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. Both the cosine and the sine break up into two components, the one independent of i, and the other involving 7. Here we have the sine and the cosine of the ordinary complex quantity. ‘As the ratio of a hyperboloidal versor may be circular or excir- cular, or both combined, the general versor may be expressed by &, where a is as general as stated. Then gael e¢ oe ata . +e To find the exponential series for the product of two ellipsoidal versors. In the paper on The Fundamental Theorems of Analysis Gener- alized for Space I have shown that if g and 7’ denote any two spherical versors, then bec ertlennt a1 pont dedieonyededtoayt, where the powers of the binomial are expanded according to the binomial theorem, but subject to the special proviso that the order of the axes é, 7 must be preserved in all the axial terms. Thus Sy altud pon! Pee + Quv- dyke yt} + fiw 88 + auto ero + Bust diye + tH + ete. =1— pfet + 2uv cosy + v4 + flu +40 cosy + Gute! + Aue? cosén+ 4} a) — ete. ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 41 + {us dust) ete. bo 2) + {o-J owe ++ete.b a! - @) a { — pew +4 (Avto-+ duv’)— ete, } sing FE. (4) In the case of the sphere &=cosp-B—sing-a, and n= cos¢!+y—sing!-«; consequently cos £y = cos ¢ cos ¢! cos By + sing sin ¢', and Sin £y = cos ¢ cos $' sin By- « — (cos ¢ sing’. Ba + cos¢! sing: ay). For the ellipsoid of revolution the expansion is obtained by introducing ellipsoidal axes ¢ and 7; and the corresponding theo- rems for the hyperboloid are obtained by changing the axes and indices into hyperboloid axes and indices. To find the exponential series for the product of two hyperboloidal versors. Let { and y denote any two hyperboloidal axes, and w and v general hyperboloidal ratios (p. 40). ‘Then the product is gy certionl | Http gh+ eb tery, we tery... The form of the theorem is the same as before. LOGARITHMIC VERSORS. In the paper on The Fundamental Theorems of Analysis Gen- eralized for Space, page 16, I have shown that when the index of a, in et-¥, ig generalized, we obtain the expression for the versor ’ “ a“ ALTHERFORCE42 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. corresponding to a sector of a logarithmic spiral. Let w denote the general angle, and af the generalized versor; then wae wy Bee, Ada | Abate =14 4-04 Ae a 7 + Acosw +2 costs 5 Aeebw on at + {A sin 4 Aisin2 4 Asin te ba = eltote gtsinw It is there shown that w is the constant angle between the radius vector and the tangent, or rather that it is the constant difference between the circular versor from the principal axis to the tan- gent, and that from the principal axis to the radius vector. It is also shown that A sinw gives the ratio of twice the area of the corresponding circular sector to the square of the radius, while Acosw gives the logarithm of the ratio of the radius vector to the principal axis. I have there called such a logarithmic versor, when multiplied by a length, a quinternion. In his Synopsis der Hoheren Mathe- matik, Mr. Hagen has pointed out that the proper classical word is quinion. A quaternion means a ratio of three elements mul- tiplied by a length; therefore, a ratio involving an additional element when multiplied by a length, is a quinion. In the paper on The Imaginary of Algebra, an excircular ana- logue is deduced, namely, af, =e", but there are in reality three, according to whether A or w, or both, are affected by the v=1. To deduce the four forms of logarithmic versor. First: circular-circular, Let ¢“ denote a general spherical versor, then Ee = ett = qucmwte sinw wn oe alte Ee ee oe pete, Here w denotes the constant difference between the versor from the principal axis to the tangent and that from the principal axis to the radius vector. \ ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 43 Second: circular-eecircular, Let iw denote the constant dif- ference between the excircular versor from the principal axis to the tangent, and that from the principal axis to the radius vector; then be a ert a geomet sane et wa é ateuge ee ge ge. =1+ weoshwe +2 cosh 20 + ¥ cosh 3m + +i {usinhw +2 sinhow 4% sinhsw +} Zh Third; excireular-circular. Let é denote a general exspherical versor; it is equal to e“¢¥, and here ¥ denotes the constant sum of the circular versors above mentioned. Let that constant sum be any other circular versor w. Then fit et = cucmet inane (FE ee GN ge + eto, a on cat we ut ae ta et +ifue—B es} 2 ‘ 37 008 2 + Fos 4w—ete. +i {ucosw—¥ cossw-+ete. Here both the cosine and the sine consists of a real and an ap- parently imaginary part. ‘The geometrical meaning has already been explained (page 25). ae = ALTHERFORCE44 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. Fourth: excircular-eacircular. Let iw denote the constant sum of the excircular versors mentioned in the second case. Then fae efvconhe—wainhe att tu ge GO gy GO", ey @ | 5 — Filcosh Ze +i sinh Be - &) + + iu(cosh w + i sinh w - é#)— —Keosh 20 +H cosh 4 — +{weoshw— cosh 3+ } - {wsinhw sinh 30+}. ef +if{ 2 sinh 20424 sinh dw — hd To find the product of two logarithmic versors of the most general kind. Let € and y denote general axes, and u, w, v, ¢ general ratios; that is, each may be a sum of a circular and an excircular ratio. Then é¥ and yf each denote a general logarithmic versor. Then Egy sen tet =14(ue eto) +! ik . Cede fete, The powers of the binomial are formed according to the same rule as before. (Fundamental Theorems, page 18.) COMPOSITION OF ROTATIONS. To find the resultant of two elliptic rotations round axes which ‘pass through a common point. Two circular rotations are compounded by the principle that the product of the half rotations is half of the resultant rotation. tl ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 45 Let any two circular rotations be denoted by ¢* and 7", and their resultant by & xq 5 then bxr=@ny = {cos cos? — sin sin 200s éy + (cos$sin $-£ + cos sin} -— sin § sing Singy)* } = cos” cos” — sin” sin” Let 2= cos cos — sin sin’ cosy, y=vi-%, ~ cos 5 sin -£ + cosy ins sing sin} Sin gy 2 then Bx qgatay st aay The elliptic generalization is obtained by generalizing the axes and 7 and finding cos é and Sin éy, as at page 15. To find the resultant of two hyperbolic rotations round ames which pass through a common point. . Let ¢ and y* denote two exspherical rotations which have a common principal axis; let their resultant be denoted by £* x 7°. By analogy we deduce that we & x fh = (E%q?)* (i nn eee =) sh = cosh — = = { cosh $ cosh $+ sinh Zsinh $ cos &y i(cosh® sinh. % sinh® . »—isinh“sinh2Sin é\! } +i(cosh 5 sinn 5 €-+ cosh sinh? «9 isinh sinh 3Sin éy) e Let z= cosh 5 cosh 5 + sinh 5 sinh 5 cos 7. y=ve—-1, vapu ee : cosh$ sinh « ¢--eosh sinh’ - q—i sinh sinh Sing Ve—1 Then x gtae py + 2ay ve a ALTHERFORCE46 PRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. Suppose a fluid to move round the axis ¢, each particle describ- ing a hyperbolic angle u, and then round the axis » by a hyper- bolic angle v, the principal axes of the two motions coinciding ; the resultant gives the angle, the plane, and the principal axes of the equivalent single motion of the same kind. ‘The axis of that motion does not pass through the intersection of the axes of the components. ‘A more general result is obtained by supposing the ratios to be complex; the theorem is then expressed by the spherical theorem taken in a generalized sense, just as in ordinary algebra x may be positive or negative. To find the effect of an elliptic rotation on a line. ‘The effect of a circular rotation ¢* upon a unit axis p, is given by the equation &p = cosép-€ + sinu Singp + cosu Sin(Sinép)é (Principles of the Algebra of Physics, page 100.) It was shown by Cayley that the effect of ¢ upon p is given by the Sine of the product €?p'¢¥. For by the expansion of % _ sin. eF)o¥ (cost + sin”. ef (cos g sing. ¢ ye (cos Hsing. ¢ ‘) the directed sine is found to be 24. 5+ sin? cosg- % sin” Sin gp — sin’ Sin(Singp)é. cos’ 3°? + sin’ gcoste €+ cos; sin; Sin ép sin’ 3 Sin(Singp)é. But cost p= cost cosép-€+ cos" Sin(Sin es therefore the directed sine is cosép-¢ + sinu Sin gp + cosu Sin (Sin gp)é To generalize for an elliptic rotation we substitute the more general value of ¢ and form cos gp, Sin gp, and Sin (Sin ép)é accord- ing to the rules stated at page 15. For example, let E=kcos$-B—sing-a, p=sind-y +c0s6-a; ALTHERFORCEPRINCIPLES OF ELLIPTIC AND HYPERBOLIC ANALYSIS. 47 then 0s ép = cos ¢ sin 6 cos By — sin ¢ cos, Sin gp = cos ¢ sin @ sinBy- « + k(cos ¢ cos6- Ba — sin p sind - ay). To sind the effect of a hyperbolic rotation on a line. Consider the simplest exspherical analogue of the spherical theorem of the preceding article; it is ép = cosép- + isinhu Sin gp + coshu Sin(Singp)é But ¢ is now an excircular axis of the form £=cosh$-B—isinh¢-a. Let, as before, p= sin 8- y+ c0s0-a; then cos gp = cosh ¢ sin cos By — i sinh ¢ cos, Sin gp = cosh ¢ sin sin By- a + cosh $ cos6- Ba — i sinh ¢ sing. ay, Sin (Sin gp)é = cosh’ ¢ sind sin By -@B + cosh®¢ cosd- a — sinh*¢ sin6-y —icosh ¢ sinh ¢ cos6- B—icosh ¢ sinh ¢ sind sinayB- a. The effect of a hyperbolic rotation is obtained by taking the more general value of ¢ and applying the hyperbolic rules of multiplication. a ALTHERFORCE