X-RAY GENERATORS

After reading this section you will be able to do the

following:

Identify the main parts to the basic X-ray generator.

List the three things that an X-ray generator must supply
in order to produce X-rays.

In this section the basic construction of X-ray equipment and some

different types of X-ray systems will be introduced. Most standard X-ray
systems have three main components which are an X-ray tube, a high
voltage power supply, and a control unit. Working together, these
components are common to all standard systems.

From our introductory discussion on the generation of X-rays you may

recall that there were three principle requirements to generate Xradiation. These three requirements include a source of electrons, a
means of acceleration, and a target for interaction. You should
recognize that electrical power is necessary for X-ray generation.
Where do the electrons come from?
You already know that matter is made up of atoms, and atoms have
electrons that orbit around the nucleus in shells. All we need to do is
get the electron free of their orbit. How do we do this? The answer is
fairly simple. If we take a piece of conductive wire and pass a current
through it, the wire will heat up due to the resistance in the wire. The
heat of the wire excites the electrons and they will break away (boil off)

from the wire to expend the energy picked up from the heat of the
current. When the energy of the electron is expended, it will return to
the wire to become heated again. So this heated wire serves as our
source of electrons.

Why do the electrons need to be accelerated and how is it

done?
Our second requirement is to get the electrons traveling at high
speeds. The reason we need to propel the electrons at high speeds is
because the energy that the electron possesses and can transfer is
dependent on its velocity. The higher the velocity of the electron when
it interacts with an atom, the greater the energy of the radiation that
will be produced. Propelling the electron is fairly simple. Since unlike
charges (positive and negative) attract, and electrons posses a
negative charge, all we need is a positive charge nearby to attract the
electron. We can accomplish this by placing a piece of metal (anode) a
short distance away from the wire filament (cathode).

When we apply a voltage to this anode, we place a high positive

charge on it. This high positive charge acts much like a magnet, only it
is attracting free electrons. The positive charge will possess a strong
attractive force to the negative charge of the electrons that are boiling
off of the filament. This attractive force pulls the electrons towards the
anode at high speeds. By increasing the voltage applied to the anode
we can increase the speed of the electrons.
What does the target material do?
The third and final requirement is to have a target material for the
electrons to interact with. By placing some sort of matter between the
electrons (filament) and the positive charge (anode) we meet our need.
Also, the anode itself can be used as the target. In high voltage X-ray
generators a special target material (tungsten) is usually embedded
into the anode. This gives the electrons a suitable material to interact
with and produce x-rays. When the electron hits the target material,
several things can happen. The electron can be absorbed by an atom
and its energy transferred to the atom, the energy of the electron can
cause another electron to be knocked out of its energy shell, or the
electron may just slightly interact with other atomic particles. Radiation
will be produced in all of these cases, but the energy of the radiation
will be different.
The following illustration is a basic schematic representing an x-ray
tube:

Modern X-ray tubes come in many shapes and sizes; normally they are
of the glass or metal-ceramic tube (envelope) style. As compared to
early gas filled X-ray tubes, modern tubes are of the high vacuum
style. The modern techniques of tube design have allowed for smaller
tubes, extended tube life, and more efficient and stable operation.

The means of acceleration of the electrons is provided by applying a

potential difference (voltage) across the tube anode and cathode and
is independent of the voltage and current across the filament.

The x-ray tube is technically referred to as an envelope. Typical

construction may be from blown glass or metal-ceramic styles. Glass
envelope tubes are still common today, although they have definite
disadvantages to the newer metal-ceramic designs. Due to the
tremendous amount of heat generated during X-ray production, glass
suffers from thermal and mechanical shock. Metal-ceramic materials
do not suffer damage from the excessive heat to the degree that glass
does and are rapidly replacing the glass style tube.
The Cathode
From the above illustration let's look at each of the components
separately beginning with the cathode. The cathode is the negative
terminal of the tube assembly and includes the filament, which is a
small-coiled wire that is commonly made from tungsten. The filament
provides the electrons for acceleration to the target (anode). Tungsten
is metal with the desired properties for filaments; you have probably
seen a tungsten filament in a light bulb before. The filament is
normally powered by an alternating current that is supplied to it by a
separate transformer.

In many of the X-ray tubes, the current supplied to the filament ranges
from a few hundred micro-amperes (symbol 109 \f "Symbol" \s 12mA)
to several milli-amperes (mA). Filament current may be varied or fixed

to maintain a constant tube current. Remember from our earlier

discussion that the filament supplies the electrons. An adjustment in
current to the filament varies the number of electrons that will boil off
the filament. This in turn controls the number of X-rays that the tube is
generating. Filament current controls the X-ray intensity.
The Anode
The positive terminal of an x-ray tube is called the anode, it serves
three important functions, (1) it provides a complete circuit for
purposes of accelerating the electrons, (2) it houses the target
material, and (3) it helps to cool the tube. We already mentioned
before that the generation of X-rays generates a tremendous amount
of heat. If the heat in a tube was ignored, the target material that is
embedded in the anode would be destroyed in a short period of time.
The anode is typically made from materials with good thermal
properties to dissipate heat. Copper and tungsten are common anode
materials. In addition to using thermally conductive materials for the
anode, alternate means of cooling that may be employed are gas, oil,
water, or air.

Does the density of the target material matter?

As previously mentioned, the anode also houses the target material. As
an integral part of the tube, the target requires special consideration.
The target provides the means for electron interaction (bombardment).
The target is commonly made from tungsten and other materials like
cobalt, iron, or copper. Another important characteristic of the target
material is its density. The material must be of high atomic mass for
electron interaction. Remember that when the electron interacts with
the target atoms the result is the generation of X-rays. Low density
materials do not provide sufficient density for interaction.
The High Voltage Power Supply

A high voltage power supply is an important component of an X-ray

generation system. When we say high voltage supply, we need to
differentiate from that of commercial electricity. Keep in mind that the
filament uses a relatively small voltage supply to cause small currents
(mV) in the filament, while the anode of the tube requires a large
voltage supply to maintain a high positive charge for acceleration of
the electrons. Commercial power is commonly available as 110 volts,
220, or 440 volts. X-ray systems require very high voltages commonly
in the range from 5 kilovolts (kV) to as much as 400 kV or more. So
how can we supply low voltage to the filament, and high voltage to the
anode? This is accomplished by using a transformer. A transformer will
allow us to supply the proper voltages to the filament and anode. The
next question we need to answer would be what is a transformer and
how does it work?
What are transformers?
Transformers are electromagnetic devices that allow a voltage of
alternating current to be changed; the voltage may be increased or
decreased. Two common types of transformers which are of importance
to X-ray generation are step-up and step-down. Transformers are
comprised of two sets of windings (coiled conductors) that are
electrically isolated from each other. One set of windings is connected
to a power supply and is known as the primaries. The other set of
windings is connected to a load (in this case the X-ray tube) and is
referred to as the secondary windings.

The principle operation of a transformer is based on induction. If you

have studied electricity, you should know that when you pass current
through a conductor, a magnetic field is established in and around the

conductor. This magnetic field can be used to induce a voltage and

current flows in a conductive material that is placed close by.

The Control Unit

The third essential component to a standard X-ray system is the
control unit. We have discussed the tube design and the power supply,
now we need to know how to control the energy and intensity of the
radiation being generated. There are three principle controls to a
standard X-ray system, which are the current (mA) control, the voltage
(kV) control, and a timer. The first two are the most important in terms
of the radiation characteristics. We will briefly describe the timer
control. The controls for the system are usually housed in a panel.
Current Control
The current control on an X-ray system commonly includes some type
of a panel meter or digital display with units of miliampers (mA). The
control is a rheostat connected to the circuit that allows adjustment of
the current in the filament of the X-ray tube. Adjusting the current
being applied to the filament results in variations in the radiation
intensity. Remember that the filament provides the electrons for
interaction with the target. When the tube current is varied, the
number of electrons being supplied to the anode (target) varies.
Voltage Control
The voltage control on an X-ray system is similar to the current control
in that it includes some type of metered display and a rheostat in the
circuit. The units of the meter are usually kilovolts and the control is
often labeled kV. This voltage is the electrical potential between the

anode and the cathode of the tube and is referred to as the tube
voltage. Variations in the tube voltage affect the energy of the
radiation; penetrating power varies with the voltage. Increasing the
tube voltage increases the speed of the electrons interacting with the
target. Remember from our previous discussions that the energy of
radiation is a function of the wavelength. Increasing the energy results
in a shorter wavelength X-ray photon, this has greater penetrating
power.
Time Control
The third control feature of an X-ray system is the timer. The timer is
no different then one you set when baking cookies. It may be an
analog or digital display of some sort. The function of the timer is
simply to control the duration of the exposure, in other words, how
much time the tube is generating radiation. It is, however, connected
to the circuits of the system. When the time has elapsed, the system
shuts down and no more radiation will be produced until the system is
reset.

Review:
1. The three main parts to an x-ray generator setup are an

x-ray tube, a high voltage power supply, and a control

unit.
2. The X-ray generator provides three things that are
required to produce X-rays, and they are a source of
electrons, a means of acceleration, and a target for
interaction.