LEVEL III STUDY GUIDE Comer creer reresccccccenccees RADIOGRAPHIC METHOD ASNT Continuing Education in Nondestructive Testing American Society for Nondestructive TestingERRATA FOR LEVEL Ll STUDY GUIDE, RADIOGRAPHIC METHOD 12/88ERRATA azvoo There errata should be filed after Page vi of Level III Study Guide, Radiographic MetnoG. Ine ruilowing items have been revised and supersede the items.as listed: 2. Page D4, Line 6, first column of text: *...graph (Figure 6.3).” CHANGE to Figure 6.2. 2. Page 56, Review Question #6-10: Figure 6.4 referred to, CHANGE to Figure 6.3. 3. Page 56, Review Question #6-14: Eliminate from questions. Renumber Question #15 a5 #14, Question #16 es #15. 4. Page 60, Table 7.2: “Typical Filter, Screens for High-Eucigy Re@iogrephy* has front screen thicknesses for 6 to 10 MeV and for 12 to 16 MeV. CHANGE as follows ({ront screens, filters only): Energy Object Front (ev) Screen (in.) Filter (in.) lto 4 Flat 90.010 Complex 0.010 9.030 6 to 10 Flat 0.020 Complex 0.030 0.030 12 to 16 Flet 0.030 Complex 0.050 0.125 5. Page 84, Review Question #17 Answer A reads “temperature of the cover gas“. CHANGE to “pour temperature”. 6. Page 64, Review Questions: Renumber Review Question #15 as #14. 7. Anew Answer Sneet (rage 63) follows which currects the inclusion of an extra answer in Chapter 3 (as well as Item #3 above). Do NOT delete any questions from Chepler 3. This repleces Page 85, and can therefore be filed in that location.Level IIT Study Guide ADIOGRAPHIC American Society for Nondestructive Testing 4153 Arlingate Plaza, P.O. Box 28518 Columbus, OH 43228-0518 e Phone 1.614.274.6003 @ Toll free 1-800.222-ASNT # In Ohio 1-800.NDT-OFIO TELEX 245347 @ Fax 1-614-274-6899Level 1 Study Guide RADIOGRAPHIC METHOD No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Nothing contained in this book is to be construed as 4 grant of any right of manufacture. sale, or use in connection with any method, process. apparatus, product or composition, whether or not covered by letters patent or registered trademark, nor as a defence aguinet liaility far the infringement of lewers patent or registered trademark, ‘The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, ite emplnyeec and the contributors ta this publication assume no responsibility for the safety of persons using the information in this book. Completion of this book's exercises provides no qualification, expressed or implied, to perform the testing procedures here described. Copyright © 1988 by THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING All Rights Reserved Published by the American Society for ‘Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 4153 Arlingate Plaza PO Box 28518 Calnenbuis, OF 42798.0818 Printed in the United States of America,TABLE OF CONTENTS Contributors Referenees.. Foreword... Basie Physics of Radiography ... Particulate and Electromagnetic Radiation .. Radiation Interaction with Matter. Inverse Square Law so... Radioactive Decay Shielding and Facility Design . Radiation Attenuation .... Hialf-Value and Tenth-Vabu ‘avienuation Bquat Buildup Factor. Facility Design Considerations .. Radiation Sources. Electronic Radiation Sources Radivisotope Sourcedssse Radiation Detection Principles and ‘nstrumentation . Imaging Detectors... 7 Nonimaging Radiation Detectors. Radiation Instramentation . Personnel Safety and Radiation Protection .... potential KisKS: Radiation Measurement Units . Personnel Monitoring... Exposure Control Techniques «. Contamination Sources and Control... Radiography Operating and Emergency Instructions BIR RES seen 8 Radiation Regulatory Standards. Biological Effects of Radiation 6. The Radiographi Pranase Imaging Considerations Film Processing Viewing of Radiographs Judging Raulowsapiic Qual Exposure Calculations. 7. Radiographic Techniques... Blocking and Filtering Techniques ‘Muluifilm Techniques Enlargement and Proje: Stereoradiography Triangulation Methods. Flash Radiography ... In-Motion Kadiography..... Fluoroscopy «1... Electron Radiography Microradioeraohy ‘Tomography .. Control of Difiraction Scatter Effects. Panoramic Exposures... Real-Time Imaging Image Analysis Techniques.. Radiation Gaging Techniques . Neutron Radiography. 8. Radiographic Interpretation. Imoge Object Balationshipe Material Considerations. Codes. Standards. Specifications, and Procedures Answers to Review Questions.CONTRIBUTORS ‘The Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Method wax prepared and coordinated by John H. Weiler of Harris Corporation. Major contributors included: Frattk A. Iddinngs, Southwest Research Iustitute (chapters 1. 3, 7) Louis J. Elliot, Babcock & Wileox Corporation (chapters 3, 7, 8) E. Dane Harvey. Monsanto Research Corporation (chapter 6) Publication and review of this studv guide was conducted under the direction of the Personnel ‘Training and Certification Committee of the ‘American Society for Nondestructive Testing iv Moschini Ward D. Rummell Carl B. Shaw John L. Summers John H. Weiler William C. Plumstead Charles N. Sherlock Michael L, Turnbow ASNT Staff Contributors: Ronald H. Seiner Rebecca Decker6 REFERENCES “General Safety Standards for Installations Using X-Ray and Sealed Gamma-Ray Sources, Energies up to 19 MeV." National Bureau of Standards Handbook 14. Gaithersburg Maryland: US Department of Commerce! National Bureau of Standards (1975). Nondestructive Testing Hundouok. Volume 5 Radiography and Radiation Testing. second edition. Lawrence E. Bryant and Paul McIntire, eds. Columbus. Ohio: The American Society for ‘Nondestructive Testing (1984). Richardson, Harry. Industrial Radiography Manual. Wilmington, Delaware: E.1. du Pont de ‘Nemours and Company (1981), Halmshaw, R. Industrial Radiology Techniques. New York, New York: Wykeham Publications (London Ld.); Springer Verlag (1971) Halmshaw, R. Physics of Industrial Radiology New York, New York: Elsevier (1966). Sensitometrie Preperties of X Ray Films. Rochester, New York: Eastman Kodak Company (1968). Nondestructive Testine Handbook. Robert C. MedMaster, ed. Columbus, Ohio: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (1959). Price, William. Nuclear Radiation Detection New York. New York: Meuraw-Hili Publishing. Company (1964). Knoll, G. Radiation Detection and Measurement. New York, New York: Sohn Wiley & Sons (1979) McGuire, Stephen and Carol Peabody. Working Safels in Gamma Radioeranhy NUREG/BR-0024. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office Radiography in Modern Industry. fourth edition. Rochester, New York: Eastman Kodak ‘Company (1980). Annwal Book of ASTM Standards. Volume 3.03. Metullugraphs, Nundestruutive Testing 14. “Standard Method for Controlling Quality of Radiographic Testing, E-142." Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The American Society for Testing and Mater Thielsch, Helmut. The Sense and Nonsense of Weld Defects. Morton Grove, Illinois: Munniceity Bouks (1967). Metals Handbook, Volume 11. eighth edition. “Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control Metals Park. hin: The American Society for Metals (1976). Additional References Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 3.03. ‘Metallograpny, Nondestrucive Testing. Philadelphia, PA: The American Society for Testing and Materials. Basic Metallurgy for Nondectructive Testing British Institute of Nondestructive Testing. Essex, United Kingdom: W.H. Houldershaw Ltd. (1976). Johns, Harold. The Physics of Radiology. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas (1969). Materials and Processes for NDT Technology. Harry D. Moore, ed. Columbus, Unio: 1ne American Society for Nondestructive Testing (198i). MeGonnagle, W. Nondestructive Testing, second edition. New York, New York: Gordon and Breach Publishing Company (1975) NDT Terminology. Wilmington. Delaware: F.1 du Pont de Nemours and Company (1981), Radiographic Testing. Classroom Training Handbook, CT-66, San Diego, California: General Dynamies Convair Division (1967). Thielsch, Helmut. Defects and Failures in Pressure Vessels and Piping. New York, New York. Reinliold (1966).FOREWOKD This study guide was prepared under the direction of the Personnel Training and Certification Committee (PTC) and the Education and. Qualification Council of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing. The document is provided by ASNT as an aid to individuals who may be preparing te eit for the ASNT Laval IIT Examination in the Radiographic NDT Method. Individuals are cautioned that the ASNT Level JU examination is not simply an advanced Level I examination and ts purpose 1s not merely 10 establish an advanced baseline of technical ‘competence in the particular NDT method. To determine this baseline of technical ‘competence in the examination, the individual must demonstrate a knowledge of radiography physics, radiation safety, technique development, radiation detection and measurement, facility design, and the characteristics of radiation-producing devices and. their principles of operation. In addition, the ability must be demonstrated to interpret codes. standards and specifications, to interpret NDT test results and to establish acceptance criteria. The degree of understanding of all the above information must be at a level sufficiently above a Level Il technician status to allow the NDT Level TI to provide classroom instruction in the principles of radiography to lower level personnel and to ‘demonstrate technical understanding to peers and eubardinates with regard ta the particular NDT methods in which certification has been achieved, The credibility of the NDT Qualification and Centfication Program for lower level personnel hinges on the competence or the NUT Level Ut ‘The material in this study guide can provide a review of the body of knowledge for the radiographic NDT method. The Level IIT candidate should use this guide only as a review tool, as it does not contain all the information necessary 10 pass a typical Level II] examination. In using this guide, the NDT Level III candidate will be given specific references where more detailed information on each topic may be obtained. The Level II] candidate should be familiar with the listed references, and should be capable of answering questions, performing calculations, and interpreting, results developed from the references.1 BASIC PHYSICS OF RADIOGRAPHY Particulate and Electromagnetic Radiation Alpha Particles Alpha particles are released from large nuctet such as those of radium, radon, polonium, uranium, and plutonium. Many of these large nuclei exist in ature. When the alpha particle is relexeed fram the nucleus. the remaining nucleus is four mass units lighter and has an atomic number two less than the original nucleus. An example would be 2YRa + YRn + tHe Note that the alpha particle becomes an atom of helium as IC pleks up two elecuons frou thc ut ‘atoms it passes. The alpha particle is released with kinetic energies of approximately 2 to 6 MeV. The aloha particie travels very rapidly past most ‘atoms in its path, pulling off electrons from the ‘atoms (ionizing the atoms). The ionization occurs at the expense of the alpha particle's kinetic energy: iue., the alpha particle slows down. The sipha particle produces 10,000 to 100,000 ion pairs {electrons and the now positively charged ions made by the electron removal from atoms) cach centimeter along its path in a gas. This means that the alpna particle travels only a few centimeters in a gas and only a few micrometers in a solid (Iess than the thickness of a chert af paper) ‘Afier emission of the alpha particle. the new ‘nucleus may emit a gamma ray. If the nucleus is unstable, like Rn-222 in the above example, it may emit alpiva or bets radiation, Beta Particles Beta radiation is released from nuclei that have larger numbers of neutrons in the nucleus than do stahle atoms of the same element. Emission of the beta particle may or may not be followed by the release of gamma radiation from the new nucleus ‘The new nucleus will have essentially the same mass 1 the Ulgiul wacleus But will have one more proton (atomic number increases by one and one neutron disappears). An example would be oe AA tiny particle called an ancineutriny (1) is alse released along with the beta particle (B™) but it is of no consequence to radiography. The beta particle is a high-sneed electron coming from the nucleus and is slowed down by pushing electrons off the atoms it passes. This produces a few to a few hundred ion pairs per CCnnimieter in a geo. The beta particles will penetrate several centimeters of air or thin layers of plastic or aluminum. After losing its kinetic energy. the beta particle becomes an electron orbiting around some atom, Beta decay precedes gamma emission in Ir-192, C<-137, and Co-60. ‘Neutron Particles ‘Very few radioisotopes emit neutrons; the few that do are manufactured. Neutrons may be produced by mixing alpha-emitting radioisotopes fritn beryuium, By paricie accelerators, us Uy nuclear reactors. When neutrons are made by any of the three methods listed above, the neutrons possess considerable kinetic energy. Because the kinetic energy is evidenced by the large velocity of the neutrons, they often are referred to as fast neutrons. The fast neutrons slow down by scattering off the tnuclet of atom ‘The closer the mass of the scattering nucleus to that of the neutron, the more the neutrons kinetic energy is transferred to the nucleus and the fewer collisions are needed to slow (thermalize) the neutrons, The best thermalizer is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, the proton. A neutron may be thermalized in ane eallicion with a proton. The slow ‘oF thermal neutrons have 0.026 eV at 20 °C (68 °F) and travel at 2,200 m’s (7,218 fUs). Fast neutrons may also interact with atomic nuclei, as in the ollowing examples using aluininuin as the target nucleus Bal ime. BAL + jn 2in + HAL Bal + in SHe + 3N: Note that, in each interaction, a new radioactive nucleus is produced. Products and their properties thay be detcrmined using the chart of the auclidec.‘The probabilities for the fast neutron reactions are small, The probabilities are called cross sections and ‘carry units of area (cm) ‘once the neutrons are thermalizea (slowed or moderated), the probability of the (n.y) reaction (neutron in, gamma out) becomes much larger. The thermal neutron absorption cross sections may be ‘thousands of times larger than the fast neutron cross sections. Because the effective areas represented by these probabilities are so small, 10~*" em” or so, the crocs sections are usually given in barns (1 barn’= 1 % T0-* em’). Absorption of neutrons is described ‘mathematically in the familiar exponential form Tm hen hed 1, ie the incident neutron intensity Tis the transmitted neutron intensity, N jis the number of atoms per unit volume (em), © $8 tne cross section «in em’), aunt dis the absorber thickness (in cm). Production of the radioactive products resulting from many of the neutron interactions 1s calculated from A= Nofil - 69") where A. is the activity of the product (in disintegrations per second (dps) LN js the total number of atoms in sample, © is the cross section (in cm) Fa the neutron fun (in # om Feae"Ds 1 is the time of neutron bombardment, and Tis the halflife of the product. 1m this tasnion, tne amount of Co-00 oF 1-192 may be calculated from exposure of the Co-59 and 1r-191 to the thermal neutron bombardment in a nuclear reactor. Neutrons also cause fission of some nuclei. such as U-235, The fission reaction produces two to three neutrons per fission, giving the large excess of neurons available i Gamma Photons Gamma photons are simply bundles of energy released from the nucleus of an atom. The release fiwot oficn occurs after omiscion of an alpha or beta particle, Gamma photons may also be released after interaction of a neutron with the nucleus of the ‘atom. The energy is in the form of electromagnetic energy naving very short wavelengths as wuunpares, to other electromagnetic radiations: radio and TV ‘waves: UV, visible, and IR waves; and some X-rays. Having such high energy and no charge or mass, the ‘gamma rays are very dificult {0 absorb or stop. ‘The gamma rays used in radioisotope radiography are primarily those from Ir-192, Cs-137, and Co-60. In each case. the gamma photons follow tthe emission of a beta particle and remove the excess energy remaining in the nucleus. After the release of the gamma photon, the nucleus in each of, the above cacoe fe ctahle "The position of gamma rays in the electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Figure 1.1 X-Ray Photons X-ray photons may be released when electrons change kinetic energy. In radioisotopes, electrons ‘may drop from high-energy orbits into lower-energy orbits and release X-ray photons when electrons are riosing from the lower anergy orbite. The Tow-energy orbital electrons may have been removed by radioactive decay or interaction of a gamma photon with the electrons. "The vat familias suurse of Moray photons is the electron accelerator or X-ray machine. In the X-ray machine, electrons are expelled from a heated wire (filament), accelerated through a vacuum, and ‘The electromagnetic spectrum v1 we wm we a | (es| verna~ = Rupio—wrnanen>—— 5 --ViourT io a8 10-7 10-* 10=* d= rem oe Nonaratve eignanapot con aren, vue 3. RADNATION WAVELENGTH IN ANGSTROMS [NANOMETERS 101 Wor 10-10"? 0+ 10-8 {9-4 0-4 Ho-y Yor9 HO HO eee eae -hars—___—+ was L-cosmic nays—= amma rars——] ee en PHOTON ENERGY IN Meystopped by a neavy metat target. When tne raptdly ‘moving electrons are stopped in the metal target, some of their energy is given up as X-ray photons, Much more of the enerav is given up as heat or light. The approximate efficiency of the Xray production is given by Eg — 10-%Wwz) where ¥ fy the uccelerauing vulkaye amd Z isthe atomic number of the target Photons produced in this fashion can have energies from ~ 0 to that of the accelerating voltage. Because all energies are present in this envelope, the radiation is often called white radiation. ‘A complete X ray speetrum ia hown in Figure 1.2, Radiation Interaction with Matter Tanivation Ionization (see Figure 1.3) is the removal of electrons from an atom or group of atoms (molecule). If the electron is moved only to a higher-enerey orbit in the same atom. the process is excitation. Ionization and excitation are the major modes of interaction for alpha and beta particles. Alpha particles remove (or excite) electrons by their attraction for the outside orbital electrons on the atoms along their path. The electrons that are removed from the atome do net travel along with the alpha particle but are left along the path of the alpha particle, as are the positive ions created by the electron removal. These ion pairs — electrons and [POSIIVE JUS — Slowly TeCUIHOINE IF HUAI, interferes. The alpha particle leaves a trail of 10,000 FIGURE 1-2. Complete Kray spectrum x Sens CconTemous SPECTRUM wntevsry ‘WAVE LENGTH FIGURE 1-5. lonization by a charged particle that ejects an orbital electron from an atom 10 100,000 ion pairs per centimeter in air, which means it loses i y few enliseters in a particle in is approximately 0.5 em per MeV of kinetic energy. The range of the alpha particle in liquids and solids is on the order of 2 few micrometers. All alpha particles with the same energy travel the same distance in a given material Beta particles remove (or excite) electrons of the atoms along their path by repulsion. Again thie leaves a trail of ion pairs at the expense of the beta particle’s kinetic energy. Because the beta particle travels faster per MeV of kinetic energy and has only half the charge of an alpha particle, the beta particles travel farther in a given material than do alpha particles. Beta particles only produce a few hundred to a faw thoucand on paire per centimeter of travel in air. Therefore, beta particles travel several centimeters in air and are stopped by thin sheets of metal or thick sheets of plastic. Because beta particies released by & radioisotope have all energies up to the maximum available from the nucleus, they travel different distances (unlike alpha particles from a nuclide. all of which have ecceatially the same path length). This behavior results in the following approximate mathematical expression for beta particle absorption where 1, is the incident beta intensity, Tis the transmitted beta intensity, 1 ie aconetant, and d is the absorber thickness. ‘The constant & is determined for each absorber ‘material and maximum energy ot beta particle Photocleetrie Effect ‘The photoelectric effect is the mode by which low-energy photons interact with matter. Low-energy photons (up to about 0.4 MeV) mostoften interact with nign-auouic-uaunber meteriate Such as lead by the photoelectric effect. In this type Of interaction, all of the photon's energy is transferred to an inner orbital electron; the electron then has too much energy t0 remain in uibit and is jected from the atom (Figure 1.4). The Fhotoelectron then loses its energy as a beta particle Fines — hy ionization and excitation of atoms alone, {ts path. The photon, having yielded up ms energy. (ceases to exist Compton Scattering Compton scattering describes the mode by which moderate-eie! gy pliotons (about 0.3 to 3.0 MeV) interact with other than high-atomic~ ‘number materials. In Compton scattering, the photon loses part of its energy to an outer-shell electron of an atom. "The electron is ejected from the atom. as is a lower-enerey photon (Figure 1.5). The photon may he atom in an direction relative to the Girection of entry: hence the term scatter. Note tnat the energy range af the photon most likely to interact by Compton scatter includes the energies of the most common radinizatones used in radionraphy. ‘Also, the most hikely matenals to be involved im interactions (iron, water. concrete. etc.) will most likely produce Compton scatter, The low-energy pHowon leaving the Compton interaction will interact By another Compton interaction or by a photoelectric interaction, depending on its energy. Pair Production Pair production is the mode of interaction predominant for high-energy photons (above $0 MeV) and high-atomic-number absorbers. Such interactions are most often important in radiography har uace machine course of radiation for radiography of very thick-walled steel vessels High-energy photons may convert into an electron ‘and a positron (positively charged electron mass) When passing usa: the nucleus of a lorge atom, like lead (Eigure 1.6). The creation of the two particles Fequires 1.02 MeV, which is then the threshold ‘energy for the conversion. Any energy above this FIGURE 1.4. Photoelectric interaction of an incident photon with an orbital electron FIGURE TE: Campion warvering in which an Incident photon ejects an electron and & Nower-energy scattered photon FIGURE 1-6, Pair production of an electron and @ positron from an incident photon Eqns te. r2met run ne Nena eng Nandan: rn ion, Ve ‘amgutit ty tiated by the vo partielac a6 Kinatic energy, Each particle loses its kinetic energy by onization and excitation, The positron is annihilated fat the end of its path, and wo 0.51 MeV photons are Feleased in order t0 conserve uiomentums. The two 0.51 MeV photons travel in opposite directions and interact by photoelectric or Compton scatter. Rayleigh Scattering Reylcigh: oF coherent, ccattering is imeortant {for low-energy radiation. The low-energy photon sets the orbital electron into oscillation when absorbed. ‘an identical photon is then emitted by the electron Painer tha Ure slewtroa Being expelled from the ‘stom (Figure 1.7), Obviously. coherent scattering ‘can occur only with atoms in which the electrons are tightly bound. The secondary photon is identical in ‘energy to the ynitial photon Dut sravet> direction: therefore. the process is described asscatter. Coherent scatter may remove as much as 20 percent of the incident photons from a beam. Attenuation ‘The processes listed above. as well as a tew others of generally less importance, produce absorption of the radiation. The absorption of beta partisies, neutrone, Xoray photons. and eamma photons can be described by similar mathematical expressions = doe where Jy. io the incident beta intensity, Tis the transmitted beta intensity, k isaconstant, and is the absorber thickness (in em); and T= 1eh where 1, is the incident neutron intensity, 1” is the transmitted neutron intensity, Nis the number of atoms per unit volume fem’), ‘@- is the erose section (in em"), and @_ is the absorber thickness (in cm); and Tele where is the incident gamma intensity, is the transmitted gamma intensity, is the linear absorption coefficient (a constant), and the absorber thickness (in cm), a ‘These mathematical exoressions are oversimplifications of the real-world processes (they require point source and point detection with none of the interacted photons reaching the detection point). Actually, ceattering processes complicate matters and must be included for accurate calculations. These ideal equations are satisfactory for most circumstances in radiography. When more accuracy 1s needed, scatter contributions are ‘considered by adding a buildup factor. For example, for photon absorption, the equation becomes T= 1Be™ where B = (1+ ud) isthe buildup tactor. ‘The buildup factor for neutrons ranges from 1 to 5, depending upon the energy of the neutron and the Sbsurvinng materials Additional information can be ‘obtained in several of the references. Figure 1.8 shows components of total attenuation coefficient for uranium. Inverse Square Law ‘The inverse square law describes the reduction in radiation intensity when no absorber is present and the source of radistion approximates a point. In such a case, the radiation intensity decreases as the square of the distance from the source; i-e., inversely with the square of the distance. The Inverse syuaie law is expressed mathematically as WG) = be) where 1, represents intensity at dy, Jy, represents intensity at d;, and and dy ate distauces from the soures. In circumstances in which the source is large compared to the distance from the source, intensity FIGURE 1.6. Curves for uranium, showing the ‘various components of the total attenuation coefficient as a function of energy oS ATTENUMION COHTPEENT tid‘will be opserves to decrease inversely with aistance but not with the square of the distance. This is not normally a problem with sources used in radiography because thev are small Radioactive Decay Half-Life Half-life ic a unique pronerty of all radioactive materials. Half-life is the time required for one-half of a quantity of a radioactive material to decay ‘After one halflife, half of the radioactive material femains ain! half has changed W aivtles matetial (osually stable). ‘As an example, half of any quantity of Co-60 is converted to stable Ni-60 in 5.26 years. Half of the ‘original Co-60 remains. In ancther half-life (5.26 years). one-quarter of the original Co-60 remains and three-quarters of the original quantity is Ni-60. This, property is treated mathematically by N= Neo™ ‘Nz is the original quantity, A’ ig the quantity at time 4, A is the decay constant, and 1 is the time of decay. ‘Note tat tne decay constant is equivalent to a = 0.6931 where 0.693 is the natural log of 2, and Tis the halflife. Now the equation becomes N= Ngo oouT Halt-lives of other radioisotopes important in radiography are 74 days for Ir-192 and 30.1 years for Cs-137. Half-life is extremely important to the radiographer because the source decays constantly, not just when in use. The decay must be accounted. for in the exposure time in making the radiograph and in caleulating the cost of doing business. Curie (Unit of Activity) The unit of quantity (activity) for radioactive material is the curie (Ci). In a few rare cases. the radioactive material mav be considered in units of mass or volume. The curie represents a particular quantity of material in which 3.7 x 10" atoms are decaying per second (2.22 x 10"? atoms per minute). ‘The new unit beginning to replace the wurie is the becquerel (Bq), which is one disintegrating atom per second. Then 1 Ci becomes 3.7 x 10'° Ba. ‘The curie will remain in use for some time, but the NDT Level III needs to be aware of this ST unit ‘as well as the prefixes for this and other SI units: micro, milli, kilo, and giga.qui Quiz Qas Qs Quis Qa7 REVIEW QUESTIONS Emission of an alpha particle decreases the mass of the nucleus by and the atomic ‘number by 44 A B. c D. E. Emission of an alpha particle is most likely from what kind of a nucleus? A. Large B. Small C. Neutroa-rich D. Neutron-poor E. None of the above Emission of a beta particle is most likely from what kind of nucleus? A. Large B. Small C. Neutron-rich D. Neutron-poor E. None of the above Emission of a gamma ray is most likely from what kind of a nucleus’ Large Small Neutromrich Neutron-poor - None of the above Emission of a neutron is most likely from what kind of a nucleus? A. Large B. Small C. Neutron-rich D. Neutron-poor E. None of the above Gamma emission is usually preceded by emission of. A. am alpha particle B. a beta particle C. a neutron moow> D. a neutrino EE, sither an alpha or « beta partie Which of the following reactions is most often used to produce a radioactive material for radiography? Neutron in, proton out ‘wo neutrons out helium nucleus out ‘Neutron in, gamma out ‘Neutron in, neutron out moog>Que O19 qu10 wen Quiz 413 Quad Quis Gamma and X-ray photons are part of the periodic chart chart of the nuclides electromagnetic radiation spectrum particulate emission from the nucleus ‘companion emission with neutrons -rav tubes produce ‘monochromatic energy photons white radiation all types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma) only high-energy photons ‘only low-energy photons Jock of the electrone azcelarated in an X-ray tube produce Xerays alpha particles ‘beta particles gamma rays heat {Alpna particies interact principally by . ionization and excitation photoelectric effect Compton scatter mMoOp>xemone> moomee: . pair production B.C, and D Beta particles interact principally by A. ionization and excitation B. photoelectric effect C. Compton scatter D. pair production E. B.C. and D Gamma photons interact principally by ‘A. ionization and excitation B. photoelectric affect C. Compton scatter D. pair production E. D.C. and D Low-energy photons interact principally by moom> ‘A. ionization and excitation 1B. photoeectnic enrect C. Compton scatter D. pair production E. B,C, and D Moderate-energy photons interact principally by A. ionization and excitation B. photoelectric effect C. Compton scatter D. pair production E. B.C, and DQ.r-16 High-energy photons interact principally by A. ionization and excitation B. photoelectric effect CC. Compton scatter @ oo erreccion E. B.C, and D Q.1-17 Which of the following radiations cannot be described by an absorption equation of the form J = Ble! A. Alnha particles B. Beta particles C. Neutrons D. X raye E, Gamma rays Q.-18 Which of the following formulas best describes the inverse square law? A. Dy = hy B. 1D} = LD? ©. AD, = BD, D. (hDy) = UeD;)* isthe halflife of the If one-eighth of a sample of a radioisotope remains after 24 years, what radioisotope? A. 3 years B. 4 years CB years D. 8 years E. 12 years Avcatic ix A. 2.22 x 10" dps B.3.7 x 10" dps C51 10" dpm D. 2.22 x 10! dpm E. 3.7 x 10° dpsSHIELDING AND FACILITY DESIGN ‘The design of radiography facilities, including the arrangement of radiographic equipment within the facility, as well as the permanent and temporary shielding reauired to afford adequate protection of ‘occupationally and nonoccupationally exposed personnel, is of paramount importance to the NDT Level IIL. All materials act to some degree as radiation shivids. The effectivencss of shiciding depends on the absorption characteristics and the thickness of the material used. Radiation Attcnuation Because the attenuation of alpha and beta radiation of leaa than 2 to $ MeV i rolatively straightforward and is treated extensively in the references, the discussion of radiation attenuation will be directed toward penetrating photon radiations, ‘The absorption of X-radiation and gamma radiation is the consequence of a series of single events. Ditring each siich event a photon is removed from the beam after undergoing an interaction with an atomic nucleus or an orbital electron. The primary interactions that occur are photoelectric absorption. Compton scattering, and pair production, ‘The probability for absorption or scattering for any particular radiation type and energy with a specific element is referred to as the crass section. The unit ‘of measurement for cross sections is the barn 10" cm’). Although there are three forms in which attenuation ewetfisicnts are eapiesoed — atunie attenuation coefficient, mass attenuation coefficient, and linear attenuation coefficient — only the last is used extensively in practical shielding calculations. ‘The linear attenuation coefficient is the probability per unit path length that a photon will be removed from the beam, The linear attenuation coefficient is Usually expressed in reciprocal centimeters (em™!) land in equations represented by the symbol. (mu) ‘The linear attenuation coefficient can be determined from the mass attenuation coefficient by multiplying by the density of the matenal Half-Value and Tenth-Value Layers A convenient practical measure of radiation areniation the falfaie ayer (V2). The AVL any apesie material tat ken ot tedce te radiation ment to one sa tal tale Halal layer i elated to the near sorption octet by ave = 22. 98 ee ‘where 18 normally expressed in reciprocal centimeters or inches. Similarly, a tenth-value layer (TVL) is that thieknace af material that will reduce the radiation. intensity to one-tenth its initial value. HVE and TVL, are related as follows: 3.33 HVL = | TVL. Therefore if HVL for a particular material was 5 em in.) the corresponding TVZ would be 16.76 cm (6.66 in.).. Tables of half-value and tenth-value layer thicknesses for common materials and radiation sources such as cobalt, iridium, and X-rays of, various energies are available in references 1. 2, and 3. Attenuation Equation and the Buildup Factor ‘The attenuation of penetrating photon radiation is exponential, and the intensity J, transmitted through an absorber (shield), can be expressed as Len*! where J, is the initial intensity, is the linear absorption coefficient, and 1 ig the absorber thickness. A useful manipulation of the attenuation equation, which will allow straightforward calculation of the absorber thickness, is,Ine In = oe ‘This attenuation equation is based on narrow beam measurements, which assume that the only radiation reaching the detactor ie that which hae been scattered through an angle of less than 0.01 steradian, i., principally the direct primary radiation. In actual practice, broad-beam conditions ist aul as a result, uiueth uivie Scatter teaclies die detector. Figure 2.1 schematically depicts these conditions, To correct the attenuation equation for broad-beam conditions. a simple multiplicative correction factor is used. This correction is referred to as the buildup factor (B) and the resulting pavation ic expressed me T= Be ‘The buildup fastor(c) for opecifie materiale and Photon energies may be found in the literature and ‘can be approximated by Betta ‘The buildup factor is dependent on the atomic number Z of the absorber and the energy of the tual photon, Facility Design Considerations ‘The NDT Level II ie often called upon to advise on facility design, arrangement, configuration, and choice of radiography sources as well as to provide an estimated workload for the facility ‘Reference 1 presems general design ‘considerations and guidelines for industrial radiography exposure cells. Reference 2, Section 18, as well as reference 1. has radiation transmission {ables and graphs for various commonly used X-ray ‘energies, radioisotopes. and specific shielding ‘materials such as lead, concrete, and steel. FIGURE 2.1, Direct and scattered radiation 2B Workload [Radiography ractitty workload ts denned as tne number of milliampere-minutes per week for X-ray devices and the number of curie-minutes per week for radioisotope devices, Examples of workload jetermination are as follows, Example A. ‘© Estimated 400 exposures per week @ 300 kVep, ‘© Average 50 mA-min per exposure. ‘Therefore the projected workload is 20,000 mA-min per week. Example Bt © Estimated 400 exposures per week — iridium 192, © Avesage + Cisin pou eapusute. ‘Therefore the projected workload is 1,600 Ci-min per week. Oceupaney and Use Factors Estimated use and occupancy factors should be supplied to the facility designer by the NDT Level IIL. The use factor is that percentage of the time that the direct or scatter beam will be directed toward any particular wall, ceiling, or floor of the radiography exposure cell. If the radiation-producing equipment is installed m sucn a manner that tne direct Deam 1s physically restricted from impinging on that wall, then that wall may be classified as a scatter wall, which will sreatly reduce the amount of required shielding, If the exposure cell is to be used for panoramic exposures or if complete freedom to direct the beam at any wall is desired. then all walls should be contidered ar direct-beam walle, Thit choice, although offering the ultimate in facility versatility, could easily cause the shield cost to increase by 400-500 percent. ‘Typical use factors vary from U3 10 1, depending on the intended portion of the workload to be directed toward a particular shield. Occupancy factors are equally important because they cause the shield thickness to be greatly increased or reduced. If an area adjacent to the ‘exposure cell is a normal work station, then the ‘accupaney factor wauld probably be contidered ac 1. whereas an unattended parking lot would be classed as 1/4 and a sidewalk as 1/6. Equipment Considerations Knowledge of radiation-producing equipment, Juding its mechanical and electrical operatingcharacteristics, is required to select and provide proper facilities. A knowledge of appropriate Einertnefilm distances. needs for fxturing of radiographic subjects, and determinations of the types of radiographic techniques that will probably be used is also needed. In addition, to ensure safety, establish operating instnictions, and obtain regulatory approval, provisions must be made for beam collimation, shutter mechanisms. high-radiation interlocks, and alarm systems "Tin nahage sudiotion characterities of X ray tube housings and gamma ray exposure devices need to be known to ensure adequate protection of personnel when the source is shielded. Leakage Fagiation 1s derinea to be all raulan, excep ic useful. or direct, beam, that emanates from the tube or source housing. ‘Whenever feasibe the direct beam should be collimated to as small an area as possible. Collimation achieves two objectives. It reduces the hazard of personnel exposure to radiation and sreatlv reduces the amount of scatter radiation reaching the film being exposed. Determination of Shield ‘Ihickness Facility shielding estimates can be performed by disect calculations. cing the attention equation OF ‘an equation developed for the transmission tables of e reference | If gamma ray direct-beam shielding estimates are required, the following equation may be used: pa peo oe where Ps the permissible average weekly exposure (in roentgens} for design purposes — normally 0.1 R for controlied areas and 0.01 is the distance from the source to the position in question (in feet), Ts the occupancy factor, U is the use factor, Bis the permissible transmission of gamma radiation, and. W ie the workload (Cismin per week), Once B is determined, the specific semilog plot ‘of transmission versus specific material shield Thicknece may he used to determine the reauired thickness. ‘Similarly, for X-ray shielding, the following equation may be used: K- where Kis the permissible transmission of Xeradiation. All other factors are the same as in the ‘gamma ray equation 1BQa an Q23 O24 Q2s 26 “4 REVIEW QUESTIONS “The probability for absorption of any particular ragiation type and energy with a specific element is referred to as the ‘A. attenuation buildup factor B. CC. eross section D, atomic coefficient E. probability index Which of the following is not a form for expressing attenuation coefficients? A. Atomic B. Rayleigh © Vinear D. Mass Ifa specific material had a linear attenuation coefficient of 0.20 em™', what would the half-value layer be it iat snateriel? As 0.56 in B, 1.36in. co Lae te D. 3.45 in E. 2,65 in, ‘A material with a 9.83 in. tenth-value layer nas @ naif-value laye of A. 0.983 in. B. 2.95. C. 4.915. D. 3.2¢in. E. 1.60 in. If the intensity of a radiation source was initially 100 Rih and it was desired to reduce this intensity to 10 mRJh, what thickness shield would be required? Assume that the linear attenuation coefficient for the epecific energy ie 0.90 em™! 9.6m 10.2 em 2.55 em 8.28 em 2.22em What would be the facility workluad fur a busy exposure cell with the following overage techniques (fill in blank from list below)? 110 exposures‘wk @ 10 mA-min ( » 500 exposuresiwk (2 22 ma-min |______ 1,150 exposures/wk @ § mA-min (_______) 34,600 mA-minwk 7.850 mA-min/wk 17.850 mA-miniwk 2.550 ma-miniday 71,400 mA-minmonth mOOR> mooE>Q.2-7 An occupancy factor commonly used for design purposes of uncontrolled sidewalk areas is AL Wa e B.S ce DI E. 10 Q.2-8 The permissible weekly exposure factor P used in facility design equations for controlled areas is A. 10mR B. O1R C. 001R D. 2m E. SmR3 RADIATION SOURCES Electronic Radiation Sources X-Ray Sources (Electron Accelerators) Betatrons {ne betatron (Figure 3.1) 18 basically a combination of an electromagnet and a transformer designed to guide and accelerate electrons in a circular orhit to vary high enerei [FiGUrE 1. Eahematie diagram af a bevaeron a ounioAUM nor ‘The torvldal \ype of not-catnoge nign-vacuum X-ray tube commonly used in a betatron is capable of injecting and energizing electrons to many apllions of volts before strikine the taeet to produce Betatrons of this type have been constructed to generate X-rays at energies ranging from 15 to 100 MeV. The average beam cuirent is un lie viet uf 1 (0 3 wA. The focal spot of the target is usually less ‘than I mam (0.04 in.) in diameter. Commercially available betatrons are capable of radiographing steel (or equivalent) in the range of Van de Graft The Van de Graaff X-ray generator is unlike conventional X-ray machines, which obtain Liloualingac Fram a transformer. The high-tencion generator in a Van de Graaff system operates on electrostatic principles. The Van de Graaff X-ray system shown in Figure 3.2 consists of two major ‘components — ine generator and tne acceleration tube, ‘The electrodes in the generator are insulated by a nonconductive gas and comprise a system of a certain capacitance. The system is charged by a belt Of insulating material traveling at high speeds, typically 1.524 m/min (5,000 fumin). The electrode Sontacting the bottou of the Uelt i> cartleyivuinl, whereas the high-tension (voltage) electrode is mounted on a series of insulating plates. ‘The belt is charged negatively at the bottom of the belt, with the negative charge removed through an array of needie points at the top of the belt, ‘accumulating the charge on the high-voltage terminal. The charge @ on the belt ie given by the formula o=cv where C= capacitance, and voltage. The charge carried by the belt increases with the valus of the capacitance but the voltage Detect electrodes on the belt remains constant. This negative charge carried by the belt discharges through the comb (needle points) at the top of the belt. The smaller the capacitance of the system ofFIGURE 3.2, Schematic diagram of a Van de (Graaft system AN From he Nondrrecie Pein Handbok, eond eaten, Vane 3. needle points and belt, the greater the voltage between the high-voltage terminal and the belt. In fact_ if ie constant. the value of V will be inversely proportional to that of C. The components that make up the accelerator tube are the 1. accelerating tube (with resistors between accelerating plates). 2 electron gun, and 3. anticathode (anode), or transmission target. ‘The accelerator tube contains a flat, very small (0.075 mm, oF 0.0001 9 2) tungsten eathade. which is connected to the high-tension electrode. The cathode emits electrons and. in the vacuum of the accelerator tube. these electrons are accelerated to a high speed because of the difference in potential between the cathode (at a high negative potential) and the anticathode (anode). which is ground. The sudden deceleration of electrons upon striking the anticathode produces the X-radiation. ® ‘The Van de Graaff system is designed 10 radiograph up to about 30 cm (12 in.) of steel or equivalent at energy levels up to 2.8 MeV The intensity of the electron beam varies from a few ‘microamperes to several hundred microamperes. Linae ‘The linac (linear accelerator) is an apparatus for generating energies to 30 MeV. The high-radiation utpute of industrial linace have made it postible to radiograph up to about 66 cm (26 in.) of steel. ‘The major components of a linear accelerator are shown in Figure 3.3 and are filament (F), transmission target (T), focus coils (FC). pulse modulator (PM), waveguide (WG), and ‘magnetron (M) or klystron. ‘The acceleration of the electrons in a linac occurs in a straight tube called the waveguide, ‘The electrons are carried along the tube by electromagnetic waves generated by the magnetron or klystron. These high-frequency waves of energy are in the S-band frequency spectrum (about three ‘sigahorts for magnetrons) and the L band for kKlystrons (about 13 gigaherz). The velocity of this high-frequency wave along guide is controlled by the spacing of the rises. Pulses Of electrons are injected one end of the waveguide in correct phase with the electromagnetic wave; at the other end of the Waveguide the electrons stike a target (usualy less than 2 mm*, or 0.003 in) and generate X-radiation. Typical waveguides are 3 t0 $ ft (0.9 to 1.5 m) long Ta the first section of the guide (the buncher scetion). the electrons are bunched isto pulses and the electron velocity increases from 0.4c to almost © (c= the velocity of lighd. Further transfer of energy to the electron can occur by relativistic increase in mass along the second section of the waveguide. The groups, or bunches, of electrons in linaes produce pulses of Xerays. usually a pulke frequencies between 100 and 500 pps (pulses per second), with pulse lengths of 1 tous. Industrial inaes cover a wide range of electron sonagios fis 2 30 Bc nly tiey vase pronlues very large beam currents, very high X-ray outputs are obtained — typically 20 to 100 times the output of a betatron at the same energy level. High-Voltage and Low-Voltage Generators Line voltages in the 100 to 250 V range are used ty produce Xetays front 3 kV 1 420 KV using high-tension rectifying power supplies. The conventional X-ray generator consists of three major components: the X-rav tube, the high-voltage source, and the control unitFIGURE 3.3. Schematic diagram of a linear acceleracor Qu \/ aa el ‘The delicate interior components of the X-ray tube are maintained under a vacuum by a glass or metal-ceramic enclosure. The vacuum improves Elficiency by allowing more electrons w react dhe target. The enclosure is then protected from physical damage by an outer housing, usually of sturdy metal construction The major interior components are the focusing cup. filament (cathode), target mounting structure, and the target (anode). ‘The filament, which is heated by resistance. provides the elecirons w be accelerated: the current in the filament circuit is normally in the range of | to 10 A. Filament current should not be confused with tbe current. which is the electron flow between the Cathode and the anode. The tube current can vary from several hundred microamperes up to 20 mA for ‘conventional X-ray units, “The focusing cup i2 @ recece in the cathode in which the filament is housed. Its purpose is 10 surround the emerging beam of electrons with a negative field, which repels the electrons from the cup wall and tends to focus them. allowing for bewer control of how the electrons will impinge on the target “The target, or anode, ie nenally cormposed of a large heat sink in which the target is intimately bonded. The anode is the positively charged electrode, which attracts the electrons from the filament and also dissipates tne heat yeuciatcu during the production of X-rays. The actual target 15 ‘mall in relation to the overall anode and is made of tungsten (high melting point) or other suitable high-Z material. “The circuit of an X-ray generator can be designed to produce X-rays of varying intensity and energy (quality) Obviously, the higher the output energy and intensity. die uivie costly and vies versa. Most portable units use self-rectified, half-wave circuits and are used to produce X-rays in the -200 KV peak range. with tube currents from 210 8 mA. These circuits fit into three major ‘Categories: cathode-grounded, center-grounded, and anadearounded, each with its own advantages and isadvantages- For tube outputs exceeding 200 kV peak and reaching 420 kV peak or greater, the following three circuit types, of 2 variation of them, are used: 1, Villard cireuit, 2. Graetz circuit, and Greinacher circuit. The Villard circuit is an extension of the half-wave system, whereas the Graetz and Greinacher circuits produce full-wave rectified constant-potential wave forms. Excelient descriptions of the details of these circuits can be found in references 2, Section 2: 4, Chapter 2; and 5, Chapter 3. 19FIGURE EA. Typical vray spectrum TERSTIC PEAKS RELATIVE INTENSITY Hi 2 WAVELENGTH (A) 3 : clemieuts are made iniy suuall pellets, whieh are placed into a nuclear reactor. The pellets are often placed in small aluminum capsules for ease of handling. After long periods of neutron exposure (months for iridium and often over a year for cobalt), the material is removed from the reactor. ‘The activity produced can be predicted from A= Noll — 07) A. is the activity in disintegrations per second. the number of atoms in the sample, iron flux per square centimeter per 5 is the cross section in square centimeters, 1 is time of neutron exposure, and Tis the half-life of the radioisotope produced. the fragments of the uranium (U-235) atom after it has fissioned. Upon fission. the U-235 splits into two slightly unequal-sized smaller atoms. Two of the tission tragments that have been used for radiography are Cs-137 and Tm-170. The fission fragments are separated by dissolving the used ruaclnar fal frrm 2 nucloar reantar in acide and performing extractions, precipitations. and other chemical processing to isolate the desired materials. Details for Cs-137. Tm-170. and other sources are given in Tabie 3.1 Fapricauon and Design of Sources (Chemical Form "The radinactive material is in the form of metal pellets whenever possible. This is particularly true for cobalt and iridium. The metalic form of these elements is relatively stable in air, easy to obtain, ‘and machinable. Cobalt metal is often formed Inco pellets approximately 2 mm (0.08 in.) in diameter and thickness. Each pellet produces about 5 Ci (185 GBq) after neutron bombardment. Iridium is irradiated in | mm. (0.04 in.) thick pellets 2 or 3 mm (0.08 or 0.12 in.) in diameter, which produce about 25 and 50 Ci (925 and 1,050 GDy), weayretively, after weutien bombardment. Cesium is usually incorporated into either glass or ceramic material because the metal is chemically active and the oxide and salts are powders that are difficult to handle. Thulium is most often handled as a sintered ceramic pellet or as thulium oxide. Encapsulation ‘To prevent the loss of radioactive material 10 the working environment. the radioactive material is encapsulated, [he radioactive Source 1s placed into @ cavity in a stainless steel cylinder and covered with 4 stainless steel lid that is welded in place. ‘Cosine ecwrnas are weually doubly encapsulated; ie., they are sealed inside a stainless steel capsule, which is sealed inside another stainless steel capsule: Iridium and cobalt may also be doubly ‘encapsulated, altiough many manufacturers only aN TABLE 3.1. Characteristics of Four Widely Used Radiographic Isotope Sources ‘crarecraete come coum eau Tan seme © 7 rr 170 pate sz7yen solyan 3 as ways cent tom © ca ® me, reney (em 8s as na ‘ Gana rays ev) ret 66 ostorow ——ooronsz ‘esnance of gon rays (gemma ys oer oregano) tore os larowom 003005, en Me) on os os to fone per care ume per ogioecuee 13s pI@ eae em 05525 00030,07% Lea se ecsorton coefcet en ‘ewront, a0 = 2 1s mate pete arog Ce (09) 1am atom 5 95) 10000 gro0) 4300 230000, Pratl pete anv CHS YB) 50/1850) 25 925) o(l3009 00 7.00 Praca cues (8a) pec cero sour) Bsn BoM AEN ono. Is0000) Praca Sn fmeyiv bet cob Comme ioeom 3 580 00 tone” 100 Fe 50% sefabsopoon are! 2a0cc0 e000 3000 2 For 25% setanipoon ene mae 0000 25.000 150 on ‘Cnet ipgmecaer om sie 100 p70, soi, ferret a) 30500) O00) on ‘eprorae ae fr 301) ro1e4 Sip Seon ‘Gana sues ameter 33, Pe sul 5m ype waar Sc ware 1 Zsa 38 faa Zo) ie trom om nonsenratve Testing Handook ana won. Vou single-encapsulate. The outer stainless steel cylinder is attached (before source fabrication) to a flexible cable having a coupling on the opposite end. The Coupling allows a tong cable to be artacned fo the source so that it may be manipulated remotely. Fepacure Devices Exposure devices permit remote operation of the radioactive source to reduce radiation exposure to the radiographer. One type has the source capsule installed in the edge of a eylinder of shiel material that rotates inside a larger cylinder of shielding material. Rotation of the small cylinder to ‘expose the source can be done remotely. A second type ot exposure device allows long Tlexiple cables to be attached to the source while itis stored in the center of a shield. When the cable is moved by turning a crank, the source moves out of the shield through a guide tube to a position where the radiographic exposure is made. Collimators may be attached to the end of the [guide tubo to provide radiation exposure in a limited n area. Collimators are made of ether tungsten or depleted uranium (uranium with most of the U-235 removed). A third type moves the source into the Exposed position within tne exposure device Dy means of a vacuum, Depleted uranium is most often used for the shieldine of radiogranbic sources. Lead shielding is Still in use but does not provide the structural durability and fie resistance of uranium and requires more mass to provide the same shielding as the lighter vroniver shielded devices. Depleted wraniom is itself radioactive. Therefore, modern exposure devices exhibit very low levels of radiation even when no radiographic source is present. Lingsten fs also used as shietoing maternal tor exposure devices and collimators. Tungsten can be precisely machined. is very durable, and is nonradioactive. It isa desirable shielding material but is very expensive Excellent treatment of radiation sources can be found in reference 2, Sections 2, 3, and 6, and referones 4REVIEW QUESTIONS Q.51 X-rays may be produced when high-speed ___ are stopped by a high-atomic-number target. A. electrons B. protons C._ hydrogen ions D. helium ions Kall of the above Q.3-2 What naturally occurring radioisotope has been used for radiography’? Col css Ir-192 moo all of the above Q.33 Neutron activation produces radioisotopes by citation of the nuclei of the target atoms by neutrons loss of electrons, caused by neutron bombardment, from the target atoms capture of a neutron by the target atoms 1os0 of « neutron by the target tome rapid acceleration of the neutron to release gamma rays Q.3-4 Which of the following may be produced by neutron activation? Co-60 cs137 Ir-192 A and B above ‘A.and C above hich of the follawing may he penduced as a fission fragment? Co-60 Cs137 hee Ra-226 B and D above Q.3-6 Which of the following has the most penetrating gamma rays? A. Co-60 B. Cs137 C. Wi b. F moome us moOOpP>EmMoODD Tm-170 9s Q.37 Radiographic sources are encapsulated to improve the gamma ray output harden the radiation beau increase the cost of the sources prevent loss of the radioactive material collimate the gamma ray beam. moop>Q.38 The acceptable modern radiographic exposure device may be ‘A. a radiographic source suspended from a pole by a string B. a radiographic source on a cylinder of shielding material rotating in a larger eylinder of shielding ‘material . trap source ona sie cable hat may be diven ot of held hough guide we to @ a remote location D. a radiographic source that may be removed from a shield by long tongs or pliers so that it can be placed for exposure E. Band C only Q.39 The acceptable modern radiographic exposure device uses a the shielding material A. lead B. depleted uranium C. steel D. tungsten E. lun Q.3-10 In the doughnut-shaped tube of a betatron, electrons are accelerated to high speeds through RF power phasing uniform voltage distribution magnetic induction ‘an insulated charging belt Q341 Electrostatic generators (Van de Graaff) for radiography operate in the range of ALI MeW B. 5.10 MeV C. 10-15 MeV D. 15:25 MeV e Q.3412 The high-frequency waves of energy generated by the magnetron in a linear accelerator are in which band of the frequency spectrum? A. L-band B. M-band C. K-band D. S-band Q.3:13 The efficiency of target material in the production of A. equal B. proportional C._ indirectly proportional b. conversely equal voe> to its atomic number.RADIATION DETECTION PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTATION A radiation detection system has two essential components: the detector or detecting medium and the measuring device. The interaction of the Tagiation With the sysiem occurs in une Uetector, and the measuring device takes the signal (audio, electromagnetic, optical. photographic, etc.) and converts it into a measurement with associated standard units such as fem, counts per minute, photographic density units, or other usable units that can be related to a standard. The following sections Aiconce the mast commonly eed radiation detection systems. Imaging Detectors In radiography. various imaging detectors of ionizing radiation are used. The most widely known detecting medium is the photographic emulsion, and probably the second most widely known and used is the Duoroecopic tereen or its advanced technology. relative, the image intensifier. The lesser-used imaging detectors of ionizing radiation include xeroradiographic imaging, Polaroid” imaging, or sollgstate elevtroute seieens. Photographic Effect and Radiation Detectors The basic principle behind the use of photographic emulsions as radiation detectors is that Of latent image formation. A thorough understanding of this process as well asthe process of developing the image is essential for the Level IH candidate ‘A photographic emulsion is composed of silver halide erystale in a thin layer of gelatin on a support medium. which is typically an acetate or polyester base such as polyethylene terephthalate. Special emulsions may also be adhered or coated on a paper buse (0 produce paper radiographs. Fin bases ay be coated with the detecting emulsions on one or both sides ofthe film, but usually both sides, and the emulsion is usually thicker than photographic emulsions to allow more effective absorption of the radiation “The formation of the latent image is described by the thenry devalanod hy Cuimey and Matt ant expressed inthe following formula AgBr + hv — AgBr + Ag® (silver bromide) + (energy) —> latent image 1s this Uicwry aud the expressed formula, it can be seen that the latent image is composed of metallic silver and that the crystalline silver bromide is left undisturbed. Gurney and Mott discovered that silver bromide crystals sensitized with a sultur compound were easier to expose. These sensitizers are called sensitivity specks. At the moment of radiation expneire the energy expended near the silver bromide crystal initiates a self-completing reaction. The silver bromide crystal is coated with an excess of bromide ions that contain excess electrons. At eapusuie, some of these electrons ars release (¢hrough ionization) and are trapped at the sensitivity specks (sites) Because the sensitivity site contains numerous electrons, the site 1s negatively charged and attracts, the positively charged silver ions available in the crystal lattice structure. These unbonded silver ions, referred to as interstitial silver (Ae™). migrate to the negatively charged sensitivity site. For exposure of this single crystal to result in development of the sensitivity site, a minimum of five ionized silver ‘toms snust migrate Details of chemically developing, fixing. washing and producing the finished radiograph will bbe covered in Chapter 6 (also see reference 2, Section 1 Photographic emulsions are used to produce images through the process of radiography and also fo act as accurate radiation dosimeters. In both instances the photographic film is a radiation detector. The resulting developed film provides a comparison only of spatial variations in radiation intensity. In addition, one great advantage of film emulsions from a dosimetric use standpoint is that it is an integrating device. Provided the exposure time is sufficient. very low radiation fluxes can be recorded. In the use of film as a radiation detector, several factors should be understood. Among these are the characteristic curve for the particular film, the ‘average film gradient, the film speed, spectral sensitivity of the particular film, and the application Of the Bunsen-Roscoe reciprocity law. ‘The characterictie curve (Figure 4 1). lea referred to as the sensitometric curve or the H&DFIGURE 4.1. Characteristic curve From tarnan Wc Company, Reet, Yor curve, depicts the relationship. under specific developing conditions. between the exposure applied foc photographic material and the reclting photographie density for a particular film type The average film gradient is the slope of a straight line joining two points of specified density on the characteristic curve ‘The shape of the characteristic curve is forall practical purposes not affected by the wavelength or ‘af the expensing Xoradiatinn ar gamma radiation. The film sensitivity, or the number of photons required to produce a given density. is Strongly affected by the wavelength of the exposing radiation. This spectral seussiviy is utnally not Consideration for production radiography. because these changes have been taken into account in characteristic curves oublished by the film manufacturer, If. however. the film is being used in personnel monitoring as 2 radiation detector, then spectral sensitivity is extremely important because the number of roentgens incident upon the Bla io determined from the film density. It should be remembered that the reciprocity law is valid for direct X-ray and gamma ray exposures or those made with lead foil screens. This law fails for exposures to light and therefore for exposures using fluorescent intensifying screens. ’An excellent davsription ofthe eaneitometric properties of radiographic film and the associated theory can be found in reference 6. This document provides sufficiently detailed information for the Cevel {ib candidate, 6 Fluoroscopy Fluoroscopy is defined as the production of a visible image an 2 fluorescent screen by X-radistion for gamma radiation transmitted through the specimen onto the screen. Fluoroscopic screens are the heart of a fluoroscopy system. The Ularavietistics uf the screcu are the governing factors with regard to detectability of indications. ‘The sereen typically is composed of a support ‘base of plastic and a coating of huminescent phosphor. The phosphor must be uniformly coated ton the base to assure adequate detectability throughout the screen area. Zine cadmium sulfide ‘eryotals ore typivally employed ac the lumineseent materials because they produce visible ight in the yellow-green range (5,500 Angstroms, or 5350 nm), which is within the maximum color sensitivity range ot the eye If detail detection is a requirement, then the fluoroscopic screen presentation should be yellow, rather than yollaw.groon, awing ta the deterioration ff detail perception in the shift from cone to rod vision. This shift occurs at a brightness level of about 0.02 millilambert (0.06 cd/m. Ifa Muoroscopic screen Is w be viewed properly, the operator should dark-adapt for a period of time using dark-adaptive goggles or spend this preparation time in a dark room. The most serious obstacles to high-sensitivity fluoroscopy are the limited brightness and the tunsharpness due to large grain size of the fluorescent Uystals. One etl for suinimizing this problem is the use of X-ray projection magnification, ‘An excelient presentation of conventional fluoroscopic techniques, theory, and phosphor characteristics can be found in Chapter 12 of reference 5 and Section 19 of reference 7. Image Intensifier Systems Que UF te mais disadvantages of Nuvrosupis imaging has been low screen brightness levels. In the early 1950s the image amplifier or intensifier was introduced as a method to improve and enhance brightness. In this technique, X-ray photons impinge on a fluorescent screen and are converted to light photons. which in turn excite a photoeleciric back ayer, which emits sloctrons, Thus the imase on the primary screen is converted to an image of electrons emitted from the photoelectric or photocathode layer. These electrons are accelerated by a voltage potential of 20-0 RV and then magnetically focused on the final viewing screen. ‘The major difference between an ordinary fuoretcent sereen and the intoncifier primary ceneen is the spectral response. The intensifier screen produces light in the blue and ultraviolet spectral Fegion, which is matched to the optimum sensitivity Gr the protecatnode, in Ney Of ne yelow-preen Matcorresponds to the optimum sensitivity of the eye. ‘The phosphor most often used is silver-activated zine Sulfide, arid ue aujacem pliococadtioue Is usually one of the cesium photosensitive compounds. The image formed on the viewing screen is typically small and is usually increased in size by optical magnification. A further improvement in image intensification technology occurred with the adaptation of very low light level telavicion tachniquee ta ahtain Waray images. There are two main ways to apply television circuitry to X-ray image intensification. 1. The indirect system, in which a fluorescent screen or the final screen of an electron tube intensifier is viewed by a television camera. The fluorescent screen viewing method is referred to as the low light level system and typically uilizes image isocons. ‘Viewing of the slectron tubs intensifier ie referred to the high light level system and is generally accomplished with vidicon tubes. 2. The direct system, in which the television camera is sensitive to X-rays and the X-ray image is produced directly on the camera plate or screen. Inciuded in this category fre madifind vidinon camerse and solid state cameras with photodiode arrays or charged coupled devices (CCDs). Detaiked Uesuiptivns uf real tase ing, techniques can be found in Section 14 of reference 2 and Chapter 14 of reference 5. Other Nonfilm Imaging Detectors Xeroradiography is nonfilm imaging technique that can produce sensitivity comparable with that of fine-grain film. This technique is based on the Phenomenon of photocenductiviey. It is well known that certain substances become photoconductive when excited by electromagnetic radiation. Light meters and infrared detectors are applications that are well known. X-ray or gamma ray photons are also capable of exciting photoconduction; this is the basis of xeroradiography, which is an extension of the commonly known xerography technology that uses light photons as the excitation radiation, In the xeroradiography method. a photoconductor is supported on a metal backing Plate, This plate fs unaffected Uy radiation until the: surface is sensitized by charging electrostatically. ‘Upon exposure to ionizing radiation. the charged plate acquires a latent image, which can be developed by dusting with a fine powder: that is, a voltage image is developed on the surface of @ charged photoconductive plate by leakage of the Pharge at a given point hecace af tha change in resistance produced at that point by the intensity of the radiation, The best known photoconductive material used fr this purpose ts high-purity vitreous ‘One of the main advantages of xeroradiography is that no darkroom or wet processing is required, and the fully developed image can be ready for. fssessment in appronimately one minute afer the exposure Depending on the energy of the radiation used for vorveatingtaphy the costing Inger of salenin om the plate surface cam vary fom 30 0 50 ye at 20-100 keV and up 10 300 at Fel 3 MeV, An excellent presentation of the theory and applicauuin vf neroraulugiaply ung Ue oud relerence 5, Chapter IS Nonimaging Radiation Detectors The various types of nonimaging radiation detectors have one common denominator. In one form or another. they depend on detection of the ionization produced when radiation interacts with imatter. Among the detector typer commonly weed i8 Fadiography are ionization chambers, Geiger Maller (GM) tubes, scintillation detectors, semiconductor detectors, and thermoluminescent detectors. Metious of measuring the dewewed radiaton fat into two general categories: pulse oF nonpulse measuring devices. Inthe pulse type, the output of the detector is a series of pulses separated of resolved in time, each pulse representing a single interaction of a photon with the detector. Inthe onpulse type, the quantity measured is the average effect due to many interactions with the detoetor This type is also commonly referred to as a current measuring, versus pulse counting, system, Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors - General Gas-tlled detectors tall nto three types: ionization chambers, GM tubes, and proportional counter chambers. Each of these methods uses a gacfilled chamber and a central electrnde inculated from the chamber walls. A voltage is typically applied between the wall and the central electrode. ‘The principle for all three with regard to detection is the sane. Radiation iutevacts with the staainbes wal andior the gas and ionizes the gas. The number of ion pairs produced per unit of path length is referred to as the specific ionization. The energy of the radiation to be detected and the type of gas used in the detector will affect the specific ionization. To create an ion pair in most gases requires approvimataly 34 AVA single | MeV phaton hae the potential of creating 30,000 ion pairs in theproceee of diceipating ite anergy The evitcal ifference between the detectors is the applied voltage, Figure 4. illustrates a plot of pulse amplitude versus valings applied serosa the chamber wall, As voltage is changed, the number of ion pairs collected at the center electrode will change. In general, for the most common gas mixture. the ionization chamber region is beween 30 and 250 applied volts the proportional region is between 300 and 800 V, and the GM region is above 1.000 V. Changes in fill gases will change the required potential Ionization Chamber Devices Air-filled ionization chambers at 1 atmosphere are used for the measurement of X-ray and gamma ray photons. The main reason is that exposure (tocitgens) i Jefe da exist the avin OE tonization (charge) created in dry air at standard temperature and pressure (STP): therefore this provides a convenient measure with minimal Conversion. ‘A typical ionization chamber consists of a cylindrical form with a central conductor lacated on the cylinder’s axis and insulated from the outer walls. Photons (or charged particles) interact with the chamber wall and/or the air in the chamber and ionize the air. The negative ions are attracted toward the positively charged center «lactrode and produce a minute current path between the outer wall and the center electrode. When this type chamber is ‘operated in the ion saturation region of Figure 4.2, teu the cutreut produced is au avcutate FIGURE 6.2. Pulse amplitude versus applied Voliage fora ger fled chemin Puss AMrUTUDE —o oN crauneR meaciramant af the rate at which inn pire are formed within the gas. Measurement ofthis current is the principle behind the DC ion chamber. Chamber wall materials are important design considerations booaune the radiation to be detected rust penetrate the wal t0 ionize the gas. The wall, material will affect the energy response at energies typically below 100 keV; therefore this should be a particular consideration in low-energy radiographic applications, An energy response curve should be reviewed for each type of ion chamber as a standard practice before specifying its use for routine Fadiographie applications to ensure it adequate Because ofthe delicate curreat measurement mode used with ionization chambers. specific care Should be taken when using sich inciniments near high-level radiofrequency (RF) sources. Instruments With RF shields are avaliable, but they are generally delicate and unsuited for radiographic field ‘Additional information may be found in references 2, Section 4, part 2; 8, Chapter 4; and 9, Section B, Chapter 5. Geiger-Miiller Tube Devices Sealed, gas-filled detector tubes operating in the GM voltage region of Figure 4.2 are referred to as. GM detectors. This type of detector can be used to Aetect amy radiation that will prndnee fanzation within the chamber. The production of only one ion pair within the tube will produce a discharge and, therefore. a pulse, if the discriminator of the measuring device is set low enough. Because of this characteristic, the GM tube instrument is more sensitive and is capable of measuring lower radiation levels than the typical ionization chamber. The GM tube consists of an envelope ot metal ‘or glass (the cathode). a center electrode (anode), usually tungsten wire 3-4 thousandths of an inch (0.08-0.10 mm) in diameter. and a fill gas. Noble gases. particularly argon, helium, and neon, are ‘commonly used for fill gases, with the addition of ‘small amounts of additional gases such as alcohol, hhromine. ar chlorine far quenching purposes ‘When an ion pair initiates a discharge in the GM voltage region, an avalanche of positive ions is created along the entire anode wire through gas femplification. Once a given ion amplification reacties a predctermined density of charge, a discharge ‘occurs. producing an output pulse. Each discharge, regardless of the number of original ion pairs, is terminated atter developing the same total charge. Therefore, all output pulses are about the same size Usually these pulses are 0.25-10 V and therefore do ‘not require sophisticated electronic amplification circuitry. These factors allow Geiger-Mauller instruments to be small. less costly, rugged, and generally dependable Geiger-Maller tubes are manufactured in many shapes to accomplish specific detection tasks. ThoseGM tubes used in radiography survey instruments fare typically eylindrical and moet are aF the ‘miniature variety. Typical sizes are 0.75-1.5 in (19.1-38.1 mm) in length and 0,25-0.50 in. (6.4-12.7 mm) in diameter. GMs employ energy compensation filters ‘Additional information may be found in references 2, Section 4. part 3; 8, Chapter 5; and 9, Section B. Chapter 7 Scintillation Detectors One of the oldest known methods for detection ‘of ionizing radiation is light scintillation. Certain inoterale emit wieible light phatone after ionizing ‘adiation interacts with them: these materials are said to seintillate, Scinillators may be in the solid or liquid state. For applications in radiography, solid Organi oF iuorwatte stints ate wseu. The use of @ solid detection medium has a great advantage Tn the measurement of high-energy photons, detector dimensions can be Kept much smaller than an equivalent gas-leé detector because solid densities are some 1,000 times greater than most gases, Scintilators are used in highly sensitive Furvey inetrumente and alen ae the actncting madivm for the radiographic process. Scintillation detectors are widely used in real-time radiography and ‘computerized tomography. For use in detecting ania plotous, scimllators have detection efficiencies 10° times greater than typical gas ionization chambers. ‘Commonly used inorganic solid scintillators and their activator impurities are the following: sodium iodide: Nal(Ti) lithivm iodides TICE) cesium iodide: Cs1(Na) Zinc sulfide: ZaS(Ag) Anowner commonly used scintillator 1s ine plastic scintillator. These materials have several advantages. the principal one of which is they are commonly available in the form of rods. cvlinders, fand flat sheet, In addition, they are relatively inexpensive. For a scintillator to be used as a radiation detector, it has to be coupled to a device that will ‘count or integrate the light pulses from the scintillator. This is commonly accomplished by use of photomultiplier tubes (PMTs). The PMT is Composed of a phoosenstive layer. he photocathode. coupled to an electron multiplier structure, The photocathode converts incident light photons from the scintillator into low-energy electrons via the photoelectric effect Because the number of photoelectrons involved in a single pulse from the scintillator may be too ‘mall io number to produce a significant charge to serve as an electrical signal, the signal requires amplification. The dynode structure of the PMT. acenmplishes thie hy avalanching: that is multiplying the number of electrons, After such amplification through a typical PMT dynode structure. a typical pulse from the scintillator will produce 107-10" cleetrons, This amplification produces a charge at the anode large enough to be easily counted electronically, ‘The output pulses from PMTs can simply be counted or the output pulse can be amplitied and tne pulse height analyzed. The charge amplification from a PMT is very linear: therefore the output pulse is proportional to the original number of photoelectrons, oF the energy deposited within the scintillator. This fact allows the output to be calibrated against a photon source of known energy. Elcotronie discrimination of unwanted low energy signals is possible. The high-voltage supply for the PMT is in the neighborhood of 1,000 V. Semiconductor Detectors The advantages of using slivnedians detects were discussed briefly in the section on scintillation Getectors. Scintillation detectors have several limitations; the major one i their relatively poor energy resolution. Im addition, the number of events that mast occur to convert the incident radiation to light and then eventually to an electrical signal involves many inefficient steps. Semicondncior detectors offer the advantage of the slid detecting ‘medium and enhance the energy resolution of the system. Spectroscopic applications. from an energy ‘2oohuio otandpest ate ready sapere wat tie Use of semiconductor detectors. Photodiodes are being used in lieu of scintillation detectors in some real-time and tomography equipment designs. ‘The most wiely tsed semiconductors for radiation detection are the diflused p-n junction, surface barier,lhium-drifted Si or Ge, and intrinsic Ge detectors Thermoliminescent Netectars Another category of inorganic crystals, known as thermoluminescent (TL) materials, can be used to detect ionizing radiation. Thermolumineceence ie the emission of light from materials when the materials are heated. If the material has been exposed to ‘ionizing radiation above a certain minimum ‘threshold. measurable amount of gM will be emitted from the material when itis heated to the appropriate temperature in a controlled manner. ‘The amount of light emitted is proportional to the amount of radiation to which the TL material ‘was subjected. This light emission typically will not ‘occur at room temperature for most TL materials. land herein lies the advantage of thece materiale ac radiation detectors. Crystals of TL material function »as integrating radiation detectors and will release the exposure information only when heated. The most common use of TL material is as a thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) for personnel monitoring. “The materials most often used es TLDs are caleium sulfate activated with manganese (€aSO;:Ma) and lithium fluoride (LiF). Of the two, LiF is probably the best suited for reusable personnel monitoring devices. Lithium fluoride does hat reqire an activator and is popular because it has almost negligible fading at room temperature and has ' low average atomic number, bringing it close (o air and tissue. Because of its close approximation to tieeuo atomie number, the energy “epwited ie very closely correlated with the gamma/Xray exposure, or dose equivalent man, for humans over a wide range of energies. "TLDs can be read at will i the heating/recording instrument called a reader is available. The TLD reader isa precision instrument with closely Controlled heating and timing circuits to properly Hoerate he tpt frou he TED. The heating chamber is coupled to a photomultiplier tube (PMT) ina lighttight enclosure. The PMT detects the light Photons emitted, amplifies the signal, and produces Current pulses of sufficient size to be counted and integrated electronically. The major disadvantage of TLDs as radiation detectors is lack of information about the incident radiation energy. ‘Natural lithium contains 7-4 percent Li° and therefore is somewhat sensitive 10 slow neutrons, via the (n,a) reaction, because of the thermal neutron cross section of Li. This response can be increased by using lithium enriched with Liv or decreased by using lithium consisting entirely of Li’. Because of this capability, LiF TLDs can also be used as neutron docimerare Radiation Instrumentation Most forms of radiation, such as light, heat, etc., can be detected by our senses. Tonizing radiation such as X-rays and gamma rays used in radiography can be detected only by the aftereffect of its ionizine properties, The application of the more commonly used radiation detectors, as part of radiation instrumentation, will be reviewed in this section, Condenser R-Meters ‘The condenser R-meter is an ionization type of instrument. This instrument is composed of to main components: the thimble chamber. oF Rechamher, and the chargeriteader inctrument which is a delicate electrometer. 0 ‘The R-chamber itself consists of an outer metal cylinder, which is charged negative, and an internal insulating surface coated with carbon, charged Positive, with an end cap of ai-equivalent material. ‘An insulated center electrode connects the thimble ‘cap with the main body of the chamber. The ‘chamber is a charged condenser, which is discharged ‘when radiation passes through the chamber an ionizes the air. “The charger/reader provides an electrometer circuit for accurate measurement of the charge, an lectrostatic generator circu to initially charge the Rechamber, and a microscope eyepiece to magnify the quartz hairline and scale. Rechambers are used to measure large exposures of Xrays and gamma rays in a very accurate mode. Such measurements are used to calibrate the output of X-ray machines and radioisotope sources, Pocket Chambers Direci-eaing poke chanbsts 1 Uosticers are required safety equipment for personnel working in industrial radiography. "The direct-reading pocket dosimeter operates on te principle of the lonteation chamber. ‘These chambers are small, 0.5 in, (12.7 mm) diameter by ‘in. (101.6 mm) length. They are convenient to use as Integrating dosimeters capable of being read urmgela tse “These instruments typically use an aluminum or sea otter shel that protect the delat itera Components but is thin enough to avoid significant Stenvation in the walls and enhance electronic quilbrium. As with the condenser Rechamber, the pocket chamber i initially charged using an exiernal dosimeter charger. The resaltine drop in chamber Voltage, when exposed to radiation, fs Used a3 the measure of total integrated ionization charge The direct-reading pocket dosimeter is provided with an internal quan? fer electtacenne. which ean be'read on an internal scale by holding it up to & light souree and viewing the scale through the magnifier lens Poca dosimatere capable of reading up to 210 mem (2-mSv) of exposure ate required by current regulations for personnel working in industrial radiography. Because of the fragility of tho devieo, itis eaoy to destroy the electroscope by dropping the dosimeter: therefore consistent methods for securing pocket dosimeters are required. In addition, i the Charging electrode js not covered with a eap during tse, moisture/humidity can provide leskage path and discharge the dosimeter, causing the haiine to 20 off scale Survey Instrumentation ‘The 127,000 wR 2-10,000 mR/h 2-2,000 mR/b 21,000 IVs 1-300 mh mpom> ‘The following situation is to be used in answering questions Q.4-5 through Q.4-7. 4s A survey instrument is 10 be calibrated using a 3.4 Ci Co-60 source. It is desired to calibrate the 100-1,000 min range of te instrument at =20 percent at two locations on the range. Ine wo locations are at the lower limit plus 15 percent and the upper limit minus 15 percent of the range at that point. At what locations on the instrument range would you be checking in the above situation? 250 and 1.150 mR 250 and 850 mR/h 85 and 1.150 mR/h 115 and 850 mRvh 150 and 850 mR/h moop> 3Qo, Q47 48 Q49 Q410 Qe o.412 ‘Wiss iy die Uisvauce fom dhe calibration souice « the instrument decector Co obtain Ue calculated intensity required at the lower limit check in the above situation? A. 619 ft 6. 20.01 c. B23 D. 396% E. None of the above In the above situation, if the instrument indication was +30 percent of the required lower level reading, it would read approxima A. 325 mR/h B. 150. mR/h taka D, 195 m&/h E. B0mRh The graphic presentation that depicts the relationship between exposure and the resulting photographic density for a particular film type is commonly referred to as a A. linear curve B. characteristic curve C._ spectral curve D. logarithmic curve E. all of the above A commonly used material for the luminescent phosphor in fluoroscopic screens is zine sulfide cesium iodide sodium iodide selenium oxide cadmium oxide ‘The photoconductive material used in xeroradiography is iridium — powdered cesium oxide — spheres zine sulfide — crystalline selenium — vitreous sodium — powdered roop> monp> The detection efficiencies of scintillation detectors over gas ionization chambers for photons is approximatel 108 times greater 10° times greater 10* times greater 1? umes greater 10° times greater moop> Which ofthe following survey instrument types is usually considered least susceptible to moisture and physical shock? Proportional counter instruments Tonization chamber inctruments Geiger-Moller tube instruments Bonner sphere instruments Getianiuin dexector insieuments soOe>5 PERSONNET SAFETY AND RADIATION Potential Risks ‘The potential risks associated with sources of ionizing radiation used in radiography (X-ray, ‘gamma, oF neutron) include acute radiation exposure, which can produce prompt radiation effects, contamination with particles of radioactive material, genetic and delayed effects of long-term Tow exposure, and electrical shock. Each of these potential risks should be put into proper perspective with other risks faced by each of Coin cur daily home and work environments. Rieke that have a greater potential for producing life-shortening or death than radiation exposure include smoking, auto accidents, home accidents and ‘Growning. Keterence 1U presents a straightiorwara assessment of risks associated with radiation exposure. Radiation Measurement Units Roentgen The roentgen (R) is the historical unit of penetrating gamma and X-radiation exposure. Its fhe quantity of % radiation or gamma radiation in air that will produce one electrostatic unit (esu) of charge in I cc of dry air at standard temperature and pressure (0 °C and 760 mm Hi). ‘One roentgen will produce an amount ot ionization that represents the absorption of approximately 83 ergs of energy from the radiation per grim of air The new ST mit of expose is expressed in coulombs per kilogram (C/kg). The historical and SI units are related by 1R = 2.58 x 10" Cikg. Rem Rem is an acronym for roentgen equivalent ‘man. The amount of energy required to produce an ion pair in animal tissue differs from the energy needed to produce an ion pair m air. Ineretore, the PROTECTION roentgen cannot be used to measure biological effects in man. The rem is defined as the cuantity of fonizing radiation of any type which, when absorbed in a biological system, results in the same biological effects as one unit of absorbed dose in the form of low LET (linear energy transfer) radiation The rem is also historically defined as the unit of dose equivalent (DE) man. DE is the product of absorbed dose D in rads and the quality factor QF: rem = DE = DOF). Under the t-system of units, D is expressed in rays: 1 gray (Gy) = 100 rad. OF remains the same. The 61 equivalent of rom fe the sievert (80); therefore, DE = DOF) and Sv = Gy(QP. One Gy = 100 rads: therefore, 1 Sv = 100 rem. OF values differ with the LET of the particular type of radiation. X-rays, gamma rays, electrons, and potitrone of any TET have a QF aqual tn ame ‘Heavy ionizing particles with high LET, such as. neutron and alpha radiation, have a OF that can range as high as 20. Rad Rad is an acronym for radiation absorbed dose. It is the amount of radiation energy imparted to matter per unit mass of irradiated material. One rad represents 100 ergs of encrsy per gram of material ‘The product of the absorbed dose and the quality factor is the dose equivalent man or, using historical units. rem. AAs stated above, the SI unit absorbed dose is the gray. The gray represents one joule of energy per kilogram. Dose and Dose Rate Radiation dose is the accumulated or integrated quantity of raaiation occurring uring a periog oFlume. Kadiation dose 1s normally expressed in units of rem or millirem and is obtained by multiplying the dose rate by the amount of time exposed. The dose rate is the quantity of radiation occurtine ver unit of lume. Dose rate is commonly expressed in rem/h or mremh. Personnel Monitoring Personnel monitoring devices are provided to individuals working with ionizing radiation to measure their accumulated exposure and ensure that itis within regulatory limits. The reliability of personnel monitoring devices and the repeatability of measuring integrated exposures accurately is very important Several methods of measuring and monitoring personnel exposure to radiation will be discussed in this section. Among these methods are film badges, directsreading pocket ionization chambers, and thermoluminescent dosimeters. Personnel monitoring devices, including pocket dosimeters, can be juired by federal and state regulatory authorities for all personnel working in industrial radiography. Film Badges Photographic film has been in wide use for monitoring personnel exposure to gamma, % rays beta, and neutron radiation since the early 1940s, This method of monitoring consists of placing a small packet or packets of film in a holder designed to protect the film and providing filters to account for the variation of absorption versus energy of the particular radiation to be measured. Filters are evally placed am tha front and rear of the film holder. This placement produces images that allow the evaluator to determine from which direction the radiation emanated. ‘The response of photographic fim vartes with photon energy and becomes significantly greater at ‘energies below 150 keV. Proper selection of filters allows the filter absorotion versus enerav response to match the film density-energy characteristic. leaving an essentially enerey-independent radiation response on the film. Filters of lead, cadmium, tin, elutsinun, aud brass are comunouly used Filters are arranged in specific patterns and permanently mounted to the film badge holder. The filters cover only portions of the film. allowing windows or Openings through which the various ‘qualities of radiations may pass. Most badge designs provide an open window to admit low-energy Photons or beta radiation. ‘Thermal-neutron exposure may also be measured using film techniques. Cadmium and brass filters are used and usually a special-sensitivity neutron film. Lhe cadmium and brass titers are % aesignea so that they Dodi auemuate plows radiation by the same amount. But, because cadmium exposed to thermal neutrons will undergo ‘an (nv) reaction. the film density produced behind. the cadmium will be greater than that behind the brass. The differential in density between the two measurements can be calibrated to show the thermal neutron exposure ‘The sensitivity of available emulsions is sufficient to detect as little as 10 mrem (0.1 mSv) of gamma radiation at 1.33 MeV (Co-60) and as litle as 23 'mrem (0.02-0.03 mv) at 100 keV. Because ot film fog, statistical variations, etc., most suppliers of film badge dosimetry do not attempt to report epaeuere helaw 10 mrem Use of film for personnel monitoring has several disadvantages. Fogging may result from mechanical pressure, evaluated temperature, and exposure to light ang motsture, as Well 4s other environmental contaminants. Thermoluminescent Dosimeters ‘Thermohiminescent dosimeters (TT Te) are widely used as personnel monitoring devices and are rapidly replacing the traditional film badge in industrial radiography for gamma and X-ray personnel monitoring. The TLD system of personnel monitoring offers many advantages over the older film monitoring technique, Amone these advantates are those listed 1, There is no necessity for a precision photographic development laboratory. TLDs may be reused many times Exposure may be measured directly and easily bv the user if desired 4. Energy response is relatively linear down to SkeV. The system provides sensitivity with a high ‘acgree of accuracy at low exposure Levels: \ypicaly capable of detecting 10 mrem (0.1 mSw) witha standard deviation of 10 percent or less. 6. Results are easily computerized. 2 3. Of the available TLD material. lithium fuoride (Lit) isthe most vommonly used bceause of is negligible fading at room temperature and its low average atomic number. Iti aso relatively unaffected by moisture, common solvents, and minor physical abrasion. The TLD monitoring badge is similar to 2 film badge and is composed of a TLD holder with a clip, Titers, and the TED ship(), Typieel LIF hipe are 0.125 by 0.125 by 0.035 in. (3 by 3 by 0.9 mm) thick. ‘The badge has two or more compartments in which the TLD chips are mounted. These compartments use hifers, One compartment typically has a250-300 mg/cm: filter for penetrating radiation and fone has a 10 mglem’ filter (usually Mylar™) for lowwsenerey radiation Camparican of the dose under both filters provides a method for determining if the ‘skin dose was greater than the penetrating dose. Pocket Ionization Chambers Pocket ionization chambers that are capable of being read directly by the individual being monitored may be required equipment for industrial radiography personnel. Federal and state regulations ‘may requite radiographers to Wear pocket dosimeters in addition to film or TLD badges. Pocket dosimeters should be charged to zero before nise-each day and the total accumulated exposure for each day recorded in a dosimeter log by the individual radiographer. This technique allows the radiographer to monitor himself and be able to tell trithin veasunable linits what kis aucunuated exposure is at any particular time Tn addition to providing a running record of accumulated exposure. the pocket dosimeter gives a real-time measure of exposure in the field, This is particularly important ifthe individual is working adverse conditions with a potential for high exposure ‘or ie involved in an incident. Ifa pocket dosimeter ie discharged beyond its limit (200 mrem, or 2 mSv), the radiation safety officer (RSO) should be immediately notified and the reason for the exposure aeterminea. Pocket dosimeters for radiography should have the capability to be read from 0 through 200 mR (0 throuch 5.16 nC/ke). The NDT Level III. radiation safety officer (RSO), or other responsible individual should compare accumulated daily pocket dosimeter readings with the TLD or film badge integrated feoding for the same time periods. Exposure ose should not vary by more than 20 percent. Current regulations require that direct-reading pocket dosimeters used in radiography operations be Calibrated at least annually Permissible or Allowable Personnel Dose Personnel monitoring techniques are employed to measure the accumulated exposure dose of personnel working with ionizing radiation. For practical purposes, the assumption is made that jon exposure has a threshold value, below Hpartivulay effet is eapcrivuved. Th National Council on Radiation Protection (NCRP) defines permissible radiation dose as “the dose of ionizing radiation, that in the light of present knowledge is not expected to cause appreciable bodily injury to a person at any time during his lifetime.” The NCRP defines the maximum permicsible doce equivalent man value for personnel exposure in Table 5.1 ne gars ator, 3 5 sr Sn oer na hares 6 paves as one as 5 8 Seg ene tae a aS ‘The same values are adopted in both federal and state regulations. Personnel employed in industrial radiography. using modern equipment and safe praciices under norimal workload conditions, should be able to maintain weekly whole-body exposures well below 100 mrem (J mSv) per week, 1.250 mrem (12.5 mS¥) per calendar quarter, and 5 rem (50 mSv) per calendar year. In addition to evaluating and developing recommended weekly, quarterly, and yearly exposure doass, the NGRD developed a whole-body long-term accumulated dose formula. This formula allows exposure dose to exceed 5 remiyr (50 mSviyr) as long as the lifetime allowable dose for the ‘naividual’s age has not Deen exceeded. The NCRP states “Long term accumulated whole-body dose equivalent shall not exceed five rems multiplied by the numher of years heynnd 1 imam accumulated dose equivalent = (N ~ 18) x 5 rems where N isthe age in years and is greater than 18. This formula may be used if an individual has cavceved the yeaily allowable dune ain i is desised to allow him to continue working with sources of ionizing radiation. This concept is commonly referred to as the radiation banking concept, in ‘hich for each year over age 18 the individual is credited with $ rem (50 mS) of maximum permissible exposure dose Table £.2 ica summary of the poccible affeste con personnel for various exposure fevels (over a short period of time) Exposure Control Techniques The concepts of time, distance, and shielding can be used to control the amount of exposure received by personnel working with couroes of radiation,TassLs 5-2, summary Of Fossipie Errects trom various Exposure Levels over a snort Fert0g OF time a a ee ee eel A 220400 rm [2450 ‘duntee saver ‘guy ae posse pemanert sty, sre bec coun anges exons damage nue dose range. poder alto 50 peer of te nas 9 post no amet recent ser Hood changes vere ganze camage 400 8 dee ies Socom 001m 854 Fal to 95 peer of ean expat no sENeN i ce Coan wont ar ‘The time concept relates to the amount of time spent near the exposed source. Every effort should be made to minimize the amount of time in areas adjacent to the sourses of red The distance concept relates to the distance between the sources and the individual being exposed. The greater the separation distance, the lower the dose rate. The rate of exposure follows the inverse square law and decreases inversely with the square of the distance from the source. This is reprecented ae dj = tnd wlicte 1, is the radiation intensity at distance dy, Jy is the radiation intensity at distance ds. 4 is the distance from the source at which the intensity is I), and dy is the distance from the source at which the intensity isfy The shielding concept relates to interposing jon attenuating material between the source and the individual being exposed. Shielding can ‘consist of accessories such as a beam collimator, prefabricated shields that are moved into position during expocurec: and other objeats that are @ part of the natural makeup of the area. such as, ‘embankments, gullies, buildings, etc. Contamination Sources and Control tis important to understand the difference between radiation and contamination and how they are related. Radiation, whether it be X-rays or gamma rays, is energy. Energy may be dissipated or change its form but it in itoelf fo not radioactive. ‘On the other hand. contamination is the actual deposition of radioactive matter in an unwanted location. This radioactive matter, although it has Physical characteristics such as mass, usually occurs 38 in such @ minute quantity that it cannot be viewed with the naked eye. Contamination consists of f matter from a source of radioactive Wl, 49 aul, will eunic radiation energy and have all the characteristics of the parent source. ‘One may be exposed to radiation without being contaminated: but one cannot be contaminated ‘without being exposed to radiation. ‘The danger of contamination is that most radioisotopes emit alpha and/or beta particles, and, if the particles are ingested, radiation will be very intense at their final position in the body. Contamination may occur in industrial radiography from a sealed source whose encapsulation has failed, from shipping containers and source changers that, ‘were not properly cleaned by the source manufacturer, and from uranium-shielded exposure Sealed sources of radioactive material used in radiography are required by state and federal regulations to be Jeak-tested for contamination at six-month intervals. These tests must be capable of detecting 5 nCi (0.185 kBa) of removable radioactive mioterial contamination Leak test sampies of Ir-192 and Co-60 sources will not show visible contamination, although gross Uranium contamination can be visually noted. {ranium contamination is normally in the form ot turanium oxide, which is black. In both uranium and radioisotope sources. if contamination is present. the only positive methocl of detectinn ic hy meacnring with a thin window (I mglem") or windowless radiation instrument. ‘Once a positive leak test sample has been siscovered, Every effort sliguld be made 10 tsolate the sealed source and its shielded container to prevent items or personnel from becoming contaminated. A common technique is to seal the container in a nonporous plastic bag or container. Individuals who have come into physical contact With the container should be monitored and have their hunds and other exponed arcas thoroushly washed. Smoking, eating, ete. in an area of known contamination should be prohibited. Contamination from sealed radiography sources @ ‘occurs very infrequently, but when it does occur,the NDT Level {11 shouid be thoroughly aware of its significance and of basic techniques (o prevent spread of contamination. Radiography Operating and Emergency Instructions ‘The NDT Level IIL is frequently called upon to ‘wits the operating and emergency procedures to be used by radiography personnel using sources of ionizing radiation. Such procedures are required to be written and should convey the direction of management with regard to safe practice and emergency action in clear and concise manner. Topics that should be a part of the radiography aperating and emergency instructions include personnel monitoring. survey instruments, leak testing, use, care and maintenance of radiography exposure devices, safe work Practices, survey records, state and feuera! regulations, and emergency action in the event of a Source out or overexposure situation. Operating and emergency instructions are required by state and federal regulatory agencies and apply to all sources of ionizing radiation. Radiation Regulatory Standards ‘The federal government regulates industrial isotope radiography in areas under its jurisdiction through the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Many state governments have established agreements with the NRC, which allow them to Fegulate the ueee of radioactive material within their ‘state in lieu of the federal agency. Such states are called agreement states. ‘Most states have a radiation regulatory program, ‘with establisned mutes for tne regulation of all sources of ionizing radiation, including X-ray ‘machines. These regulations are administered thrangh state nuclear eneroy or health departments and follow the federal requirements very closely Radioactive material use and possession are typically authorized by the appropriate regulatory ycucy via issuaine uf @ Radioactive Materials License. The licensee applies for a license by submitting detailed instructions and procedures that describe how the licensee will implement regulations ‘and how they will be used by their personnel in the ‘administration of the licensee's radiation safety program. Regulatory agencies make frequent onsite Tnapections of licenace operations to onaure that public health and safety are being maintained during the use of ionizing radiation sources. ‘The licensee in industrial isotope radiography must comply with the Code of Federal Regulations asset ype omepeemees iliitirmmeee some Raaouave urea? OEmem pacing agoacive eow somein Lomein EB on etsy xaoacive Yew t 2x0 mkin omen ianeagitt asbuerginy (CFR) when operating under an NRC license. In particular, the following CFR Title 10 areas are of specific interest: 10CFR20 and 10CFR34. Tm aduition w liceuses for use aind pussession Uf radioactive material, the Department of ‘Transportation (DOT) issues rules and regulates the transportation of radioactive materials. These regulations cover packaging, labeling, and mode of transport requirements. The DOT requirements are specified in Hazardous Materials Regulations, SSCER, Parts 172 179. In accordance with the DOT regulations, radioactive materials are classified into two categories: normal form and special form. All sealed sources used in radiography afe special orm. ‘Special form means that the radioactive material is, encapsulated or sealed in a high-integrity capsule, fypically of corrnsion-recierant metal. and can withstand significant abuse without breaching the capsule integrity. Normal form means that the container is not as permanent and normally does not ive ile sae degiee Ul leakage proteutivn. The ‘normal form container may be plastic or glass but is usually used to contain small quantities of materials such as radiopharmaceuticals. ‘The quantity of radioactive material in the shipping container determines the DOT type of package. There are two major classifications: Type A: 20 Ci (740 GBq) maximum ‘Type B: 5 kCi (188 TBq) maximum Mott radingraphy courcee requine Type B packaging All packages containing radioactive material ‘must be labeled with radioactive levels. These diamond-shaped labels have three distinct categories: 1. Il, ang IIL, The libel specifies wnat type and {quantity of radioactive material the package contains and the extemal radiation dose rate. Table 5.3 ‘briefly cummarizes the three labels and the conditions that apply’ to their use. Biological Effects of Radiation Natural and Manmade Background Radiation Exposure Man is constantly being irradiated by natural ‘and manmade radiation occurring im mis‘environment. All types of radiation sources make up thie background level af aypacure Alpha and hers radiation as well as gamma rays are emitted from radioisotopes that are in our food or found in items wwe handle daily. Cosmic rays and high-energy neutrons constantly bombard us from sources outside the earth's atmosphere. Radium, potassium, thorium, and uranium make up the bulk of natural background exposure. These elements occur in nature all over te worid, and many building materials, such as sand, stone, brick, ‘concrete, etc, contain measurable quantities. Other radioactive elements commonly found in nature are carbon-I4 and hydrogen-3 (tritium). The National ‘Committee on Radiation Protection (NCRP) estimates total per capita natural exposure to be Sppronimately €3 mromiyr (0.83 mSviye). In addition to naturally occurring sources of radiation, man is also exposed to manmade sources ‘that contribute to the background exposure. sncludea are meaical ang dental X-rays (aDout 90 mrem/yr, or 0.9 mSviyr), fallout from nuclear weapons (S mrem/yr, or 0.05 mSviyr), and exposure from consumer oroducts — mostly color TV set X-radiation (1 mremiyr, or 0.01 mSviyr). The NCRP ‘estimates per capita manmade exposure at 96.3 myem/yr (0.963 mSviyr). “Total natural and manmade background radiation exposure is estimated at 179.3 mremiyr (1.793 mSvivr) typically rounded up to ‘approximately 200 mrem/yr (2 mSv/yr). ‘Human Organ Radiosensiti Tissues and organs of the body differ in their response to radiation exposure. This response is called radiosensitivity. The radiocencitivity of an organ or ticeus ie proportional to the reproductive capacity of the cells that compose that particular organ or tissue type. Generally those cells that are most active in reproducing themselves and cells that are not fully ‘mature are the ones most sensitive to radiation, It ‘can be easily seen that certain organs will receive more damage than others and that children will generally receive greater injury than adults for the same exposure, Lymphocytes (white blood cells) formed by the epleen and Iymph nodes are the most censitive to radiation exposure. The granulocytes, which are also white blood cells, formed in the bone marrow, are highly radiosensitive. Basal cells, SO Wamed because they are Ue originators for the more complex specialized cells of, the gonads, bone marrow, skin, and alimentary canal. rank very high in their degree of radiosensitivity. ‘Alveolar cells, Jung cells that absorb oxygen are fairly radiosensitive es which line the digestive eystem walle, have intermediate radiosensitivity. A very large 0 exposure is required before enough bile cells are damaged chat the digestive system will fal 10 function properly Kidney tubule cells are affected rather quickly by radiation exposure; at high levels, this can cause severe symptoms in the exposed individual. Endothelial cells, which line the closed cavities of the body, such as the heart and blood vessels, are only moderately radiosensitive (Connective tissue cells, which support organs, are fairly resistant to radiation exposure. The muscle tissue cells rank very high in their radiation resistance, whereas bone and nerve cells have the highest resistance and are referred to as being the least radiosensitive. Symptoms of Radiation Injury If proper safety precautions ate maintaiued, personnel working in radiography should never experience the effects of radiation injury. Radiation injury falls into two general categories: prompt effects and delayed effects. As the term suggests, prompt effects are those that will be experienced a short time after receiving the eadintion expire Listed below are some of the prompt symptoms associated with overexposure to radiation. 1. Experiencing o heated feeling or tingling similar to that felt when your hand goes to sleep. There is @ possibility that you may have received a high exposure if you have these sensations alter your dosimeter goes off-scale or if you suspect that you may hhave come in close contact with a radiography source Blistering of localized areas. Normally, if an acute exposure has occurred, the area exposed will blister within a matter of days. 5. Kea and chated areas. 11 tne exposure 1s very high. the exposed area may become very red and chafed. This is known as an ervihema dose. when reddening occurs. An exposure of greater than 1,000 R (258 mCikg) is required to cause reddening. a high expoture ie received to the whole body. vomiting may result, followed by severe diarrhea. Medical attention should be obtained immediately if any of these symptoms is noted. ‘Tie potential uelayeu effevs of raulation exposure include genetic defects in offspring of ‘exposed persons and increased risk to certain types of cancer. Unless significantly large exposures are received, these risks are no greater and, in fact, are much less than other risks experienced in our personal and business lives. Reference 10 presents a Sry good comparicon of Fiske in radiography vereut those in other industriesRadiation Damage — Repair Concepts Radiation exposure primarily causes iniury or damages living tissue through ionization. Ionization involves charging an uncharged atom or molecule and producing positive and negative ions. Because sect hady cell te made ip oF millions of atoms Fadiation effects are produced by changing the structure or the electrical charge of the irradiated region. The charged atoms that make up complex molecules may cause the molecule to split or break into parts, some of which will be charged. The charged components may react with adjacent atoms and molecules, producing new substances or compounds, ‘Because living cells are mostly water, radiation passing through such 2 cell has a good possibilty of striking water molecules (H,0). When this occurs, he nytrogen anu Oxygen alouls may telease We bonds in the water molecule and become ions. These tons may recombine as HO, (hydrozen dioxide), and HO, (hydrogen peroxide), Both of these compounds are powertul oxidizing agents and will easily break ‘down the highly complex protein molecules in body cells. When a cell is attacked by these and other chemical azents, various effects can occur, including 1. abnormal cell growth. 2. alteration of DNA cells, Y pelleath and 4, cel failure to reproduce. In general, radiation damage to humans occurs on a cellular level and ie chemical in nature. Radiation from background sources constantly inradiates the human body, and a small number of cells are continually being destroyed or mutilated. ‘As long as the number remains small, the body can, through its natural repair mechanisms, discard the damaged cell and replace it with a new cell. This repair mechanism allows us to receive a limited Amount of ragiation exposure witnour noticeable effects. Our repair mechanism for radiation exposure is similar to the way the body repairs cuts, burs, bruises. fractures, etc. If the cutis too large or the burn area too extensive, there may be permanent damage or even death. The same holds true for body injury caused by radiation. The next section will discuss acute radiation exposure and describe the effects of very large exposure to radiation. Acute Radiation Exposure Living organisms usually begin repair processes as soon as some damage has been detected by the Tiving cell. Up to a point, the body can keep up with the damage and continue repairing, even on a continuous basis. For this reason, an individual can be exposed to considerable amounts of radiation exposure over a relatively long period of time svinout wtiveable effets. Huweves if te 2a {otal amount of exposure were given in a very short time (minutes to hours), severe symptoms would be produced. Therefore, the rate of exposure is a major {actor in determining if acute exposure nas occurred. ‘An acute exposure will give traumatic results in ‘relatively short period of time. A whole-body ‘exposure is more harmful than locelized exposure of fn'extremity. This is because all areas are irradiated and the repair mechanisms of the body have limitations. Radiation injury and effects for the same dose vary significantly among individuals. ‘Acute andor prompt effects can be expected from whole-body exposures experienced over a short period of time. Although the potential whole-body Sete offerte are grsves Significant rarelacsnest ‘ould be necessary to bring about such an exposure ‘Acute exposures to body extremities, fingers, hhands, and arms are a greater possibility, owing to the potential for physically contacting the sealed radiography source when connecting and disconnecting source assemblies if those procedures are improperly performed. Localized exposures of 600 rem (6 Sv), may cause reddening and a burning sensation similar to that ofa first-degree burn in the contact area. At exposures of 1.000 rem (10 Sv), serious tissue Ssamage can occur, and reddening immediately ana biistering of the area within one to three weeks can be expected. At exposures of 2,000-3,000 tem (20-30 Sv) to a localized area. pain and swelling will ‘occur within hours, and the area wl become red and produce blistering within the same time interval aast Qs2 ss sd ass 056 REVLEW QUESTIONS e If an individual is 32 years old on June 1, 1985, what is the maximum permissible lifetime dose allowed under the NCRP radiation banking concept through July 1, 19857 To rem 68.5 rem 260 rem wrem 65 rem By regulation, a sealed source of radioactive material is considered leaking when the amount of removable contamination reaches mrom> AL 0.005 Ci B. 0.100 wCi C. 0.050 wCi D._ 1.000 4Ci E. 0.001 uci Which one of the following radioisotopes is not naturally occurring? A. Cesium-137 Bo Radinm.096 CC. Potassium-40 D. Carbon-14 E. Hydrogen-3 Which of the following human cell categories is the most sensitive to radiation exposure? e A. Granulocytes B. Basal cells C._ Bile duct cells D. Muscle cells E. Lympnocytes Ifa radiation exposure of 5.8 R is received by an individual during an incident, what is the individual's dose equivalent? A, $8 rem B. 2.9 rad C. 23.2 rem D. 116rem E. 116rad When using film as the method for neutron personnel monitoring what filter material is used to produce an (n,y) reaction, which will increase the film density after neutron exposure? A. Tin Ro Mya C. Cadmium D. Brass B. Lead(5-7 Specific areas of the Code of Federal Regulations used frequently by radiography licensees are ‘A, 10CFR20 10CFR34 10CFRSO 10CFR70 both A and B Q.5-8 In accordance with DOT regulations, radioactive materials are classified into which two categories? Havardons and nonhazardous Normal and special Penetrating and nonpenetrating ‘Type Vand Type It Flammable and nonflammable Q.5-9 If an exposure of approximately 300 rem of gamma radiation was received to the whole body of an Individual, which one of zhe following would not be likely? White cell count increase Vomiting Diarrhea Death mPoOm>smonw pop>THE RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS Imaging Considerations Radiographic Image Quality ‘The amount of information contained in any photographic image, and in a radiographic image in particular. is strongly dependent on the quality of lire inoge, Rauivgropic sensitivity is a qualitative term used to refer to the smallest detail that can be seen in a radiograph and hence is a measure of overall image quality. Image quality is 2 combination ff the actors ot contrast and definition ot the radiograph, Radiographic contrast is defined as the difference between the film densities of two areas of a radiograph. It, in turn, is broken down into the contrast provided by the subject being radiographed (subject contrast) and that provided by the film itself lm contrast) Definition refers to the sharpness of the image ‘outline. It depends on geometric factors (Focal spot size, source-to-film distance, shape of specimen, te.) and on the innerent livscreen limitations on image sharpness (in practice, one refers to unsharpness rather than sharpness). ‘Subject Contrast Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted by two selected portions of a specimen. As the energy level of the radiation is increased, the radiation becomes more penetrating. This has the etlect of flartening out the image of a typical test specimen at higher kilovoltages. For instance. consider a steel specimen having thicknesses of 0.5 and 1 in. (12.5 and 25 mm). If an ‘optimum energy level is chosen for the 0,5 in portion of the radiograph. the image of the | in section will be washed out. That is. it will have donsity and sentract toe low to be of any’ woo. On the other hand. if an energy level is chosen to give a high-contrast image of the | in. portion, the 0.5 in area will probably appear to be black. ‘ese conaitions represent high sudject Contrast. One can lower the subject contrast and thereby obtain usable images of both sections on one radiograph by increasing the energy level substantially so that radiation penetrating the thinner section will also penetrate the thicker section. In ‘other words. as the radiation energy is increased, the ratio of photon transmission through the thicker portion to that of the thinner section is decreased to give a lower subject contrast. The resulting film mages will have lower radiographic sensitivity. bu useful images of both thicknesses may be obtained by proper selection of energy level. Subject contrast, therefore, depends primarily on the shape of the specineit, Lut is a povametes that can Ue alteved by choice of energy level. ‘Another factor affecting radiographic contrast is that of scattered radiation reaching the film and raising the overall background level. Ihe log resulting from such scatter is not a subject contrast factor but usually is lumped in with subject contrast when considering those factors affecting overall radiographic contrast. Scattered radiation can lower image contrast and detail and can be considered 10 be noise. Every practical method of reducing scatter should be used to enhanee the signal to noise ratio of a radiograph. Film Contrast Whenever ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays. oF light) stikes a photographic emulsion, an effect can occur in the chemical or physical structure of the silver halide grains in the sensitive emulsion. ‘When such exposed film is developed, a reaction takes place such that the affected halide grains are reduced to metallic silver. The result of this effect is to blacken the film emulsion. Photographic. or film. density is the name given to the quantitative measure of this flim darkening, Film density is defined by: >= torn where D is film density, 1, is the incident light intensity, and 1, is the transmitted light intensity In other words, density is the logarithm to the base 10 of the opacity 1,1, (This is analogous to the decibel in power ratios.) The inverse of opacity isA density of 0 means 100 percent transmission; { means 10 percent transmission of incident light; 2," percent, 3, 1/10 percent, etc. Density 1s measured with a densitometer. Commercial densitometers generally use photoelectric detectors fnd provide a readont of average density aver the area of the sensing aperture. If accurate density readings are required, then density standards must. be used to maintain calibration of the equipment. In fany event, itis important thet the densitometer reproduce readings from day to day. Each film type has a characteristic exposure-density relationship. Study of this Characteristic curve was first performed on photographic film in 1890 by Hurter and Driffield and is frequently referred to as an H&D curve. Figure 6.1 shows H&D curves for a typical X-ray film at different development times The H&D curve is a graph of the film density as 1 function of the logarithm of relative exposure. Relative exposure is used because there are no convenient units in which to express exposure suitable for all energy levels and other exposure conditions; the logarithm is taken to compress an otherwise iong seale. Furtnermore, ratios O! exposures are more significant in radiography than the exposures themselves, Pairs of exposures having the same ratio will be separated by the same interval on the log relative exposure scale mo matter what the actual value may be (see Table 6.1) ‘The antilog of 0.70 is 5, which is the ratio of ach pair of exposures. To find the ratio of any pair i CO om 1 bos TABLE 6.1. Log £ Intervals for Expoture Pairs eenea oe Relative tng Reteive gee Exposure ‘Exposure posure > on 070 of exposures, it is necessary only to find the antilog of the log relative exposure interval between them as read from the H&D curve. The slope, or gradient, of the characteristic curve changes along the length of the curve. This has the effect of increasing or decreasing the crantenet change on the film due to # given expocuire Tatio, the greater contrast change occurring when the slope is greater. That is. a small change in exposure results in a small change in contrast ata low slope; a Contesponulingly larger convast chauge occurs tthe ‘overall exposure conditions are moved to a point on the curve where the slope is greater. ‘Although the shape ofthe characteristic curve for a given film type is insensitive to changes in X-ray or gamma ray quality, iti affected by ‘changes in degree of development; that is, type and nloper and time af development an inerease in the degree of development results in an increase inthe speed and contrast of a radiographic film, AAs the processing time is increased fiom 2 10 minutes. the characteristic curve becomes steeper and moves to the left, corresponding to higher contrast (slope) and speed (less exposure for a given density). fr Characteristic curves for several filet types are included on a single graph (asin Figure 6.1), the exposure technique for one film can hertranclated ta anather ‘These and other such uses of characteristic curves are well documented in reference 11 in the chapters entitled “Arithmetic of Exposure" and SBensitomeuic Chasavicrisucs of XeRay Fibs" Unsharpness of a Radiograph ‘The two major contributors to unsharpness are geometric unsharpness and that which is inherent in the film, screens, and other variables in the process. Geometric unsharpness is due to the fact that the radiation emanates from a source of finite dimension, This means that the shadow cast by any point in the cpocimen ic not charp because itis formed by rays coming from all over the target in the X-ray tube or the source of radioactive material It is easily seen that similar triangles are formed by the lines drawn in connecting the edges of the focal spot, the point in the specimen. and the image. Simple geometry shows the ratio of the target size F to the unsharmness V. is equal to the ratio of the target to specimen distance d to that of thespecimen-to-1lm distance 1. Sovving tor Uy determines that U, = Fuld (Note: This formula also ‘enables calculation of focal spot size by solving for Frif all the other variables are known.) Geometric unsharpness, therefore, varies directly with the focal spot dimensions and with the distance from the focal spot (or source) to the Specimen and inversely with the apesimen to film distance. To minimize unsharpness, one Uses a source with as small a focal spot size as practical, positions the source as far from the specimen as Eonditions wil allow, and positions the film as close to the specimen as physically possible. If the unsharpness is ofthe order of magnitude of the emallat datale to he imaged, inenpratation becomes difficult, if not impossible. This leads to the use of finely detailed objects to provide an index of the overall beam quality. Such objects, called image quatiry matcarors (1QX) oF penerramerers are discussed in detail in “Judging Radiographic Quality” in this chapter. ‘Unsharpness is also dependent on the araininess ‘of the film, X-ray energy, type of screen, and the ‘contact between screen and film. To reduce exposure time by increasing film speed, it has been found necessary to iwsrcase the aiec or vennculsatis of silver halide erystals in the photographic emulsion. At lower-energy levels, one absorbed hoton will in general expose one grain of halide, Pere eco eee to give a higher speed, then a larger area will darken upon development. Conversely, more photons will '#t0 be abvorbed in Giner grain film 10 produse « fiven amount of darkening seaning thatthe fs slower. This, then, is a fact of lif: to obtain high speed, film emulsions are necessaniy of targer grain size, with a corresponding increase in unsharpness. ‘At higher kilovoliage levels, one incident photon may react with covers inividiwal ilver halide grains. thereby causing an increase in graininess for 4 given film type. And at such higher-energy levels, lead screens are generally used to intensify the Image as well as (u reduce Seaver. THis Is accomplished by the fact that lead. being @ heavy metal, provides a much higher probability of photon absorbtion than bare film. shower of photoelectrons is emitted by the lead from the point ‘of photon absorption. Because film is ultimately exposed by electrons in any event, photoelectrons mitted from the lead sereen revult sn film exposure at the point of contact ‘When lead screens are uscd. extreme care must be exercised to ensure intimate contact between sereen surface and film surface; otherwise. divergence of the photoelectron shower will cause a local enlargement of the image formed by the incoming photon. Thie will reeult in more unsharpness. Because virally all materials attenuate electrons, any contamination of the lead screens will ‘cause imaging oF ihe contarmnants. Uneretore. lead screens snoula ne free of all suen contaminants. Nothing should be between the screen and the film: for example, if a sheet of paper is interposed. an ¢lectron radiograoh of the sheet will appear on the film. In fact, this is one method employed in electron radiography. In summary, total unsharpness is the result of geometric and film sercen-energy unsharpness factors. ‘Technique: Seattor Rednotian In light of the above, itis evident that for the sreatest radiographic sensitivity. one should use the Finesuprain film and an X-ray or gamma-ray rource with the smallest available focal spot size, then arrange the components to have a large die ratio, If the energy level is 100 keV oF greater, one would use lead screens in vacuum or spring-ioadea cassettes to ensure the utmost in screenefilm contac. Jn real life, one is seldom allowed such ideal conditions. The finestgrain film is rinfully slow necessitating fong exposure times, Fractional-focus tubes compound this problem by limiting the amount of tube current available forthe time-current produce: Cabinet aunt specitueu size lit dhe fatio. One is forced to compromise. See “Judging Radiographic Quality” and. in Chapter 7, “Blocking and Filtering Techniques” for more discussion on the subject In any event, one should regard control of scattered radiation as essential to good practice. The foal ia to allow only the image forming primary team to strike the film. Good radiographic technique mandates the elimination of as much scatter in the ‘exposure area as possible. Much of the soft, extraneous Bremsstrahlung can be suppressed by using a filter atthe tubehead. This radiation is @ large contributor to the overall scatter background sn ray he reduced by placing » piace of thin Copper or other suitable material over the X-ray port ‘The beam should be collimated to irradiate only that which ts necessary. Tnis precludes nung the cabinet or enclosure with useless radiation. Collimators of various types are commercially available: however. even a simple lead cylinder will provide significant improvement. Positioning of such 2 collimator can usually be done by trial and error. Even below 50 kV. use of a rear lead screen is suggested tu cfninate Uachavattes Between 29 aiid 100 KV. a thin (0002-0.005 in. or 0.05-0.13 mm) front lead screen properly used will preferentially filter out the softer scatter, albeit with some attenuation of the primary, image-forming beam. If some increase in exposure time is allowable, i well worth the effort. Edges on the specimen scatter the beam under the true image of the sdge (20 called undercutting), The use of a thin front sereen will improve this condition If difficulty in achieving a specified penetrameter (It) sensitivity (see "Judging aRadiographic Quality”) has been experienced, scatter reduction using the above techniques could bevthe remedy. Excellent reviews of radiographic imaging considerations are found in reference 2 (Section 5) and references 6, 7, and 11 Film Processing Exposure of the film to radiation results un the formation of what is called the latent image. The mechanism of exposure is beyond the scope of this text: uffice it to cay that the electrons emitted hy an absorption event modify the structure of individual silver halide crystals so that upon development they are preferentially reduced to (datk) metallic silver. ‘An caccllent treatment of this subject appears in reference 11 under the heading “The Photographic Latent Image.” To produce a photographic image. the reduction reaction must favor those halide grains that contain @ latent image. Certain simple organic compounds like dihydroxybenzene (hydroquinone is para-hydroxybenvene) are used widely as developing agents. As in the case of exposure. the mechanism. of development is quite complicated. A simplistic explanation goes like this: a molecule of a developing agent gives an electron to @ silver halide ‘grain carrying a latent image, but none to an ‘unexposed grain. This electron reduces a single silver ion of the grain, producing an atom of silver. nis process 1s repeated until virtually all the silver ions in an exposed grain are converted into metallic silver. Interestingly enough, the shape of the original silver halide erain is distorted from a eranular appearance to an elongated. tangled filament of silver, ‘The activity of developing agents depends on the pH of the solution. Hydrogen ions are released in the developing reaction, and alkalis such as sodium hydroxide are used 10 buffer this condition Developer oxidizes by continued exposure to air: hence a sulfite preservative is added to the developer solution. In addition. sulfite reacts with certain oxidation products formed during develooment and stabilizes the develooment rate. Developers used in automatic film processors contain other materials in addition to these basic constituents. ‘The development proceas oan be arrested by changing the pH to an acidic condition. Acetic acid is e typical stopping agent. The fixer dissolves the undeveloped silver halide grains and hardens the gelatin Darkroom Procedures and Manual Processing Processing techniques can be divided into two general categories: manual film orocessing and automatic film processing. a Manual processing is still the most common method of film processing. This is generally eecomplished ia semidarkincss; the light source is a safelight usually directed away from the area in which the film will be handied. The actual type of safelight filter, bulb wattage, and placement of lamp ‘with respect to film are specified by the manufacturer. Exposed film is more sensitive 10 fogging from the safelight than unexposed film; hones if fogging from the darieenam catelight ie suspected, one should test for such fogging by subjecting exposed as well as unexposed film to the suspect illumination levels, ‘Cleanliness and good housekeeping are te rule. The tanks that contain the developer, stop bath, and fixing solutions should be immersed, if at all Possible. in a larger tank or tanks containing ‘circulating temperature-controlled water. This not ‘only serves to control the critical developer temperature, but allows intermediate rinsing of the film between the developer, step bath, asl Gner, thereby reducing cross-contamination of the solutions Solution level in each tank. and in the circulating water, should be maintained above the Jevel of the film hangers. Periodic checks of the activity of the developer and fixer solutions must be AAs the developer is used. its ability to develop decreases. This is due not only to the exhaustion of the developing (reducing) agent, but also to the rmrbring ettect of the Teaction products. The decrease in activity depends on the number and density of the films processed: the darker the fim, the mare developing agent canesimed pr lm ‘Compensation must be made to produce uniform development over a period of time. This is accomplished by periodically adding a stronger ‘concentration of ine original solution to replenish ine developer. The concentration is adjusted to give the desired regenerating effect and to maintain the liquid level in the tank. As usual, follow the recommendations provided by the film manufacturer. Replenishment cannot be continued indefinitely, and in any case. the solution should be discarded and replaced at the end of three awwaths Uevause of ‘oxidation from the air and the accumulation of sludge and gelatin in the tank. ‘The use of a stop bath is optional; thorough rinsing in the water surrounding the solution tanks is adequate. although more time-consuming. The important factor here is the removal of excess immersion ofthe film im the fixer from the developer will neutralize some of the acid in the fixer solution. thereby upsetting the pH and balance of the fixer solution. AS mentioned above, the primary role ot the stop bath is to neutralize the alkalinity of the film, wet with developer, thereby arresting the developing action. A typical stop bath has 16 02 (473 ec) of 28 percent acetic acid per gallon of mixed bath.‘The purpose of the fixer iy to ren undeveloped silver halide of the emulsion, leaving the emulsion essentially clear except for the develoved silver as the exposed image. The second role of the fixer is to harden the gelatin. Development time and temperature are specified by the film manufacturer. Tap water temperature is, typically about 68 °F (20 °C); hence thie fe vet the design temperature specified. The development time to produce a given film density is very temperature-dependent; hence range of temperatures and development times are gwen tna chart form. The section on “Film Contrast” in this chapter describes the effect of development time on speed ‘The film is carefully removed from the cassette or film holder and mounted on a hanger. If the humidity is low, care to avoid static discharge is a ust; otherwise sharp Jendrtic (treeike) artifacts will be present on the developed film. A timer is started coincident with immersion in the developer. ‘The hanger should be gently agitated up and down periodically to provide local replenishment of developer in contact with the film surface. Soon after the film is immersed, the hanger should be ‘tapped on the hangcr tray in the tank to dislodge any air bubbles from the film surface. ‘When the film is removed from the developing tank, it should be allowed to drain — not in the tank, but in the water — before immersion in the stop bath. This step prolongs developer life somewhat because the developer clinging to the film ic sccontially exhausted. It ic preferable that the film be washed a bit before insertion in the stop bath This is not essential, but the life of the stop bath is extended if excess alkaline developer is removed. ‘Upon immersion in the fixer, the film should be agitated vigorously several times to ensure uniform action of the fixer chemicals. The time interval etween placing the film in the fixer solution and Clearing of the milkiness is calied clearing time. A ‘200d rule of thumb for fixation time is twice this ‘clearing time. The fixing time in a fresh fixer bath Stiould not exceed 13 ininutes, uiierwise SUINE 1035 ‘of low film densities may result Post-fixation washing is one of the most abused film processing steps. As above. the bar and ton clips of the film hangers must be covered by the ‘wash water. Placement of films should proceed so that those already partially washed are toward the Talet side of the running water: in this way, the Gnal part of film washing is accomplished in fresh water. The gelatin is quite soft during processing and ‘washing: therefore it can be easily damaged. Frilling oosening of emulsion trom the base) can occur it the temperature is too high in the solution or wash water, even though care is taken to avoid contact swith the eoft emleian Reticulatian (3 puskering oF netlike appearance) can result from a sudden temperature change during processing. Vertical streaks are generally due to lack of agitation during Geveloping, but can be caused Oy poor technique, suclt as using uty lagers x allowing the tesidual developer to run while the film is out ofthe bath. ‘Spots are also the result of poor technique; they ccan be caused by air bubbles clinging to the film or by'splashing of one solution onto a fim wet with another. Water spots are generally the result of poor drying technique. Common sense is the best ally of {he percon doing manual film proceceing If the film was properly exposed and turns out to have either 100 high or 100 low a density, the time andior temperature of the developer is the prime Suspect. Excessively high developer temperature can result in fogging. The other obvious cause of film fogging is the placement or the intensity of the safelight Automatic Processing ‘The vast bulk of production radiographic film processing is now performed by automatic processors. In reality, the processor is not completely automatic and requires consistent daily ‘maintenance and operator attention. Automatic processing provides consistency over manual processing in the areas of development and fix times, replenishment, and temperature of chemical solutions, wash water, and dryer air. Automatic processing will produce consistent guality; either consistently good or consictently bad. ‘The typical automatic processor is made up of the following systems: transport electrical, tempering, replenishment, chemistry, circulation/filtration, and airidryer. Each of these systems requires routine maintenance. ‘The chemistry for automatic processors is specially farmulated to allow the transport system ta hhandle the film without damaging the film emulsion ‘and to ensure adequate development at higher temperatures. Development temperature in most ‘automake provessors fs li the range Of 81-83 "F (27-29 °C). Wash water is typically maintained 5 °F (about 3 °C) lower. The wpical chemical makeup of automatic processor developer solutions and the function is presented in Table 6.2. The typical chemical makeup ‘of automatic processor fixer solutions is presented in Table 6.2 Mixing of processor chemicals must be done in accordance with the manufacturer's sequential mixing directions to ensure that the correct chemical reactions occur. To avoid contamination, it is important that the fixer be mixed first. Contamination of the developer with the acidic fixer Ge litte a6 one percent) will significantly affect the development process. Reference 2. Section 7, and reference 11 both present excellent detailed descriptions of manual and auiomacic fim processing. ”| TABLE 6.2, Typical Chemical Makeup of Automatic Processor Developer Solutions and Function Chemical General Function Specie Funan Prensdone eoucer (Quer produces gay ones sycrequnene eoucer Som produces backs Soaum eovorate pewter Porde: akaine meas Possum brome fesvaner Prvers Obvepment of WeDo: CYST Soa suse Preservative Maras cherca balance wate Sehvest Disones chemeas Suaeaensne amener erm roc offs "tyes NandemrciveTeingHonasook, end eon, Volume 3 |TABLE 6.3. The Typical Chemical Makeup of Automatic Processor Fixer Solutions ‘Chemica! ‘General Function ‘pectic Function ‘Aromenuan esufoe ‘leaang agent Cleas away eposee AaB Possum am araener ‘Shrnks and hardens the emuson pee pewatar ‘Aad media—rewcalzes and stops deveope acbon waer ‘Sonar Dissolve chemicals Viewing of Radiographs Dluminator Requirements Ty properly view a radiograpls dias uieets ite film density requirements of current codes and standards, a high-intensity film viewer is required, Manv stvies of viewers are available. but in ceneral they fit into four groups: 1. spot viewers, 2. ance viewers, 3. strip viewers, and 4. combination spovarea viewers. Viewers must have power ventilators to cool the intense light source required for viewing high-density radiographs. Most viewers will use one or more tplotetien!incancacent tangs as he ght aoure In addition, a diffuser is required to eliminate Variation in light intensity. A good illuminator will employ a rheostat to vary the light intensity. allowing lower-density radiographs or areas to be Viewed with optimum light conditions ’A film density of 2.0 is allowing only 1 percent of the incident light to be tranamited through the film, whereas a 4.0 density allows only 0.01 percent transmission. This fact illustrates the necessity for high-intensity film illuminators. ‘good highsintensity viewer should have an initial intensity of at least 1,000 footlamberts (1000/1 candelasf*) and be able to produce an intensity of 1'2 footlamberce((1 3-5 candela Soe radiographs in excess of 3.0 density so Background Lighting ‘The film illuminator should be located in an aree that allows for background light control. Although the viewing room need not be compietely dark, no direct light should impinge on the radiograph being viewed except trom the high-intensity iignt source. All precautions should be taken to ensure that other light is not reflecting off the surface of the radiograph and. potentially, distracting the film interpreter. It is desirable that the interpreter dark-adapt to the lighting conditions of the viewing room for at feast ten minutes before (ruerpreting radlographs. ‘Viewing alas During the process of evaluating and interpreting radiographs. numerous aids mav be used to enhance the ability of the interpreter in discerning. small indications. Included are masks to cover large portions of the film and allow concentration on small areas. Various magnifiers, including magnifiers with ‘comparators that employ an etched glass reticle, may be used. Interpretation Aids Reference radiographs with known discontinuity images are very useful in evaluating and interpreting radiographs. References that show these indications in typical product forme cush ar castings, welded pipe or tubing. pressure vessels, etc. are very usefulReference radiographs are commercially available from several sources, including ASTM and ASNT. ‘Overlays of clear plastic with printed and sized indications can frequently provide a convenient means for determining acceptance. particularly of scattered porosity and slag indications. ‘When interpreting radiographs, the specific code oor standard, at the very minimum, should be Svailable for the interpreter to ves in making ‘acceptance decisions Reference 2, Section 8, provides excellent coverage of radiographic viewing. Additional Ifuiniatiou Cat Ue foun i references 4,5, au 11 Judging Radiographic Quality Film Density The optical density ofthe fim is an accepted measure of the amount of information that has been recorded. The density is in proportion to the number of silver halide grains that have been exposed and developed into metallic silver. “The greater the density, the more detail available for evaluation. In accordance with the most commonly used codes and standards. the following of the radiograph in the area of interest: Film density 1.8 minimum, 4.0 maximum for Film density 2.0 minimum, 4.0 maximum for gamma ray. For viewing two superimposed radiographs. known as composite viewing, each film is usually required to be a minimum density of 1.3. The area of interest on each film beine evaluated should be ‘measured for acceptable density. using densitometers that have been calibrated to a national standard. Contrast Contrast of a radiograph is dependent upon both subject contrast and film contrast. The subject contrast is the ratio of transmitted photon intensities by two apesifie portionc of the opesimen. Subject contrast is affected by the material and thickness of the part, as well as the energy of radiation and the intensity and distribution of scatter. Flim contrast 1s determined DY the gradient at any point on the characteristic curve for a specific film. In general. the contrast of radiographic film increases continuously as the overall film density ‘When evaluating radiographs, contrast may be improved by revising the radiographic technique and using finer-grain, slower-speed (Class 1) film, increasing the film density, and/or by varying the radiation eneray to enhance the subject contrast caused by specimen Variations, Film Definition The blurring of the object image on the radiograph is caused by poor definition. The sharper he itage vutline ond features, the better the definition Definition is affected by two major components: ‘geometric unsharpness and inherent unsharpness. The inherent unsharpness 1s affected primary bY the film and screens chosen, the film screen contact, land the energy of radiation used. The geometric uunsharoness is affected by the source-to-obiect distance (SOD), the focal size of the source, and the object-to-film distance (OFD), If radiographic images being evaluated have poor definition, celecting 2 finer-grain film, Gecreasing the radiation energy, or suitably varying the source-to-film distance (SFD) or source size wi result in better geometric unsharpness. Artifacts Artitacts on radiographs can reduce the quality of the radiographs significantly and can cause ‘misinterpretation if not throughly understood. ‘Most film artifacts are caused by improper film processing and careless handling of films. screens, and cassettes. In addition, the film can be partially fogged or mottled because of improper storage. Commonly occurring film artifacts include those listed below. 1. Pressure marks: caused by improper handling of film and cassettes 2. Scratch marks: caused by fingernails or abrasives 3. Static marks: caused by static electricity generated when film is removed rapidly from a tight container 4. ‘Screen marks: caused by screen damage or 5. Streaks: due to ineffective agitation of solutions during development or rinsing. References 2. 6, 2. and 11 give extensive information with regard to identifying and taking preventive and corrective measures for artifacts. Indicators Image Quality The image. quality indicator (101), of penetrameter, is the primary indicator of SIradiographic quality dung production radiography. tis a means to judge the quality relative to requirements “The nlaqie-tyne penetrameter of the ASTM design specified in ASTM E-142 is the primary type used in North America, although the DIN wire penetrameter is becoming increasingly popular for Tigimtect vadivgaply. The ASME has adopted the ASTM penetrameter design, so that two plaque designs are common in the United States: ASTM/ASME and MIL-STD penetrameters. The MIL-STD penetrameters are similar to the ASTM penetrameters, but require material type and thickness tobe designate by lead markings onthe vetrameter. In both typer, ASTM and MIL-STD, the penetrameter isa rectangular metal plaque with three holes that are related co the penetrameter thickness. The holes are 17, 27, and 47 in diameter, ‘where 1 is the thickness of the penetrameter. quality level may be specified for sensitivity by indicating percent of specimen thickness the ppenetrameter should he ac well as the minimum Role size that must be visible. Typical quality level designations would be 2-17, 2-27. and 2-47. ‘When evaluating the adequacy of the raulograph, carefully exainine ie peueuanretcs image to ensure that the complete penetrameter ‘outline as well as the required hole can be seen. It is important that the density of the radiograph in the area of interest be within — 1S percent or +30 percent of the density through the body of the penetrameter and that this density meets the fninimum required by the particular code or Standard. Its important also that the correct enetrameter is used for the material thickness and type being radiographed. Equivalent Penetrameter Sensitivity Ifa required-thickness penatrameter 15 not available, or the thickness or hole size is more restrictive than required by the referenced code or tlandard, then an equivalent ceneitivity may be determined for the available penetrameter. Alternately, the specific penetrameter sensitivity for any specimen thickness may be calculated. ‘ine vanables of penetrameter thickness, penetrameter hole diameter, and specimen thickness can be expressed in 2 mathematical relationship. Thic relationship will yield the equivalent sensitivity of a specific penetrameter and a specific specimen thickness. @ where a. is the equivalent penetrameter sensitivity (in percentage), x ig the section thickness to be radiographed (in inches). 2 ushies), Tis the penetrameter thickuess and ‘his the penetrameter hole diameter (in inches) A detailed explanation of how to use the above equation in practical applications can be found in reference 12, ASTM E 142.77 or ASTM B-1025.94, Canses of Unsatisfactory Radiographs An unsatisfactory radiograph may be caused by ‘many individual items. Everything from improper goloction of the penstrameter to procecsing chemicals may cause the radiograph to be unacceptable. ‘Darkroom procedures that produce artifacts from loading and handling, and artitacts due to poor control of the processing of the film, must be eliminated. Probably the next most frequent cause is Ror ealactian of technique variahles followed nex! by poor technique, e.g., inadequate SFD, improper coverage, poor object-to-film contact, etc. Exposure Calculations Some codes and standards have established relationships between specific material types. ‘material thicknesses, and maximunw/minimum ralialiou eneray w be used for radiography. In most codes, other energies may be used ifthe required penetrameter sensitivity can be demonstrated, For Co-60 and 1-192, the unqualified minimum thicknesses in Table 6.4 typically apply. Logrlog graphs of material thickness versus radiation energy are commonly available and indicate the menimum unqualified energy thet should be used to obtain acceptable radiographic sensitivity ‘and contrast. Relations of Source, Distance, and Time ‘The three basic factors affecting the radiographic exposure are the milliamperage for X-ray or source activity for gamma ray, the TABLE 6.4. Minimum Thicknesses for Int92 and 0-60 rd consi. See oF 15m ope a ce! oesn tanexposure ume, ana tne SFL, These tnree ractors are ‘mathematically related as follows: where M is milliamperage, D is distance, and A. is activity (curies). amperage required for a given exposure ly proportional to the «quare of fooal spot-to-film distance (FFD) or SFD. The source-time relationship is, MT = Ms or AT, = ATs where T is time. The milliamperage or source sctivity (eure) ronuined Cow © given exparre ie inversely proportional to the time. The time-distance relationship is aaa T, D3 The exposure time fora given exposure is directly proportional tothe square ofthe PED or SFD. X-Ray Exposure Charts ‘An exposure chart is @ graph depicting the setavivuship Velween matctlal thicktess, Rilovolage and exposure for a specific film density and specific processing conditions, specific SFD, and screens, if used Figure 6.2 illustrates a typical X-ray exposure chart. From this chart, prepared for a specific X-ray machine/tube combination. the appropriate exposure for a specifie material thickneas may be selected From Figure 6.2. if 2 0.75 in. (19.1 mm) steel specimen were to be radiographed at 180 kV peak, then the exposure would be 8 mA-min. If, from the same data, one wishes to use the same technique, bout wants to increase the FFD from 40 to 60 in. (102 to 152 cm). the resulting exposure, using the source dictance equation, would be If mA.min The X-ray exposure chart allows one to select exposures that will produce a specific density. In the case of Figure 6.2. that density is 1.5. Ifa different Gensity 1s desired. say 2.9. then a correction tactor FIGURE 6.2. Typical exposure chart for steel; may [be applied to film X {see Figure 6.3), with lead {oll screens, at a film density of 1.5; source-to-tilm| [distance is 1.02 m 140 in.) 100 30 Pe s mg nd 2 5 ; Z io 2 20? lee 8 6 & oo] 3 3 o3| 2 INCHES OF STEEL Frm ne Mendes Tring Manat sco wien. Vong ‘must be calculated from the characteristic curve for the specific film being used. The characteristic curve for a film plots the density verane the log af the relative expaciere needed to produce that density. The characteristic ‘curve can be used to caiculate the ratio of any pair ‘of exposures by finding the antlog of the difference ir the velasive exposures. Fur exainple, if we wish increase the density from 1.5 to 2.5 in the previous problem. we would determine the difference in the relative exposure for each density. as follows: log Eat D = 2.5 = 20 log Eat D = 1.5 = 1.80 lifference in log E ~ 0.20 ‘The antilog of this difference is 1.58; therefore the oniginal exposure of 8 mA-min should be multiplied Dby'1.38 to give the correct exposure of 12.64 mA-min for a 2.5 density. Preparation of Exposure Charts for X-Ray Exposure charts are made using experimental ‘data. A series of radiographs of stepweages areFIGURE 6.3. Characteristic curves of three typical cray flims. exposed between lead foil screens 49) as made at several different exposure times and kilovoltages. Each film consists of densities corresponding to the transmitted intensities through the different steps of the wedge. A specific density, ‘such as 2.0, is chosen as the basis for the chart. Wherever 2 density of 7 ancure om a etepmadge the corresponding thickness and its exposure are plotted on a semilog graph (Figure 6.3). References 2 and 4 through 7 all present cinnougle explanations of low ty prepaie, wiwdify, and use X-ray exposure charts, Radioisotope Exposure Charts Gamma-ray exposure charts are similar to X-ray ‘exposure charts, but there is no variable corresponding to the kilovoltage. An exposure chart for a specific radioisotope such as Ir-192 would Contain one line for each lim type and density. Figures 6.4 illustrates this type of gamma-ray exposure chart In addition to charts. camma-rav exposure data «gan be conveniently displayed on a special slide rule. Several types and brands of gamma-ray slide rules lable. These slide rules allow quick jon of gammsnray expotute times for any curie activity of iridium or cobalt. any steel thickness. and any desired SFD. The only external item required is the exposure in roentgens specified by the film manufacturer for the particular film speed and desired density. This information is readily available for all major film brands. References 2. 4, 6, and 7 present appropriate metnods Tor calculating radioisotope exposure time and related factors Fiaiiae La typical gammmnvay aupoeowe Thar Fo] 1-192, based on use of film X (see Figure 6.3) 0 0 80 60 x 30 20 0 08 ox 03 (POSURE FACTOR (CURE AAMUTESSOUARE INCHES) 02 (EXPOSURE FACTOR [OSGABECO ERE MANUIESECLARECENIMEED) a ae ORES se.O61 62 0.63 6s ce 67 REVIEW QUESTIONS Release of hydrogen ions during film development ‘A. decreases the pH of the solution , increases the pH ot the solution CC. fixes the latent image D. catalyzes the reduction of silver halide E. is accompanied by release of carbon dioxide gas From a chemical viewpoint, the effect of the latent image on film development is. A. latent B. catalysis C. fixation D. neurosis E. none of the above Fixation of an unexposed film will result in A. film having a milky appearance B. milky fixer solution CC. formation of a negative image D. eclear film E, none of the above Addition of replenisher to a developing solution A. 1s not recommendes B. causes streaking on the film C. must be done at an elevated temperature to assure dissolution of the reducing agent D. should not be done more often than once a week E. is subject to none of the above is (are) widely used as a film developing agent, ‘A. Trinitrotoluene B. Acetosalicylic acid C._Parahydroxybenzene D. Carboxymethyl cellulose E, Both A and C Ac compared with film typically exposed to a density of 2.5, film enposed to an average ove requires a special stop bath for proper fixation will exhaust the developer solution more quickly is especialy difficult to dry requires both A and C requires uuue of the above poops Use of @ stop bath prevents frilling of the image inhibits fixation allows a shorter developing time neutralizes the acid fixer results in none of the above moow>wos, 2.69 2.6.10 Q61t Qe12 Qe13 aia 145 recommenaed that, as in ty being removeu fom ihe Ueveluping tank, ke Excess developer nt bbe drained back into the developer solution because ‘A. the developer clinging to the film is too exhausted to contribute to the developer solution B. tiny particles ot emulsion released dunng the developing process will only contaminate the solution C. the developer residing on the film is needed to maintain a balanced stop bath concentration D. of both A and B E, of both Band C Ifthe incident light intensity on a film is 30 units, and the measured transmitted light intensity is 1.20 sehat would the film dentity be? 32 18.5 139 23 10 Using the characteristic curve in Figure 6.4. what is the exposure correction factor for film Z when increasing film density from 0.5 to 1.75 density? moowps Avs BL Sa c. 63 D. 2.22 E. 178 Which one of the following is not a component of a typical developer solution? A. Phenidone B. Sodium carbonate C. Acetic acid D. Hydroquinone E. Sodium sulfide Development temperature in most automatic processors is in the range of AL 8185 °F B. 68-70°F C. 7478 °F D. 90-91 °F E, 95-98 °F Contamination of developer with as little as_____ fixer can result in serious developer ‘malfunction, A. 10.0 percent B. 1.0 percent C. 0.025 percent D. 0.09 percent E, 5.0 percent Teing the exposure curve af Figure & haw many minutes of expacure would he required ta endingeaph 70 mm of steel using copper screens and a 38 Ci cobalt-60 source? A. 3 minutes D. 30 minutes C. 8 minutes D. 296 minutes 5. 12 minutesQ.6:15 In general, when using the composite film viewing technique, each film should have a minimum density ct ar Bois e © 2 B13 E. none of the above Q.6-16 It an acceptable 2.5 density 1s obtained using 2 50 mA-min technique at an SFL of 24 mn., what would the exposure time be at 36 in. SFD using $ mA-min to obtain the same film density” A. 45 minutes B. 13.5 minutes C. 9 minutes D. 30 minutes E, 22.5 minutes7 RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES Blocking and Filtering Techniques ‘Scattering of radiation occurs during radiography using either X-radiation or gamma radiation. The wavelengths of the primary radiation are increased by most scattering processes with the resulting scatter being softer and less penetrating than the primary radiation. Any material that is supjected to direct radiation becomes a source or scattered radiation and steps must be taken to reduce this secondary radiation because scatter reduces the contrast of the images recorded on the film: This section deals with techniques available to reduce scattered radiation and its effects on a tadivgraph aan includes snashinys, diaplraysns, sereens, and fiers. Masking Depending on the energy range of the radiation-emitting source being used and the thickness of the specimen being radiographed, ‘masking the specimen with sheets of lead may teduce scatter tadiation to an ecceplable Kevel. Ty be successful, the lead must be cut to fit tightly around the edges of the specimen. Any major gaps or crevices will provide a path to the film, resulting in very erratic scatter patterns on the film. Masking is used primarily on those specimens that do not cover the film completely. i... small castings, bars, qualification camples, ete ‘Additional masking techniques involve the use of barium clay, a saturated solution of lead acetate and lead nitrate, or copper and/or steel shot. Diaphragms Diaphragms, made of high-Z material such as lead, are positioned to limit the radiation to that pasting through the epecimen to the fim. Frequently, the diaphragm is located at the tubehead to allow a cone of radiation to cover only the film. This minimizes scatter off cabinet walls and other objects. Screens Lead screens in contact with a film reduce the effects of eeattared radiation from all courses on the film. Front and back lead screens between 0.001 and 0.01 in. (0.025 and 0.254 mm) thick, in intimate contact with the film, are typically used for all radiographs taken with X-rays or gamma rays that exceed 150 kV. Screens are usually lead, but may be ‘other metals and alloys that will provide electrons for intensification. In high-enerey applications. such as betatron and linac radiography, lead screens up to 0.12 in. (3.05 mm) thick or more may be used. A sheet of lead, usually 1/16-1/8 in. (1.63.2 mm) hick, placed un the Lack side uf he fl Casscute, 1s beneficial in reducing backscatter. The scatter shield preferably should not be in contact with the cassette, but rather be located with a space between the cassette and shield of 6 in. (15 em) or more. Caution should be exercised when using bare lead scatter shields to ensure they do not come in direct contact ‘with the material being radiographod. Lead can contaminate certain materials Filters Filters may be placed either between the ahject being radiographed and the X-ray source or between the object and the film, When the filter is placed between the object and the film, the filter is intended ‘A metallic filter placed between the source and object reduces subject contrast by hardening the radiation. The longer (soft) wavelengths do not Penetrate the filter to the same extent as the short (hard) wavelengths. The beam emerging from the filter therefore contains a higher proportion of these penetrating (hard) wavelength. Filters reduce the quantity of radiation. This reduction selectively removes the softer, long wavelengths that do not penetrate thicker sections, Ihe low-energy radiation, t not hitered out, would increase the undercutting or burning out of the images in thinner sections. Guides to proper filter ‘tlectian vary haced fn |. material being radiographed, 2. thickness being radiographed, and ‘3. the amount ot scatter to reauce.‘Typical filters for aluminum and steel are shown in Table 7.1 Milter requirements vary depending on energy and object shape (Table 7.2). Filters are seldom used at the radiation source for megavolt radiography. Multifilm Techniques Extreme part thickness variations and ‘component configuration can result in the tranemiceinn af toa wide a range of intencities to be successfully recorded on a single film. There are two methods available to achieve acceptable radiographs of multithickness specimens. 1, Two separate exposures may be made, one for the thicker section and one for the thinner section. A multifilm technique may be used in which two or more films of the same or different film speeds are combined in a single cassette and expoted simultaneously ‘The first method will yield separate radiographs viewed independently through their usable density range. The disadvantage of this method is that the number of exposures must be at least doubled, Therefore, itis not always cost-effective The second method is more commonly used. ‘The exposure parameters are selected so that the thick sections are recorded on the faster film and the thinner on the slower film. This method is not imited to only two filme being expored together. In special cases, three to five films may be used, expanding the range of thickness over which high Contrast can be achieved with a single exposure. Flimsy may also be vieweu separately oF superimposed. ‘A commonly used variation of this method is to use two films of the same speed. With the correct ‘exposure parameters, the details inthe thick section can be evaluated by superimposing the images of both films. The thinner portion is recorded on bath filme, and either Glm oan be uzed for the evaluation. Enlargement and Projection In conventional radiography, it is desirable to have the lum as close as possible to the object being TABLE 7.1. Typical Filters for Aluminum and Stee! Maverat Fer Temes Fores exper Fo an TET HOT sit cope 2 of manmem specmen metres 8 ‘TABLE 7.2. Typical Filter, Screens for High-Energy Radiography Energy Object toad taeen Ta (el Seape “Front” ac ier corse ag2m —ootin corps 03m opin 1216 FR «G3. mtn 02S n Mor cempoxte conper 05 moon radiographed to reduce geometric unsharpness U,, ‘An exception to this rule occurs when the source’ of radiation is very small, i.e, a fraction of a millimeter, ae in a microfocue tube or in a betatron. In such a case, the film is placed at a distance from the object, rather than in contact with it, A setup of this type will produce enlarged radiographic images wiknout mtrodueing objectionable geometne unsharpness. Useful enlargements of up to three diameters have revealed structures otherwise invisible radiozraobicallv. Enlarzements on the order ‘of 10 times or more have been found feasible in microradiography with very small (near 1 ym, or 4 x 10° in.) focal spots. Geometric enlargements also reduce scattered radiation because an increase in test object to film distance reduces the proportion of scattered to direct-beam radiation reaching the film. Stereoradiography The stereoscopic method is infrequently used in industrial rafingranhy Put om necacinn, it ram be Used to Wcalize and characterize indications or t0 visualize the spatial arrangement of hidden sructure Because a single radiographic image does not vossese pospecivesireaneun give the mayne Of Aepth or indicate clearly the relative positions of the various parts ofthe object along the direction of vision. Stereoradiographic techniques can be used to {eate viewing percepuon simlarto that of eatoral vision. Objects viewed with a normal pair of eyes Appear in their true perspective and in their correct haa lation ta each her frgely Reasuee ofthe natura! stereoscopic vision of the human eyes (depth perception). Each eye receives a slightly different view. and the two images are combined by the brain (Orne the mupression uf duce Umensions "To duplicate this stereoscopic vision in radiography requires two radiographs made from two sitions of the X-ray tube separated by the normal man interpupilary distance: After processing, the two radiographs are viewed ina stereoscope, a device that by an arrangement of prisms or mirrors povmic nach ays to ee only one ofthe stereoradiographs. As in normal vision, the brainfuses the two images into one in which the various features stand out in relia im trae perspective and in correct spatial relation. It is important to remember that the radiograph ‘exposed in the rightshift position of the tube is ‘viewed by the right eye and the one exposed by the left-shift position is viewed by the left eye. In fact, the conditions of viewing the radiographs should be analogous to the conditions under which they were ‘exposed. ine two eyes take the place of ine two positions of the focal spot of the X-ray tube, and the Tadiograph as viewed in mirrors or prisms occupies the same position with respect to the eves as did the films with respect to the tube during the exposures, The eyes see the X-ray representation of the part Just as the X-ray tube exposed the actual part (see Figure 7.1) The stereoscopic impression is much more distinct if the specimen has a well-defined structure extending throughout its volume. If this structure ues uot East, tis desitable w simulate such a structure, What is used — i., lead markers, wires, etc. — must be determined by experimentation, FIGURE 7.1. Diagram of sterecscople radiographic setup [top] and stereoscopic viewer (bottom) Triangulation Methods As the name implies, triangulation (parallax) methods are based on @ similar-triangle relationship. Figure 7.2 shows this relationthip graphically. Radiographic triangulation (parallax) methods employ three variations of the similar-triangle relationship. These three methods are the 1. rigid formula, 2. single-marker approximate formula, and double-marker approximate formula. The data for a similar-triangle relationship are derived from the displacement of the image on the film plane. The film plane is used rather than the depth below the surface because intimate film contact with the surface of the partis not always possible, Rigid Formula A schematic diagram of the rigid-formula method is shown in Figure 7.3. The method is also ‘defined in the following equation: ar eel Ace, and ar. w=p-K= kg FIGURE 7.2. Similar‘rlangle relationship aFIGURE 7-3. Diagram of rigid-Formula parallax where is the image shift of the flaw, is the source shift between exposures, is the source-to-flm distance (SFD), the distance of the flaw above the film, WS the aistance of the part to tne fm, and is the height of the law above the back surface of the part. RFD ED By measuring or knowing the first three parameters, the fourth parameter can be calculated fon the basis of the similar-triangle relationship. With the tigid-formola method, uo matkers ave uecessary. However, the part thickness, the SFD, and the source shift must be accurately recorded, In addition. the image of the flaw must be shown on a double-exposed radiograph. The following exposure techniques should be used when applying the rigid-formula method: |. Calculate necessary exposure time. 2. Make first exposure at one-half of this exposure time. 3. Move source parallel to (and a specified distance along) the film plane. 4. Make second half of the exposure, Note the following points: 1. The rigid-formula method can be used when the film is placed in intimate contact with the bottom of the part. There are no limitations on the SFD. A significantly large ratio of SED to object-to-film distance (OFD) is desirable when using this method, 14s Important wo remember the folowing: a 1. The fumdamenal celattoustup beween Maw height and image shift is nonlinear. 2. As the flaw height approaches the SFD, the image shift increases without limit, Single-Marker Formula ‘When the part thickness and flaw height are small relative to the SFD, the relationship between D and B approaches linearity and the height of the faw above the film plane becomes approximately proportional to its parallax. A proportional relationship offers certain advantages in that an ial law or marker san be placed on tho sourse ‘de of the abject as shown in Figure 74. The height of the flaw can be estimated or calculated by comparing the shift ofits radiographic image with that of the marker. For example. the single-marker shift is twice the shift of the flaw. it would indicate that the flaw is approximately mid-wall The cingle.marker mathad eliminates the need for detailed measurement of part thickness, SFD, and the source-shift, as required by the rigid-formula method. Provided the film is in intimate contact with the part and an SFD at least ten tmes tne thickness of the partis used, the maximum error that can be expected is on the order of 3 percent of the part thickness. Double-Marker Formula Ifthe film cannot be placed in direct contact the object or if the image of the flaw is not present on a double-exposed radiograph. thedouble-marker method would be applicable. See Figure 7.5. If both markers are thin, one can neglect their thicknece and aeetime that they renrecent the top and bottom of the part ‘By measuring the parallax (image shift) of each marker as well as that of the flaw, the relative position of the Maw between the two teat surfaces of the part can be obtained by linear interpolation using the following equations: By ~ By ~ 4B, and and where Hy is the height of flaw above the film-side ‘marker, and Hyp, 1S the distance between the source-side marker and the film-side marker Flash Radiography Exposure times of one-millionth of a second or less can be achieved through the use of specially FIGURE 7.5. Double-marker approximate method designed high-voltage generating equipment and Xray tubes. Such exposure times are significantly ‘chat in peavide stopemation eadiographe of Projectiles, high-speed machinery, and other objects. The gencral principles that govern the production and the imaging characteristics of X-rays Sie ietivel for eantveusigual static radiograplly atid flash radiography. In conventional X-ray tubes, thermionic cathode is used to produce an electron beam that is accelerated and focused to strike a small spot on a metal plane target. This basic mechanism is also used in flash idiography. However, because thermionic cathodes nat eapahie of peadvcing the very high peak current densities and total currents required for flash radiography, different electron sources must be used. These sources do not allow effective focusing. Fhe election beat, 90 special X-ray tube and. target geometries must be designed to achieve the necessary confined focal spot. High electron density sources are 1. gas discharge tubes, 2. field emission tubes, and 3. vavuuii distlianyes, ‘The characteristics of some systems that have been used for flash radiography are shown in Table 7:3. The mages can be recorded on film or viewed ‘on electro-optical systems. Film Recording Very fost film/sereen combinations are used to obtain adequate film exposures. A dual-emulsion light-sensitive film is placed in close contact with ‘and between two fluorescent screens that absorb and convert a portion of the ineident X-rays to hight, ‘exposing the emulsion facing each screen. The response curves of these dual-emulsion films are ‘wpically § shaped. as shown in Figure 7.6 ‘The film density range is more limited than that of film used in conventional radiography, and the slope of the H & D curve (gamma factor) is small at both short and long exposures, ceaultion fu sey how image contrast, Careful adjustment of the exposure is required to achieve image quality and contrast. Choice of screens is a trade-off between speed and resolution. Thicker screens have more Output but reduced resolution. High-speed film is generally selected but, on occasion. a slower film speed is ued to avoid excessive quantum nnien in the image Until 1975, the standard film/screen combination for flash radiography generally used thick calcium tungstate sereens matched to blue-sensitive uatrenualson flis- Sive tha te. faster and more efficient rare earth screens have been matched with films sensitive to longer wavelengths. Such films have been used in medical radiography and have been ted with flash radiography. Rare earth screens a_ATABLE 7.5. Special Flash Radiography Systems Foca Nomina Spot xem are pow per rue “Fe Son erally type Degnertulser Batt ae Metre Duration fmm) Man Applcatons ont 2 Nou sowoy coy mee leone caprrcaaaw Ermine 8 won fan Xe atacon ee Mev Mnurien ARE UR wR tam sce mang ws non cet 25 tw evercon a race ee haere rps vere mots en ag wns weve 29 "Reena" rao co perce ag rae Thee Mansbumion CAV =D soe eur vey gn wentoa “ere econo a ry Gare OMe Une eer or Manet ohm as censonnony i oe Non toro women roan Dev sommutney Los Ramee ee om tage ene meme in Rewore Now ooey Mok Ron ech em Sesenem mee Somer vee “hom week BE eh yon GoMey ne feces re mere =I855 MR Lage ene Nooowusswsy ne oe Sint = es Ue Liane he an ane TG RO SR OS VO FIGURE 7.6, Flim density and contrast factor curves typical of dual emulsion films used with Intensitying sereens for lash radiography er Dersity, © a | oem, hhave been found to be less effective than calcium tungstate screens in absorbing high-energy X-rays do their use in Mash Fauiograpny has beet! tt lower voltages (in the range of 100 to 300 kV) Electro-Optical Systems Electro-optical systems are increasingly used in fash radiography for any of Several reasons: 1. preservation of the image in 2 destructive event, 2. high Brightness gain to record very faint images, or 3. separation of successive images at high frame rates in cineflash radiography. Additional data on these systems are available from a number of published papers and journals. In-Motion Radiography ‘The techniques used for in-motion radiography (IMR) are the same as for conventional static radiographic techniques except for the exposure nie. Thee eapusute tue fs uouver ted apeed Uf travel and is recorded as some distance per minute. ‘Two methods are available for density control (1) decrease density by increasing speed or (2) Increase gensity by decreasing speed. Ihese are affected by!ype of material being raulvgraplied. thickness of material. film speed, use uf intensifying screens, and source-to-film distance. Advantages of IMR are that it 1, permits inspection of almost unlimited part sizes with slightly modified conventional 2. can be used in production shops without radiation hazard because of equipment used. and permits images to be recorded on @ continuous sheet of film. ‘An exposure is made with one of the following techniques. 1. A part is moved through a collimated beam Of radiation emitted bya etationary eouree 2. A collimated source is moved relative to a stationary part Image blurring has beeu deteriived w Ve greatest in the direction of motion. Variables must be established to determine the influence of blurring. ‘These variables are determined through the use of ‘equations derived from equations used in static radiography to determine unsharpness U, Fd " "Dod (&q. 1) where F is effective focal spot size, D i cource-to-film dictance, and 4. is defect-to-film distance. Unsharpness due to motion is derived from equation | using te relativmships in eyuatius cr 4 (see Figure 7.7 for definitions): (Eq. 2) and F M M+U x" D D-Xx TE +9) yw RE+ 5 u 7 (Eq. 3) (Eq. 4) ‘The conditions for unsharpness due to motion are shown graphically in Figure 7.7. IMR techniques currently used in industry are the following. 1, Linear motion: The part under inspection is moved past the collimated X-ray beam or the rallimatnd Xray hes fe ceanned ever the surface of the part. asin Figure 7.8. Rotary motion: The X-ray source and slit are stationary and the cylindrical part rotates sou aegrees of more through che collimated X-ray beam, as in Figure 7.9. 3. Synchronous radiography: Applicable to Pyalieal mation: reqitne m chartpulee X-ray generator capable of adjustments of the pulse to match the speed of the eyelical motion. Applications of IMR to production-related activities since its conception in 1956 have been to examine the following weldments. 1 2. brazed honeycomb structures, 3. adhsive-tonded honeycomb structures, 6FIGURE 7-8. Linear inemotion radiography ot vees COUMATED BAY BoM 02) 4, muclear fuel elements, and 5. rocket motors, As with any nondestructive technique, the user minct concider the advantagee and dicadvantagae: Advantages Radiographic setup tme ts reauced. There are fewer individual films to interpret. Distortion of specimen image is reduced. Area of interset on thicker eeetione ~ill appear sharper than with a conventional stationary radiograph, Disadvantages 1. Because of the motion between the source 1nd the recarding meditim thie mathad ie limited to thin specimens. Large focal spot creates a need for tight collimation, which in turn results in a higher percentage loss of X-ray energy. Fluoroscopy Fluoroscopy is the original term used to everibe the direct viewing of Nuoreseent screens, Fluoroscopic (real-time) radiography has been in use since Dr. Roentgen used phosphor screens to inspect, bbacwace at the Brussels railroad station in 1897 Real-time radiography, or real-time imaging, is the term now used (o describe this imaging technology and any technique where the image is Sisplayed as iti formed The arrangement (i.c., setup) of the source, ‘object, and image recorder is essentially the same as in a conventional radiographic technique. See Figure 7.10. Although systems operate on this same baste principle, there has been much improvement in the radiation sources: object handling; fluorescent screen performance; and personnel radiation protection. Even with considerable improvements, the 1ow brightness level ofthe screens is stil a definite disadvantage and requires thatthe inspector work in a'darkened environmentFIGURE 7.10. Basic fluoroscopic setup RADIATION, LAARRIER woRescent” anon ‘SCREEN mason from he Nanrercie Ping Harpo en on. Von These basic systems are still in use todav. They are inexpensive, simple. and provide results immediately. The need for this rapid inspection system still exists. Primary uses are for inspection (oft light castings: electrical components: foods explosives; mail; and baggage. Electron Radiography This technique uses higtveneray secondary mye fir ranarding 2 Specimen image on flim, Within the discussion of electron radiography, it must be recognized that there exist two distinct procedures: |, electron transmission radiography, and 2. electron emission radiography. Electron transmission radiography has been used fo evaluate paper-thin, low-aiomic-number specimens when hard X-ray photons (about 250 kV) produce secondary photoelectrons. These electrons tre normally from lead foil and arc used to register @ latent image on a film. Electron emission radiography (specimen electron emission) uses hard X-ray photons to Produce secondary photoelectrons at the surface ot a suitable specimen, enabling a material-related surface image to be formed on the film “The radingranhie setup foe hath af the electran radiographic techniques is shown in Figure 7.11. Note that in the transmission technique, the photoelectrons are produced from the lead foil above find adjavent ty Ure sposinren. However, rs emission technique, the specimen itself is the source Of the photoelectrons. Technique Examples These examples are for 2 250 kV X-ray machine sich a 3 eam (0.2 in.) copper an 2 Muminucn fer to harden the Nradiation rm 02) Come He WN FIGURE 7.11 Electron radiography: (a) transmision technique, (b) emission technique co) A= Ai \Teanquatsslon Teclnlyue 1. Lead foil must be thin, i.e., 0.001 in, (0.025 mm. 2. Film must contact opposite side of specimen, 3. Light-tight bag, air-evacuated to improve ‘ample to film contact. Emission Technique 1, Surtace of specimen should be polished in the area that will contact film. 2. Light-tight bag is also recommended, Exposure parameters are determined experimentally. Microradiography Microradiography is a radiographic technique With limited industrial applications. The specimens to be examined are thin, with low X-ray absorption, and the detaile to be studied are too ema for the unaided eye. Thus, the radiographic image must be evaluated through the use of @ microscope or optical projector. ‘ine technique generally employs sott (3-20 kV) X-rays and very fine-grain, single-coated film or sass photographic plates. The applicable target size sas the name implies, typieally T ym (4 % 107? in) in diameter. Source-to-film distances range from 3 to 12 im, (8 to 30 em). Commercial applications are limited. Following are some examples L.__ cemented joints in corrugated cardboard, 2, distinguishing between natural and cultured peatls, 3. integrated circuits. 4. certain thin-wall weldments (0.5 in. or 13 au, and 5. honeycomb sections Biological applications include: tissue sections. insects and seeds. Metallurgicat applications include powders and segregation of constituents and minute discontinuities in thin sections. Tomography Any technique that produces an image of a region in a plane af an abject withont interference from the adjacent planes can be generally classified as tomography. Classical tomography. or laminography. has been int use in the meuical profession since the Io¥0s, Iu vecem yeats, applicauious of compuverized tomographic techniques have been successful for the inspection of metal and concrete structures, intricate internal details, and parts as small as aluminum capacitors. Laminography is achieved by moving the source and the detector during the exposure. This movement must be coordinated in cuch @ way that ‘only the shadowgraph of the plane of interest is sharply imaged. Figure 7.12 provides a simple schematic of the basic principle. To simplify the concept snown in Figure /-12, remember the source and the film are rotating around a point P. To achieve the sharpest image of P, the image plane must remain pemendicilar ta the radiation beam Advances in technology have created an updated tomography technique: computer tonwgrepliy. Motion Leeween the UetecIOF, OOJeCt, and source is stil essential. Ideally, with this technique, the radiation is confined to the plane of interest and produces an imase with insignificant interference from adjacent planes. In computer tomography, the image plane is parallel to the beam axis, i.e, perpendicular to the Image produced by the classical technique. This uncluttered image must be produced by computer techniques, which is a drawback, owing to the complex programming and expensive computing equipment. TIGURE TE. Smple SERGTRE OF Hi BSTC e@ laminography principle‘Auditionel data for review can be Found in references 2 and 11 Control of Diffraction Scatter Effects X-ray diffraction, which has very little in common with radiography, ie an extremely valuable tool in the laboratory for identifying compounds, determining crystalline structures, and studying the effect on metals of cold work and annealing. Dittraction of an incident X-ray beam results when i strikes a uniform crystal structure at certain orientations of the atomic planes formed by the crystal. The distances between the atomic planes are fon the same order of magnitude as low energy X-ray ‘wavelengths. Under appropriate conditions the lectrons associated with each atom will scatter the Secray Lean in a suhcrent manner and produce @ diffraction pattern, ‘A special form of scatter caused by X-ray diffraction is encountered in the radiography of relatively thin, large-grained. metallic specimens. Radiographically. this type of scatter (caused by diffraction) mottles the image and gives it a grainy ‘appearance. Thic ceatter can be confuced with images of porosity, segregation, or shrinkage. It can be distinguished from these conditions by taking an additional radiograph with a slight shift (Le.. 1 to 5 degrees) of the radiation angle DY moving the specimen or the source Ifa defect exists in the suspect area, the changes in the image will be minor as the result of this shift. However, if the mottled image is caused by diffraction, it will change the recorded image. ‘The mottling caused by diffraction can be reduced by Increasing the kiluvuluage us by using fess. Panoramic Exposures In thoae inatanees where both the inside and ‘outside surfaces of a pipe or cylindrical vessel. hemispherical head, or small parts with the same ‘geometries are accessible, the panoramic technique Ean be Used. Figures 7.13, /.14, and /.1> snow the general arrangement of the source of radiation and the film. Pipe Welds and Cylindrical Vessels For pipe or cylindrical vessels, the thickness ‘and diameter will dictate the appropriate source. Source size must be considered in order to ‘cuutiul yevmetie unsharpnes> Uy: FaUne 7.18) Wold redhngophy of iareer ‘diameter pipes and pressure vessels FIGURE 7-14. Hemispherical orange-peel head ‘exposure arrangement Location of the weld seam must be considered in relation to the open or accessible end of the pipe. Hemispherical Heads Thickness of the weld seam(s) in hemispherical heads must be considered in selecting the approy rope or X-ray energy. e relative positions of weld and source must be considered in order to maintain all geometric principles, i... same SFD, perpendicularity of Fadiation beam to plane of Gm, ete oN. “oe SMe Again, source size must be considered in order to control geometric unsharpness U ‘Small Parts ‘The thickness or range of thicknesses of small parts must be considered to arrive at the most ‘economical and time-effective technique. Identification of parts must be maintained. The panvioiiiy texlinigue is accept codes. standards, and specifications. but requirements that must bé controlled vary. Applicable codes, standards. and specifications should specify requirements for fe wo anes penetrameter placement, backsvaner munivuring, souree-to-film distance, geometric unsharpness. film types and speeds, and identification of pars. Thic technique fe hy far the fastest and most economical method of performing radiographic examination and should always be considered if allowed by the applicable code. standard, or specincation 0 Real-Time Imaging Previously, fluoroscopy was discussed as the preaecessor of real-time ragiograpny. However, advances such as improved phosphors and increased high-energy X-ray sensitivity for image intensifiers, digital video processine for image enhancement rmicrofocal X-ray generators for high-definition imaging, highly automated handling systems for rapid inspection, and computer contsol of these varius subayaicnss have enbauved uF veplaval fluoroscopy in today’s industry Real-time imaging uses penetrating radiation to produce images that are viewed on a monitor Concurrent with the irradiation of the part. Advances in the electronic industry have greatly assisted real-time imaging. Image amplifiers and television eyoteme were fret uced around 1950, Image amplifiers have: improved visual acuity: improved image contrast; and eliminated the need for one> butt weld between 2 in. thick plates consumable insert weld on small-diameter pipe long seam weld on a storage tank . large-vesse! nozzle weld ‘One of the major benefits of the use of a radiographic enlargement technique is that it ‘A. increases the focal spot size Reduces sesttar radiation C. decreases geometric unsharpness D. decreases exposure time Iu stereotadiogtapliy the shift f the X-ray ube for the required second exposure is based on the pomp ‘A. thickness of the part B. type ot incication bemg evaluated C._ type of prisms used in the stereoscope D. normal interpupillary distance ‘The triangulation method to determine the depth of a law is based on the relationship. ‘A. source-to-film distance B. similar-triancle C. markers-to-film D. shift-to-time When using the rigid formula for triangulation. itis important to remember thet the flaw light aud image shift are A. linear B. proportional C. nonlinear D. criticalQ.7-8 The relative position of a flaw between the outside and inside surfaces can be obtained by linear inverpolation ws ‘A. double-marker formula B. step-down technique CC. sigte-narkes forsnle D. rigid formula In flash radiography various sources of high-energy electrons are available. Which of the following is rot a source of these electrons? A. Gas discharge tubes B. Vacuum discharge C. Field emissions D. Gamma ray sources Q.7-10 When using flash radiography techniques, care must be taken when selecting the correct combination of radiographic variables. Which of the following is nor considered as important as the other three? A. Source of electrons B. Exposure time CC. Film speed D. Sereen combination 9.7.11 The technique for in-motion radiography is essentially the same as conventional techniques excevt the exposure time is based on A, source-to-film distance RB DIT ratio CC. speed of travet D. geometric unsharpness considerations @.7-12 There are currently three in-motion radiographic techniques used in industry. Which of the following listed techniques is nor an in-motion radiographic technique? A. Linear motion B. Rotary motion CC. Stereographic motion D. Synchronous radiograph (Q.7-13 A higher percentage loss of usable radiation is expected dung m-motion ragiograpmic tecnmiques as the result of A. collimation B. filtration C.. speed of travel D, absorption Q.7-14 In considering the use of a fluoroscopic technique to evaluate electrical components, the is still considered a disadvantage. A. source of radiation B. low brightness level of the screen C. exposure of personnel to radiation D. manipulating device ‘The electron radiographic technique utilizes in lieu of X-rays when using either the electron transmission or electron emission procedure. A photaelectenns B._photomicrons C. scattered secondary radiation D. secondary photoelectrons nQri7 rs Q719 e720 Q72 78 ‘AcTay alftraction und ihe resulta pattetus recorded out concer when radiographing A. thick sections of steel! specimens B. aluminum specimens CC. bimetallic weld samples D. grainy metallic specimens If the panoramic technique of radiography is sclected, one of the most important factors to be considered is the ‘A. material composition B. thickness uniformity C. film type D. pe Real-time systems employ fluorescent screens or semiconductive material that affect the image quality Factors that affect the system contrast are listed below. Select the factor that does not affect system ‘A. Quantum fluctuation B. Gamma of screens CC. Intensifiers D. Television monitors Image-analysis techniques convert analog TV images into a digitized image that is further quantized in fe huspecuou meutuun ave oF prin ‘A. time and space RR cpace and intencit C. distance and time D. brightness and clarity Imagercohancement techniques currently used include thee of the Four applications listed Lelow: Identify the nonimage-enhancement technique. A. Edge enhancement B. Spatial filtering C. Pseudocolor enhancement D. Static radiography In high-energy radiographic applications. screens vary depending on the energy used. When using an 8 MeV Linatron, which of the following thicknesses would be the most appropriate front sereen thickness? A. 0.030 in. Pb B, 0.125 in. Pb ©. 0.010 in. Ph D. 0.250 in. AlRADIOGRAPHIC Image-Object Relationships Ip the fisld of radiographic film interpretation, ‘one of the key factors to know and understand is the relationship between the radiographic image and the physical makeup of the object. Much has been written about how differences in thicknesses, composition. and density of the material being ‘examined affect the subject contrast and sensitivity of radiographe. However, knowing what to expect, when a radiograph is presented for interpretation is ‘an acquired skill about which very little has been written Interpretation of a raciograph 1s much more than looking at film. To interpret and analyze the results of any radiographic examination. the interpreter misc first judge the quality of the radiograph with regard to the applied technique, density, penetrameter selection and sensitivity, identification of film. coverage of part, and artifacts. Secondly, te interpreter must Idenufy rejectable discontinuities and judge them as true flaws oF artifacts attributed to the radiographic process. Any anifacts that may mask a rejectable flaw must be verified with another exposure whether it be another view already taken or a specific verification ‘exposure. Knowledge of the component or part ‘Configuravivi ain) miainuCavturing process #9 # 1¥9t for the interpreter to make sound judgments. These i sulidifies aint Govls. It ay oF ‘may not be acceptable, depending on population, design function and several other factors. Hot tears are cracks or ruptures occurring while metal is very hot: usually not acceptable Cracks result from stresses in cast material which occur at relatively low temperatures: always table besauce of tendeney to propagate under stress. Unflused chaplets result from the failure of the liguid metal to consume the metal device used 10 Support the core inside the mold. If the chaplet is, totally unconsumed. the part is normally unacceptable because of the obvious metallurgical prableme Cold shuts are the result of splashing, surging, interrupted pouring, or the meeting (without fusion) of two streams of molten metal Radiographic Appearance of Discontinuities The previously identified and discussed discontinuities are normally identifiable by their radiographic imaves. Welding Discontinuities Porosity shows as rounded well-defined high-density spots with sharp contoursStag mcwusions usually appear as ark irregular shapes of varying lengths and widths. They are dark ‘when the oxide that makes up the inclusions is of a lower atomie weight than the weld meta ‘Lack of fusion normally shows as 2 thin, straight dark line parallel to the weld. Lack of fusion occurring between the weld and the side wall {encrally appears straight on one aide and irregular fn the other side. It will ypically appear some distance from the weld centerline Incomplete penetration typically appears 2s & sharp. dark, contmuous or mtermittent tne. Depending on weld join fit-up geometry, this dark line may occur in the center of the weld or along the ge of 9 weld hovel Cracks normally show as dark, iregular, wavy or zigzag lines and may have fine, hairline indications branching off the main crack indication Tungsten inclusions appear as very lght, almost white, indications because of tungsten’s higher radiation absorption Casting Discontinuities Porosiny appeats radiographically as rounded dark spots of various sizes. Gus vols appeat & large, 1ouded, Wark indications, normally with smooth edges. Sand inclusions appear as light or dark indications (depending on the relative densities of the inclusion and the base metal) of irregular shapes. Shrinkage appears as irregularly shaped spots of varying densities, which often appear to be interconnected "Hot tears appeat as dark, ragged, irregular lines and may have @ number of branches of varying densities: Jess clearly defined than cracks. Cracks normally appear as dark, irregular, intermittent or continuous lines, usually quite well-defined. Unfured chaplets are easily identified ae cirovlar dark lines approximately the same diameter as the core support device Cold shuts appear as dark lines or linear areas ot varying renga. Codes, Standards, Specifications, and Procedures In all nondestructive test disciplines, the use of applicable codes, standards. and specifications in the preparation of the procedures for performing the test is essential, This applies to radiographic inspection as well. Contractual requirements usually dictate the specific requirements that are applicable to 3 particular component ‘The radiographic interpreter must be capable of interpreting and applving specified acceptance critena. 1n addition, ne Or she Must also De knowledgable In tne technique used 19 make the ‘exposure and its effects on the image. For the interpreter to properly determine technique acceptability, the following guidelines should be used. 1. Component, What is it? Circumferential Piping weld, preceure veces! long e valve body, nozzle, pump housing, etc.” Obtain a drawing, sketch, weld data sheet, etc. Study the configuration, the material type, the Joint design, and the thickness involved Welding data. How was it fabricated? Are thors heat treatment requirememte? What ic the surface finish? What welding process was used? ‘As you review this information, some of the basic parameters needed to determine technique acceptability can be evaluated: 1. Thickness of part determines the penctrameter requirements and required/permitted radiation energy. Reinforcement determines the need for shims, 3. Welding process provides an indication of what types of discontinuities are expected. 4, Configuration has a direct bearing on exposure/viewing tecnnique selected, 1.¢., double wall, single wall, panoramic, etc. 5S. Heat treatment may have a bearing on whether graininess ie a problem ta be expected or whether stress-related discontinuities may be present. Accessibility affects technique, e.g., placement of penetrameters. Surface finish may aid or hinder interpretation of nonrelevant indications. 6 This review will help answer questions pertaining to the physical make-up of the component. and the expected effects on the resulting Taaiograpns. The radiographic interpreter should also be knowledgeable of the the effects of the following radiogranhie variables on the radiographic image source-to-film distance, ‘source placement, film placement, radiographic coverage required, ‘num sevection, sereens, and film processing technique and processing variabl Radiographic film interpretation is more than knowing or understanding codes, standards, specifications, procedures, and the properapplication of acceptance standards, A knowledge of Excellent coverage of radiographic Melding proveseee; cacting techniques, ate.,-ar wall interpretation san he fovind in raeromene 9. 4, 11, 1% as radiographic testing in general, is imperative. and 14.Qs 82 Vas 08-4 ss O86 087 REVIEW QUESTIONS Proper interpretation of a radiograph requires that the film interpreter has an understanding of A. film speed B. configuration and manufacturing variables C. exposure time D. all the above Which of the discontinuities listed below would nor be classitied as a welding discontinuity’ A. Lack of fusion B. Incomplete penetration C._ Slag inclusion D. Cold shut ‘Generally speaking, rounded or spherical volas resuluing from rapped gas durin would be identified as A. slag inclusion B. wagon tracks C._ porosity D. tungsten inclusion ‘Nonadhesion between successive passes or along the edge of a weld preparation is called le wellting process lack of fusion A B. incomplete penetration CC. cracks: D. root concavity Localized contraction of cast metal as it solidifies and cools may result in AL gas voids B. cold shuts C. shrinkage D. cracks Dark irregular images of varying length, density, and width on a radiograph of a submerged arc-welded joint would probably be the reeult of ‘A. lack of fusion B. trapped slag C._ incomplewe penetration D. hot tears ‘An area of nonfusion at the root area of a weld. which normally occurs when there is a problem with hheat input, improper joint design. poor fit-up, or improper electrode selection, is generally referred to as ack of fusion wagon tracks slag lines incomplete penetrationss 89 O81 snr 813 Qs ‘A very light (almost white) indication detected in a piping joint that was welded using the tungsten inert ‘sss process would probably be ‘A. crater pits B. porosity C. weld spatter D. tungsten inclusion Porosity in a weld may not be critical. Which of the following porosity conditions is nor normally considered detrimental w welds? A. It is present in large quantities. B. It is randomly dispersed and less than 1/64 in, diameter. {At contains snarp tauts D. It is aligned in short distances All welding processes have three common variables. Which of the following is nor one of those variables? A. Source of heat B. Source of shielding CC. Size of electrodes D. Source of chemical elements and reinforcement requirements are important in determining if the proper penetrameter(s) were used. A. Surface finish B. Welding C. Thickness D. Heat treatment (One of the factors that affects the solidification of cast material is the A. temperature of the cover gas B. material composition c. ty D. root opening in all forms are considered the most detrimental because their sharp extremities act as A. Slag inclusions B. Tungsten inclusions c. Oxtges D. Cracks ‘The ______ will normally provide the film interpreter with some indication of what types of discontinuities would be expected. A. thickness B. welding process C._ type of component D. preheat temperatureANSWERS FOR REVIEW QUESTIONS | 2 menanaan

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