PETROPHYSICS, VOL. 44, NO. 3 (MAY-JUNE 2003); P.

205212, 7 FIGURES

TUTORIAL
An Introduction to Porosity
Jeffrey R. Hook1

In principle porosity is a very simple concept but because

of the many different ways in which it may be determined it
can, in detail, mean many subtly different things. In the vast
majority of cases the differences are probably not significant but the competent petrophysicist needs to be aware of
the differences and when they are important. Frequently the
same term is used to mean different things; often dependent
on the technical discipline of the user. In particular, the term
effective porosity is in widespread use but means different
things to different people. This tutorial is intended to provide
an introduction to the basic concepts of porosity. It also
reflects the authors opinion as to the most common usages of
terms and highlights the differences. A suggestion is made
for a terminology that could help to resolve the differences.
This discussion of porosity starts by considering the
theoretical aspects of porosity for an idealized rock and the
differences in a real rock. This is followed by a brief examination of how the porosity of real rocks can be measured.
These aspects will be covered in much greater detail in other
tutorials in this series. Essentially porosity can be determined in two ways from core analysis or logs.2 It is necessary to understand the differences in the techniques and to
be aware of the meanings applied to each term as used in
each technique.

f=

Vp
Vp
=
Vb Vp + Vg

where f is porosity, Vp is void space or pore volume, Vb is

bulk volume, and Vg is grain volume.
During deposition a sediment will be laid down with
porosity. This is known as primary porosity. For uniform
spherical grains there are five idealized arrangements of
grains that may be formedeach with a theoretical value of
porosity. These arrangements are known as simple cubic,
orthorhombic, double nested, face-centered cubic and
rhombohedral.
Figure 1 shows a cubic packing of uniform spheres of
radius, r, together with a unit cell for this arrangement. The

IDEALIZED ROCKS

Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids

(the spaces between the grains) in a rock to the bulk volume
(the overall volume of the voids plus the grains) of that rock
(Amyx et al., 1960)

FIG. 1 Cubic packing of uniform spheres.

Manuscript received by the Editor February 18, 2003 and revised manuscript received April 29 2003.
Helix RDS
2
A log in this document means a downhole measurement irrespective of the method of conveyance.
2003 Society of Professional Well Log Analysts. All rights reserved.
1

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Hook

The porosity is independent of the grain size.

Figure 2 shows a rhombohedral packing of uniform
spheres that is the most compact packing arrangement.
According to Fraser and Graton (1935) the porosity of this
arrangement is 0.260, again independent of the radius of the
uniform spheres.
For all the idealized arrangements, in this very simple
and unrealistic case of uniform spherical grains, porosity is
independent of the size of the grains.
In real rocks there will be a range of particle sizes and
also the grain shape and angularity will vary. When there is
a range of grain sizes the smaller grains can fit in the pore

spaces between the larger grains and thus reduce the porosity as shown in Figure 3.
For non-spherical grains the packing will be very different to those shown above and, in general, the packing will
be much denser and the porosity will be reduced.
The idealized packing arrangements considered above
are not likely to be present in real packings except over a
localized volume. As burial of the sediment progresses,
overburden pressure increases and the grains will be rearranged to a more dense packing thereby reducing porosity.
Consequently, in real rocks, the arrangement of the
grains will differ considerably from the simple cases discussed above which may be considered as upper limits on
the possible porosity for intergranular rocks. Conversely,
higher porosities can be observed in certain rare circumstances where grain bridging occurs or vugs contribute a
large proportion of the porosity.
Also, during the process of lithification, porosity will be
further reduced by the development of cement and the
growth of clay minerals in the pore space. Following deposition and during lithification various processes, chemical
and physical, will modify this initial porosity.
Eventually, as burial continues and the overburden stress
increases, the grain shapes will be altered by pressure dissolution at the grain interfaces leading to a reduction in porosity. The dissolved material may then be re-deposited within
the pore space reducing porosity further.
Porosity that is created by these processes, such as dissolution of feldspar grains or through dolomitization of carbonates or fracturing, is known as secondary porosity.
Factors controlling porosity are 1) grain shape, 2) grain
size distribution (sorting), 3) compaction, 4) cementation,
5) clay, 6) dissolution of grains and 7) fracturing.

FIG. 2

FIG. 3 Effect of range of grain sizes on pore volume.

unit cell is a cube with sides equal to 2r and hence bulk volume
Vb = (2r ) 3 = 8r 3 .
Within the unit cell as depicted in Figure 1 there are eight
(1/8) spheres, in other words a single sphere, so that the
grain volume
4
Vg = pr 3
3
and the void, or pore, volume is
4
Vp = Vb - Vg = 8r 3 - pr 3
3
and porosity, f, is
4
8r 3 - pr 3
p
3
=1- = 0.476 .
f=
3
8r
6

206

Rhombohedral packing of uniform grains.

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RESERVOIR ROCKS

In the evaluation of a reservoir the pore volume required

for the definition of reserves is that which is available for
the storage of oil, gas and water. This volume must be connected so that hydrocarbons can flow through the rock and
be produced (it must also be connected so that the hydrocarbons could access the pore space in the first place).
Connected pore space

Diagenetic processes, or the particular morphology of the

constituent grains, can cause some pore space to be disconnected from the majority of the pore space. These pores cannot
then be accessed by hydrocarbons migrating into a reservoir.
The porosity which comprises the whole of the pore
space, whether connected or not, is referred to as total
porosity. The connected pore space is often referred to as
the effective porosity although it may be better described as
connected porosity. By definition, this effective porosity
must be less than the total porosity.
For the majority of reservoirs, particularly sandstone, the
difference between this effective (connected) and total
porosity is small. However, in some formations, such as
those containing significant quantities of sponge spicules,
dolomitised carbonates in which much of the porosity may
be composed of vugs, or oomoldic limestones, the differences can be large. Connected porosity is not necessarily
very efficient at transmitting fluids through the formation.
For example, vugs can be connected but the connecting pore
throats may be so small that flow from or through the vug
will be difficult. Porosity then can be large but permeability
low. Also dead-end pores, i.e. pores with a single entry throat
such as sponge spicules or ooids, will contribute significant
porosity but may be by-passed by flowing fluids.

3. The remainder of the water is free to move.

Following the definitions of total and effective porosity
as given above under connected pore space, the class of the
pore water is not relevant. However, the electrochemically
bound clay water cannot really be considered to be occupying pore space (defined as non-solid material) that could be
available for storage of hydrocarbons. Consequently, when
attempting to determine the storage capacity of a reservoir
the clay bound water volume should be excluded. This pore
volume (total, or, sometimes, connected, porosity less the
clay bound water porosity) is also often referred to as
effective porosity.
Producible fluid pore space

Furthermore the term effective porosity is also sometimes used to describe the pore volume containing free fluids. This excludes capillary held water from the pore volume and the porosity becomes a property not of the rock
alone but also that rocks height above the hydrocarbonwater contact within the reservoir.
MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY

Although porosity is a very important parameter in the

evaluation of a formation it cannot be measured directly.
All the measurement techniques determine some other

Non-clay pore space

Figure 4 shows a representation of a real reservoir rock

in which the matrix is composed of non-spherical grains
composed of, say, quartz and feldspar, and where there is no
non-connected pore space. Some of the original pore space
is occupied by clay mineral particles and the remainder is
filled with water and hydrocarbon. There are three classes
of pore water.
1. Associated with the clay particles is an amount of electrochemically-bound water (clay-bound water) that is
not mobile. The amount of clay bound water held by the
clay particles is a function of the salinity of the pore
water and the type of clay, with, for example, montmorillonite holding considerably more water than kaolinite.
2. Additional water is held in the small pores and on the surface of the matrix grains by capillary forces.
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FIG. 4 A typical real reservoir rock.

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property, which then must be converted to reservoir porosity. Core measurements determine sample volumes in an
environment that is not the same as the reservoir. Logs
record some property of the formation such as bulk density,
which is then related to porosity by some model of tool
response. The indirect nature of the measurements leads to
many of the problems with comparisons of porosity.
When considering the techniques used to determine reservoir porosity the inclusion or exclusion of clay bound
water volume becomes important as the different measurement methods treat it in different ways.
Porosity in core analysis

Measurement of porosity in the core analysis laboratory

essentially consists of taking a sample from the core,
extracting the fluids from the sample and then determining
two out of the pore volume, grain volume and bulk volume
of the sample. The detailed laboratory techniques used will
determine exactly what porosity is measured.
When examining a core analysis report, it is unlikely that
any term other than simply porosity will be encountered. In
the world of core analysis the term porosity normally refers
to the pore space that can be contacted in the particular technique being used (typically gas injection porosity or fluid
re-saturation). Unless the sample is disaggregated this will
exclude unconnected pores. If pressed the core analyst
will refer to this porosity as effective porosity. When the
term total porosity is used it will be in relation to a technique
in which the core sample has been disaggregated before its
porosity was measured. Then all normally unconnected
pores will be included. Note, however, that there is no reference to the amount of clay bound water retained by any clay
minerals in the pore space.
The amount of clay bound water retained depends on the
detailed sample preparation techniques, in particular the
method of drying the samples. If simple oven drying at temperatures above 100C is used then it is considered that all
clay bound water will be removed and porosity includes all
pore space. If, however, humidity controlled drying at low
temperatures is used then it is possible that at least some of
the clay water will remain, thereby reducing the measured
porosity. The precise amount of clay bound water retained
is uncertain and whether the condition of the clays in the
sample in the laboratory matches that of the clays in the reservoir is a matter for conjecture. Hence, in core analysis,
porosity may or may not include some electrochemically
bound clay water. The detailed analysis technique needs to
be considered to understand the results.
Core porosity techniques

Further details of these laboratory measurement tech208

niques can be found in the core analysis tutorial in this

series and in Recommended Practices for Core Analysis
(1998).
Gas injection porosity

This technique is also referred to as gas expansion porosity. A known quantity (volume and pressure) of gas, usually
helium, is injected into the pore space of a clean, dry core
plug in a sample holder. From the final pressure of the gas the
grain volume or pore volume can be estimated. Since the gas
flows into the sample pore space this technique must measure
effective (connected) porosity but the hydration state of any
clay minerals will depend on the drying techniques.
Fluid resaturation porosity

A clean, dry sample of known weight is saturated with a

fluid of known density (usually kerosene or brine). The
increase in weight gives the pore volume. This measurement gives the effective (connected) porosity since the fluid
flows into the pore space. Whether clay bound water is
included in the measured porosity depends on the hydration
state of the clays when the dry sample is weighed.
Summation of fluids porosity

This measurement is performed on core as received in

the laboratory not on clean, dry samples. Two core pieces
are used in the test procedure. The bulk volume of the first
piece is measured and then a measured volume of mercury
is injected to give the gas volume in the sample. The second
piece of core is crushed and the water and oil in the pores is
extracted by distillation. The volumes of gas, water and oil
are related to the weights of the samples and added to give
the pore volume and hence porosity. Porosity as determined
in this way must be a combination of total and effective
(connected) porosity since one core piece is disaggregated
and the other is not.
Porosity in log analysis

The simplified view of a real reservoir rock given in

Figure 4, in which the clay particles can be regarded as
being dispersed throughout the rock leads to the
4-component (matrix, clay, water and hydrocarbon) model
depicted in Figure 5.
In this figure:
Vma volume of matrix grains
Vdcl volume of dry clay (an idealized version of the clay
matrix shown in Figure 4)
Vcbw volume of clay bound water
Vcl volume of wet clay (Vdcl + Vcbw)
Vcap volume of capillary bound water
Vfw volume of free water

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Tutorial: An Introduction to Porosity

Vhyd volume of hydrocarbon

Vpt total pore volume
Vpe effective pore volume (excluding clay-bound water)
Vb
bulk volume of rock.
In this model all the pore space is treated as a single
entity with no consideration given as to whether the pores
are connected or not.
There are several logging tools that estimate porosity and
they all work by putting energy into the formation from a
transmitter and measuring the effect of the formation on the
signal detected at a receiver. The effect is determined by
some physical property of the formation that is not porosity
but is something related to it, for example the velocity of
sound in the case of the sonic tool. This is an indirect
approach to estimating porosity.
The way in which each of the components in Figure 5
affects the total response of the logging tool depends on the
detailed physical nature of the measurement but, for simplicity, is often assumed to be a volume-weighted average
of the constituent parts.
Effective porosity

The tool response equation for a logging tool which

measures a volume-weighted average of the formation
property, x, is
x log = x ma Vma + x cl Vcl + xw Vw + xhyd Vhyd
= xma Vma + x cl Vcl + xw fe Swe + xhyd f e (1- Swe ) .
It should be noted that the volumes of the various components sum to unity in this equation, i.e.,
Vma + Vcl + Vw + Vhyd =1.
In this equation fe is the log analysis effective porosity
and is the volume that is available for the storage of hydrocarbon. In this case the volume of water that is electrochemically bound to the rock mineral surfaces is excluded
from the pore space as discussed above under non-clay pore
space. Using the nomenclature in Figure 5, fe, is given by
fe =

the fluid contained in them. Thus, included in the pore space

are hydrocarbons, free water, capillary held water and
chemically bound water attached to clay minerals. With the
nomenclature given in Figure 5, total porosity, ft, is given
by
ft =

Vpt
Vb

In neither of these definitions is there any reference to the

need for the porosity to be connected.
Generally where porosity is derived from logs alone then
it is log analysis effective porosity that is estimated. To use
the equations given above it is necessary to estimate values
for Vcl and xcl to give fe, or Vdcl and xdcl to give ft. Since logs
are measuring the whole rock as it is in-situ and without any
control of the experimental conditions, the wet clay properties can be estimated more easily than dry clay properties by
using log data alone and so fe is normally determined.
Nuclear porosity logs

Both the density and neutron logging tools essentially

respond to all the pore space contained within a volume of
rock. Since gamma rays and neutrons pass through the rock
material, including grains, independently of any flow paths,
these logs do not recognize the difference between connected and unconnected pores. The density tool responds to
the electron density of the formation, which is closely
related to the bulk density, which in turn can be related to
either total or effective porosity, as explained above. The
neutron tool responds to the hydrogen index of the
formationagain closely related to either total or effective
porosity but also influenced by clay type and other factors.
Sonic, or acoustic, porosity log

The sonic logging tool measures the velocity of an

Vpe Vpt - Vcbw

=
.
Vb
Vb

Total porosity

The response equation can also be written in terms of the

total porosity as:
x log = x ma Vma + x dcl Vdcl + xw Vw + xhyd Vhyd
= xma Vma + x dcl Vdcl + xw f t Swt + xhyd f t (1- Sw t ) .
Total porosity, ft, is the ratio of the total volume of pores
to the bulk volume of the material regardless of the nature of
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FIG. 5 4-component petrophysical model of rock.

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acoustic wave that propagates through the rock. Straightforward relationships are used to estimate either total or effective porosity. However, since the measurement is based on a
propagating wave, the response is not necessarily a simple
volume-weighted average of the components, although the
frequently used Wyllie time-average equation is. It is
thought that the wave bypasses random events such as vugs,
and therefore measures a property that is closer to connected porosity than total porosity.
NMR porosity logs

Current generations of NMR logging tools measure the

signal decay curve due to spin-spin relaxation. The initial
signal amplitude is related to the number of protons in the
pores and is thought to measure a porosity that is close to a
total porosity. The porosity measured is a function of the
shortest T2, the decay constant due to spin-spin relaxation,
that can be detected by the tool and this, in turn, depends on
the echo spacing. Modern tools that can detect a T2 as short
as approximately 0.3 ms are thought to include most of the
clay bound water in their measurement leading to a porosity
that matches reasonably well to helium core porosity. The
older tools, which detected T2 only as low as approximately
3 ms are thought to measure an effective porosity.
Neither generation of tools, as conventionally run, distinguishes explicitly between connected and non-connected
pores.
Further details of the physical principles of the logging
tools can be found in the other articles in this series or in
Tittman (1986).

the velocity of sound. These responses are converted into

porosity by applying a suitable model or by calibration.
Improved estimates will result if several logs are combined
and these logs are in turn integrated with other methods of
determining porosity such as core analysis. Combining log
measurements reduces the effect of measurement errors in
the logs and reduces errors caused by uncertainties in the
matrix properties. Also, in some cases, such as gas, the
effect on two logs will be opposite and combining the measurements compensates for these effects.
Generally, because the experimental conditions can be
well controlled and the experiment can be repeated if necessary, core porosity gives the best estimate of true porosity
and is regarded as the ground truth to which log measurements should be calibrated.
Core calibration of logs

For the density log there is a good, predictable, linear

relation between density and porosity. Whether total or
effective porosity is derived from the logs depends on the
details of the parameters used to convert the log reading to
porosity. This relation can be derived from the general tool
response equation given above so that, for a clean sand (or a
2-component fluid-matrix mix in which any clay can be
regarded as matrix),
rb = rma (1- f ) + rfl f
rma - rb

f =
r - r
fl
ma
rma
=
r -r
fl
ma
= a rb + c

INTEGRATION OF CORE AND LOG POROSITY

All the logging tools described above as determining

porosity actually measure something that is not porosity.
The density tool responds to the formation electron density,
the neutron tool to the hydrogen index and the sonic tool to

FIG. 6

210

Calibration of density log with core data.

-
r - r rb
fl
ma

To estimate values for a and c, or rma and rfl, a linear fit

can be applied to a crossplot of core porosity and log density
data as in Figure 6. The formation is modeled as a homogeneous entity and constant values of matrix density and fluid
density are assumed to be able to represent the formation. A
histogram of core sample grain density, shown in Figure 7,
can be used to give a value of matrix density, rma. In this
particular case a value of 2.64 g cm3 was selected for rma.
This was based on the modal value of the histogram that was
considered to best represent the formation. A rock with zero
porosity has a bulk density equal to the matrix density so
one point on the relationship between porosity and density
can be defined as the point (rma, 0). A regression line
through this point and the density-core porosity data pairs
will define the fluid density for the formation as the density
at 100% porosity. In this case fluid density, rfl, was estimated to be 0.93 g cm3.

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TABLE 1 Summary of terms.

Pore volume

Porosity type

Measurement technique

Primary porosity

Void volume of a sediment when it was deposited.

Secondary porosity

Void volume that is created by diagenetic processes.

Total porosity
(not necessarily
connected)

Total void volume. Clay bound water is included in

pore volume.

Core analysis (disaggregated sample)

density, neutron, NMR logs if dry clay
parameters used to derive porosity.

Effective porosity
(connected)

Void volume contactable by fluids (connected).

Clay bound water is included in pore volume.

Core analysis (competent sample).

Possibly sonic log.

Effective porosity
(log analysis)

Void volume available for storage of hydrocarbons.

Clay bound water is excluded from pore volume.
Unconnected pore volume not necessarily excluded from
pore volume. Depends on measurement technique.

Porosity logging tools if wet clay parameters

used to derive porosity.

Effective porosity
(usually in reservoir
simulations)

Void volume available for storage of producible fluids.

Clay bound water is excluded from pore volume.
Capillary held water is also excluded from pore volume.

No direct technique to measure this. This

definition implies that the effective porosity
of a rock is a function of its location within a
reservoir.

Similar techniques could be applied to the other porosity

logs although a more complex nonlinear relationship may
be necessary.
SUMMARY

From the above discussion, it can be seen that, although

the term porosity has a simple theoretical definition, there
are many different meanings attached to the term that are in
common use in the oil and gas industry. These meanings are
dependent on the method used to determine porosity and the
use to which it may be put. A summary of the terms used for
the types of porosity discussed in this article and the techniques used to measure them is given in Table 1. There are
many other types of porosity that have not been discussed in
this tutorial, such as
fracture porosity: porosity resulting from natural fractures in the rock
microporosity: porosity resident in small pores, commonly associated with detrital and authigenic clays or
within carbonate grains
intragranular porosity: porosity due to voids within the
rock grains.
Clearly there is scope for confusion, principally from the
extensive use of the term effective porosity and the different meanings attributed to it.
To attempt to reduce the vagueness of the terminology
May-June 2003

used in practice in the hydrocarbon industry it is suggested

that the following definitions should be used (Table 2). In
this terminology the log total and effective porosities are
attempts to measure the desired rock properties - total and
effective porosity respectively.
REFERENCES
Amyx, J. W., Bass, D. M., and Whiting, R. L., 1960, Petroleum
Reservoir Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

FIG. 7 Grain density histogram for data from Figure 6.

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Hook

TABLE 2

Proposed terminology.

Total porosity
Connected porosity
Effective porosity
Log total porosity
Log effective porosity

Includes all pore volume, including clay bound water. A property of the rock.
Includes only pore volume that can be contacted by fluids at the present time. Clay bound
water is included in the pore volume. A property of the rock.
Includes only pore volume that has the potential to store hydrocarbons. Clay bound water is
excluded from the pore volume. A property of the rock.
log should be replaced with the particular measurement technique used, (not confined to a
downhole measurement). Pore volume includes all void volume including clay bound water.
log should be replaced with the particular measurement technique used, (not confined to a
downhole measurement). Pore volume includes only pores available to store hydrocarbons
and excludes clay bound water. Measurement conditions of the log need to be considered,
e.g. T2 cut-off for NMR log.

Fraser, H. J. and Graton, L. C., 1935, Systematic packing of

spheres with particular relation to porosity and permeability:
Journal of Geology., vol. 43, p. 785909.
Recommended Practices for Core Analysis, 1998, American
Petroleum Institute RP 40.
Tittman, J., 1986, Geophysical Well Logging: London (Academic
Press).

212

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Jeff Hook is currently a Consultant Petrophysicist with Helix
RDS. His previous experience includes various petrophysical roles
with Enterprise Oil and Mobil North Sea Ltd in London and with
BNOC/Britoil/BP. His initial experience in the oil industry was
with a core analysis service laboratory where he was responsible
for the development of analytical techniques and quality assurance
of both special and conventional core analysis laboratories. Since
joining the operating sector of the industry he has gained
experience in all aspects of the application of petrophysics ranging
from design of data acquisition programmes through single well
evaluation to field studies and equity re-determinations. He has
authored papers on core analysis, facies and permeability
prediction and application of NMR logs and his current interests
include applications of NMR logs and integration of petrophysical
and geophysical data. He has played an active part in the activities
of the London Petrophysical Society (a chapter of SPWLA) for
many years, and has served as President, Treasurer and V-P
Membership. He is currently a Regional Director for SPWLA
(Europe Position II).

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