REVIEW ARTICLE
The role of magmas in the formation of
hydrothermal ore deposits
Jeftrey W. Hedenquist & Jacob B. Lowenstern
Magmatic fluids, both vapour and hypersaline liquid, are a primary source of many components
in hydrothermal ore deposits formed in volcanic arcs. These components, including metals and
their ligands, become concentrated in magmas in various ways from various sources, including
‘subducted oceanic crust. Leaching of rocks also contributes components to the hydrothermal
fiuld—a process enhanced where acid magmatic vapours are absorbed by deeply circulating
meteoric waters. Advances in understanding the hydrothermal systems that formed these ore
deposits have come from the study of their active equivalents, represented at the surface by
hot springs and volcanic fumarol
Wirar are the sources of metals concentrated in ore deposits?
This question was fist addressed sn the sixtenth century by
Agncola, who concluded that heated rainwater eaches metals
from rocks and then transports the metals to the sites of ore
deposition, A century later, Descartes proposed that vapours
released during cooling and crystallization of the Farth’s interior
fre responsible for filing fractures with ore. Thus, the stage was
set for controversy between the Neptunists and the Plutoniss,
8 debate that continues today
‘iydrothermal systems posered by magmatic intrusions dom:
nate fuid movement inthe upper crust, and are responsible for
onvecting a large proportion of Farth’s heat to the surface. At
the same time, the Nuids transport metals, forming the single
most important class of ore deposi, those ofthe hydrothermal
Category. For example, large, low-grade deposits of copper (pls
molybdenum or god) within shallow igneueinteusions. known
4s porphiyries, provide more than hall of the world supply of
copper and molybdenum. Other types of hydrothermal ore depo-
‘SU(Table 1), some of which form a a greater distance from the
magmatic hearth, are also significant repositories of gold, silver.
lead, aine, tin, tungsten and other elements. Nos-magmatic
hydrothermal systems are also important in metallogenesis, such
4s the sedimentary-hosted deposit rich in copper ead and vine
that form by compactve expulsion of fuis from large continen
tal basins, and lode gold deposits associated with metamorph
ism. Nevertheless, the fux of hydrothermal fluids responsible for
these deposits is minor compared to that caused by circulation
due o intrusion of magma
There ie agrocment that many hydrothermal ore systems
10" (re. 4), the calculated Cu fux
Is HOt yr (with >350 kg yr"! Au). High concentrations of Cu
and other metals such as Av are also observed inthe aerosols
that accompany other erupting volcanoes, such as Augustine it
Alaska, MU Eta in lay (Table 2) and ehewhete
Other evidence bearing on the relationship between magmas
and ofe deposits comes from some correlations between the type
‘of metal deposit and the composition ofthe associated magma,
For example, peralkalineintrsions with high K.0 of Na:O can
host ores of lthophile elements suchas Zr. Nb and lanthanides,
whereas more luminous F-ich systems are typically assoeiated
TABLE Magnetic fas sesharged tom volsanoes
nite Satu
Ieiod, oi, op MLB,
NZ" Japan —Augastne, Alska"®”” tay =
Yer 198519901976 1987 1975,
4987
Sie ot Eruplon Fumarole Eruption _Fumarole Eruption
sicnoree
Tempe) 850 877 90070800
Fux oy)
Ko 19 52ND 003 50
co: 05 Ge ND 2003 13
@ 00a 005 306 2003 Os-05
5 B06 009 S02 D003 02075
Guay), 10 088 31200 OTT 480-580
auugye”) >38 002 ND No 804.200
Abundance atios*
Ny3(-10) 55 008 50-800 0s 40
Gy 10% 2400 19 23004700 23 1000
NO, not determined
"ror comparison wih the erpted seosol the Na/S and Cu/S of
‘uarles White sland are 740 >and 28% 40 ® respecte,
520
with Sn, Mo and B ore bodies. Tin, and eommonly W. tends 10
be found associated with reduced magmas (as indicated by the
absence of magnetite) whereas Cu ancl Mo ore deposits tend 10
‘ecu with more oxidized magmas (containing magnetite)".
ven within voleanie ares, correlations exist between the fectonic
ecvironment and the metallogeny of an ore district”. If ore
Formation were controlled solely by circulating meteoric water,
‘there various correlations would be unexpected
Sources of metals in magmas
Notwithstanding the evidence citod above for an association
‘between magmas and ore deposits, we sill want to know where
‘magmas aequie their metals and how these metals are concen-
trated to form ore. Metals can enter magmas through a variety
‘of pathways, including mantle melting, mass transfer from the
Subducting slab and meting of the erst. Most of Earth's sider
‘phil (Fe-loving) elements such as Sa, Mo, Au and the PI-
aroup clements may be locked away in the Fe-Ni core causing
thee crustal abundanees to be much less than those ofthe global
bulk, Nevertheless, many ofthese elements are also present in
Fe Ni sulphides in the upper mantle", During partial meling
‘of the mantle, these sulphides are partially consumed, and contr=
‘bute metals to basaltic iquids that then ascend into the erust,
both along mid-ocean ridges” and at subduction zones (Fig 1).
In the former setting these erupted. basalts are commonly
altered, and together with their associated oceanic sediments,
fre eventually subducted below the continental crust, inducing
reeling in the mantle wedge beneath the voleanic are. Many arc
‘magmas show clear evidence for the addition of components
Such as oxidized sulphur, alkal-group elements, water and Cl
from the subducted slab", transferred asa fluid ora silicate
smelt, The lack of abundant Clbearing phases in the manic,
coupled with the high Cl contents of arc magmas (700-
2.000 ppm.) further supports the idea that Cig reeyeled during
subduction oF seawsteraltered oceanic crust”. Subduction
ray also contribute additonal metals. such as Cu and Zn, 10
the resulting are magmas, derived from hydrothermal mine
taation ofthe subducted sea floor”
‘Ore components may aso be acquired during magma transit
through the crust. For example, the isotopic signature of por
phyey Cu deposits im Arzons is strongly correlated with that
NATURE - VOL 370 + 18 AUGUST 1904REVIEW ARTICLE
DIVERGENT MARGIN
Mid-ocean ridge
Asthenosphere
EA
"
Stripers
Cal Seen
CONVERGENT MARGIN
Continental volcanic are
‘SOURCES OF METALS AND VOLATILES IN ARC MAGMAS
FG. 1 Schematic section showing he principal components of magma geress, fi Row and metllogeness in ivrgent- and convergent margin
sotings
of the loc basement, implying that the intrusions contain a
significant amount of assimilated crust, whereas in the case of
Sh and W deposits such as those of southwest England and
southwest Japan, the ore-bearing magmas may be produced enti-
rely by molting of the crust”. Crustal melts produced in the
presence of ether elemental C or Fe sulphide may be reduced
‘im nature, and are thus ideal for accumulation of Sn Fusion
‘of previously melted crustal rocks an result in high magmatic
concentrations of F, due to the breakdown of refractory, Fich
Inydrous silicates. These minerals may also contain significant
amounts of Sn and Mo, which are concentrated with Fin some
‘ore deposits, But exceptions to these relationships are common,
land the source of the metals may be less important in terms of |
‘netal concentration, than the magmatic processes that operate
uring final ascent and differentiation of the magma
‘The effects of erstal fractionation, Crystallization is one of |
the main contrals on the concentration of ore comportnts in
‘magmas. The dominant minerals that crystallize im most igneous
systems ae silicates and oxides: elements that partition into
these minerals can have their concentrations lowered. whereas
incompatible elements (those that remain in the melt) may
become more concentrated. The degree of compatiblity is a
function of erystal structure, melt composition, magma oxida
tion state, and the temperature and pressure of crystallization
For example, Mo and Zn concentrations are commonly high in
‘magmas tha contain low abundances of Fe-Ti oxides und bane
ite, minecals that tend to be vich in these clement The enrich-
ment of Sn and W in granites formed from melting of erustal
rocks, noted above, may also be due to the composition and low
abundance of oxide minerals" in these reduced rocks, The
lack of Cu mineralization astocited with high-silica granites
may be attributed to the early crystallization of pyrrhotite
(Fe, -.S). which acts as sink for Ca (and Aw?) and lower its
concentration in the melt, Conversely, because Mo stats at
lower concentration and is more incompatible than Cu, crystal
fraetionaton is necessary to produce the higher Mo/Cu of bigh-
NATURE - VOL 370 - 28 AUGUST 1994
silica granites". But even after extensive erystallization, metal
Concentrations inthe magma ar still at least two oF three orders
fof magnitude fess than grades of economic ore in associated
porphyry-style mineralization (Table 3). Other processes are
therefore necessary to concontrate metas from the magi ino
an ore deposit.
Fluids In magma. Given she appropriate fuid composition
‘most ore metals ein be partitioned strongly into « magmatic-
hydrothermal fluid. as chloride, hisulphide and hydroxyacid
complexes" (Table 3). AL magmatic. temperatures and
ARLE 3 Typical metal concentrations in granites and por oes
eo
wo Goce EO GE EE
A
22 ba SB 8 RS
eas Bile came
oo BE ae
Ea
9 het
Frerocjr he crore pratt fr the meal noire
ots tr fh Foy erate oi ronan
Site Uo ipa ane commen shanacet Yat ao fem vores coon
‘Fought strewn abut fer OH rer To Malone omens
“ar Mos Sor Wich pry. at pes of ayy ee
Canaan no ee dazominton posse. neta
vein eon, hu eonmany rarer tom 31 Opa. and aah enee
YOO ppm os on everage m9 ow eben
sanREVIEW ARTICLE
pressures, nsulicient data exis to define the ideal conditions for
parttioning of any given metal from a magma into an exsolved
Hydrothermal uid. Even so, the limited data available indicate
that metals such as Cu” can be scavenged by exsoving mag-
rmatie Mus, especialy at low magmatic pressures”. raising the
question: when do these fuids separate from magmas and What
controls the uid composition?
‘Many magmas contain exsolsed ids during their ascent
through the midale to upper crust. There is evidence that basalts
from a variety of tectone settings are saturated with a COsrich
‘uid phase at depths >30 km (refs 36-38). Because ofits high
solu in sfcate melt, H-O will represent only a small faction
‘ofthis fd in the deep crust although H.0 increasingly exsolves
Aa Tow pressures until it dominates the Buid, as observed in vol
fanic emanations (Table 2). Unless felsic magmas originate as
Fsolated systems, and receive no input of volatiles from matic
forerunners and subjacent heat sources. they t00 are likely to
be saturated with a uid phase dhyoughout their history”. The
addition of SO» and other gases to magmatic systems decreases
the solubility of H.O and CO. in the melt by decreasing their
activity inthe fluid phase(s) resulting in fluid saturation with
even lower concentrations of gases dissolved in the melt. Thus.
if magmas inthe upper crust are normally Mid-saturated, the
‘ey questions related to metal transport are not if or when fuid
saturation occurs in the associated magma, but what controls
fui composition, which fluids are most ikely to seavenge metals
act (wt)
FG. 2 The composition af miscible fads in the system #,0-NaC,
2359 function oF pressure at 800 and 600 Chine: the approx
‘ete dep stra tnesati pressure paces 23 wis Nacleouton
(ies eel) exsoves rom » magma at 800 ‘Cand 1.500 dt an then
Isothermal decomprosses wil Unik to ge 2 low-density vapour
anda higheraty, ryporsane. squid at ~1.300bar, cherie
ompleuod moat il pation to the lu. whereas gaseous como.
emt wl be largely contained by the vapour. Upon fur isothermal
‘decompression (cued arows} the laud and vapour wi rogezsvey
become more ard les saline, respecte by condensation of NaC
Fh tqua fom the vapour The vapour of hightemperature voleanic
fumodoies eoraina “100 ppm. NaC ana Is metal poor, woereas RE
pressure vapour accompanying voir eustion este Nach ana
Inetarich for examine, White sland, Table 2) The stiopld fields
Iraeate tne composiuons of Wud incusions at temperatures and
pressures type! of porpyey Cu formation. The potayapns show ep.
Fasentatve quart hosted hud inlsins[ttoom tersratre) fom 8
porphyy Cu depot a, ypersatne Incusioncontaning Nat satratod
Faw vapour buble. caugrer minerals of Pie, x. posshy
nya, b, and Reema, sb, vapeurichincusion caxtang low
falinty condensate bub of compresses gas and Smal opaaue
‘minerals Inclusons are eae ~50 ym long
522
From the silicate melt, and how much Muid can be channelled to
Site of metal deposition
‘AL shallow crustal depths, metal partitioning becomes more
complicated because magma may contain more than one non-
Sicate id phase. For example, at Tkbar and 800°C, the
NaCT-H.O system will consist of two phases (a low-density vap-
four and a hypersaline liquid: Fig 2) ifthe bulk composition of
‘the Muids(s)exsolved from the melts between ~ and ~70 0
NaCl Indeed, the Cl contents of many silicic magmas are con-
‘stent withthe concentrations necessary 19 fest in saturation
‘with both vapour and a hypersaline quid". Addition of CO-
{ang most probably'50:) will increase the field of immiseibility
so thatthe tWo aalucous phases may coexist over a wide range
fof erustal conditions (up to pressures > bat ef)
The large density contrast between the vapour and hypersaline
Iiquid commonly results in these two phases separating within
the magma chamber or its adjacent hydrothermal sytem. The
aqueous vapour contains CO:, SOs, HS, HCL and so on, and
tends to ascend on formation, either discharging tothe surface
as volcanic fumaroles (Table 2), oF becoming absorbed at depth,
forming an acidic water that can leach the host rock™. The dense
hypersaline guid remaining at depth wil be sicher in Cu and
cher ehlorophile elements than the low-salinity vapoue™ Ev-
‘ence for these immiscible uid is abundant in intrusive rocks
and some voleanie products”. However, it is in porphyry ore
Seposits thatthe remnants of these fluids, rapped as inclusions
in minerals, have been studied most intensively.
Mineralization associated with intrusions
Porphyry Cu mineralization is dominated by magmatic Mud in
the early stage although late meteorie water isnot only common
‘but i perhaps eritical im enhancing porphyry metal concent
tions to ore grade'™. These deposits typically consist of tl
Dhies that ate both disseminated and located in veinlets; these
‘ceurrences are found within and adjacent to porphyriti ici
to intermediate-composition intrusions, and commonly form at
depths of 2-5 km under lithostatie pressures. Detailed studies
fof hydrethermal alteration, minecalization and uid inclusions.
integrated with stablisotope daa, indicate that the hydeother-
smal systems that form these deposits are initially hot (>S00
(00°C) and dominated by a magmatic, hypersaline liquid coex-
isting with a low-density vapour. Because of the depth and high
temperature, ative examples have yet tobe studied. Zoned alter
ation assemblages form asthe reactive, metal-beating magmatic
‘uid moves away from the intrusion, coals and reacts wath the
country rock", The intrusions themselves are altered, vith a
entra zone of biotite K-feldspar (K-sicate zone). tha typ-
feally ives way outward to an intermediate 2one of quart pls
chlorite, commonly overprited by sriite and pyrite (sercite
zone), The wall rocks Farther from the inteusion may be altered
to epidote, chlorite and abit (propyliti zone). igh-empera-
ture Cusbiphide mineralization, accompanied by. magnetite
may be present as sll atthe boundary of the K-silicae and
sericite zones. Where preserved these alteration zones ae always
‘capped by rock that has been kashed by an acidic water Formed
by the absorption of magmatie vapour into meteoric water. The
resultant advanced argc alteration usually extends (0 the
palaeosurface™
“The stone spatial association between plutons and porphyry
felated ore deposits emphasizes the genetic role of magmas in
the mineralization process. Another ine of evidence comes from
the fu trapped as inclusions in minerals; many of these inch
sons formed at nearsmagmatic temperatures of 700-00 °C. At
room temperature, the hypersaline fu inclusions contain a
borne, a vapour bubble and daughter erystals of halt, sylvite
and minor ore minerals such as chaleopyrite (Fig. 22). The hyp
fersaline liguid at its Capping. temperature contains 40 t0
60 ws NaCl equivalent (eg) and 250-5,000 pzpm. Cu", the
ier based on the amount of Cu-bearing daughter minerals and
recently confirmed by direct analysis clusions that trapped
NATURE - VOL 370 » 28 AUGUST 1904REVIEW ARTICLE
FG, 3 9, Vaation in the O- and Hisoope composition of crust
‘magmas and waters (640 and 80, respecte relate to Standard
Mes Oozan WaterSMOW, Fase magias uncevan by eomtnental
‘rust have sight beaver isotope ratios than island are magras,
presumably cue icorparaton of crustal teal” Those magmate
Water ae both scopcay dine ory that sssoclated wah mare
‘erised mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB)™. Te stop cmpoetion ot
‘Subdvcton relsted matmate vapours ouigassng fom are veicanoes
has 2 natn range", ening from ter parent are magmas du to
Mroedonation during degassing, withthe degasces mek (open avons
Boning down) Becoming lighter in Histape composition, Tere are
two tends for neuval pM goctnermal water, ove caused by moore
Wotervook iteraction (O'anitfom the meteors water Une" for
‘ramp, that of Wate, Wi), and the ther fom mang betweon
meteor watrofyanabie focal sotopte composition and low salty
‘magyate vapour (small sod arrows wit tence pong tna
‘oteare vapour; for example, that of Broadlane. Br. Comat waters
‘tapped In sediment end nats relates to matamorphisn nave wide
ranges of topic compestion™ (nt shown here b, Te Ketone com
poution of myrothermal ids assocted wy porphyry ore depots
oauces from te competion of hightemperature Kestieste aeration
rinerals stppled fea)" Lowertompetue siete ateraton nd
fates various tures (Gplaly plotng i te two large ccles)
botwoon late-stage magmatic water (dere fro a degassed met)
and meteore water wih 9 rang of otepe compostion depending on
the palgeotatse ane attude: this meteor mater Is sometimes 0
shited™Wighsuphidaton’ waters (se text) are sia in Isotope
amposto te vlcaie vapour, th wands projecting towards meteoric
‘ter of vara soap eompoaton open avons) depending on ors
ton of te depose. The waters at prostate barren quar in Tow
‘sulphidator"gepostscommonty stom an sn ffm cal meteoric
Water valses™ whereas hghavede ore samples (Comstock ode 0
‘San ave both an O- and isotopic shit om local fpetworic water
{Gpen sar caused bya component of magmatic wate such 9 huge
shit cannot be caused by botng of meteor wate
the immiscible vapour (Fig, 26) are low in salinity (<1-2 w1%
NaCl oq) and relatively high in COs (= 10 wit re. 37).
Constraints from 0 and H isotopes. The isotopic composition
fof water in a magma as intially approximated by analysing
minerals in eroded intrusions and then using mineral water frac+
tionation factors to calculate the values of the cooxstng water.
‘These data were used to define the sotopie composition of "pr=
‘mary magmatic water"™ (Fig. 3a; dote-line box). But because
there ‘sa strong fractionation of H isotapes ‘uring carly
NATURE - VOL 270 - 48 AUGUST 1904
Segassing™, the late-formed hydroxyl-bearing igneous minerals
represent the isotopic composition of a degassed melt rather
han that of the inital magmatic wale (Fig. 3; open arrows)
Te best current estimate ofthe initial isotopic composition of
1.0 inare and crustal felsic magmas" (Fig. 3 solid-ine boxes)
fs intermediate Between that of the degassed magma (dotted-
Tine box) and the isotopically heayy outgassed 1150. the later
sampled 2s voleanie vapour” (dashed-line box)
“The O- and H-sotope compositions of hydrothermal minerals
jn ore deposits also help to trace the origin(s) ofthe hydrother-
ral water In porphyry deposits, hydroxyl-bearing minerals
include biotite, ‘which forms close to the intrusion at near
magmatic temperatures (>500-600 °C), chlorite and sericte
(which form at ~300 °C) and kaolinite (~200 °C). Ealy-formed,
high-temperature biotite and K-feldspar'** provide evidence
thatthe 00 ofthe Duds altering the mtrusions have a narrow
range of +6 t0 +%e (Fig 3h; stippled box), consistent with the
water being in equiibrim with the lagge O reservoir in the
associated magmas. But the 3D value of this early magmatic
fluid (based on biotite compositions) has a wide range. from
35 19-75% (Fig. 3h) and is shifted to lower values than the
primary water of most felsic and are mags (~20 10 ~43%e)
‘This may” be explained ‘by open-sjsiem degassing of the
magma”, a8 noted above, which ean thus account for the large
SD" variations (240%) at constant O.sotope composition
‘observed for biotite from a single deposit
Lower-emperature alteration commonly has an isotopic
signature indicating a large component of meteoric water”,
although in some deposits there is also evidence that sea water
fr en evolved formation water as present, and this saline quid
may have had role in mincralizaion™, The isotope variations
Of lower-temperature.scricite alteration among several North
‘American deposits are systematic with latitude and hence palaco-
meteoric water composition" (Fig. 3h; hydrothermal waters tp
ically plotting in the cicled areas). This meteoric water has
‘commonly been shifted in Oisotope composition through water
Fock interaction before its flow past she intrusion” (for example,
lower cirled area). But in some South American deposits®.
there is eear evidence thatthe Nuid related to latestage seriite
‘simples had @ magmatic vapour component, as their composi
tions indicate a uid with +5 t0 +8%m 30 and ~20 10 Ae
OD (Fig. 3; dashed-line bow),
Other Isotopes. The Pb- and S-isotope compositions of por
hyry Cu ores from South and Nowth American porphyry
Seposts?™*" are equivocal regarding theit origin, In some cakes
there are Pbssotope trends consistent with subducted pelagic
sediments a5 the major source of Pb, indicating that Pb was
Feeyeled curing subduction and then coated to the porphyry
Pyotr system Crustal soures spear ony oa imp
{ant to the Pb budget of most of these systems in contrast, Sr
sometimes shows high isotopic ratios, consistent ith a large
crustal component"! In Arizona, however, there i strong cor
relation between mineraling intrusions and the Pb-sotope
composition of the lower-eustal basement The range of 3S
fof most porphyry Cu deposits lies between ~3 and + 9%, (cof.
13), suggesting the bulk of the S was derived from local intru-
sions, though the wide range of S-isotope composition in some
teases may be caused by contribution from the wall rock". The
fresh-rock 4S value has 2 geographical variation, which in
island aes probably eflets a contribution from subducted mat-
ine sediments”. Thus isotopic evidence from porphyry deposits
indicaten a varity of courees for components such as HO, PD
and, although it seems that a magmatie source dominates the
‘rly history of the systems. As the distance from the magma to
fre increase, such evidence weakens.
Mineralization distant from magmatic intrusions
‘The term “spithermal refers to a class of hydrothermal ore
Leposts formed at relatively low temperatures (<300°C) and
shallow depths (surfice to 1-2 km; Table 1). Despite the shallow
523REVIEW ARTICLE
depth, there is stil evidence for a magmatic component fo the
ude
Epithermal ore deposits can be divided into two main types
(Table 1), according to ther alteration mineralogy. One type is
formed by acidic and oxidized Nui (high suiphidaion).typieal
of acidic springs near volcanoes: the other type is formed by a
pear-neutral pH, reduced lid (low sulphidation), as found in
geothermal systems"
High-sulphidation epitnermat ore deposits. Although formed
a shallow depths, high-sulphidation ore deposis have charactr-
iste that indicate involvement of magmatic components in their
formation". The early stage of these deposits is characterized
by extensive leaching of tho host rocks by Mids with a pH <2
(ref. $5) and an O- and H-isotope composition (Fig. 3: triangu-
Jar area)"*similas to that of magmatic vapour” mixed with mete-
orie water (Fig. 30; open arrows). The leaching creates 1 porous
Silica residue (9S ws Si03) that may subsequently host ore
such as Aucbearing Cu- and Fe-sulphides. The high-
fulphidation style of mineralization shares many mineralogial
and stable-isotope characteristics with the advanced agile zone
fof alteration that caps porphyry Cu deposits, and indeed
there is commonly a close spalial relationship between these
‘oposite The geothermal uid is oxidized, based on S
Jsotope compositions ofthe sulphide and sulphate mineral a
‘majority of the sulphur species originate fom the disproportion-
ation of magmatic SO, to form H,S0.,
Fluid inclusions in ore-related minerals, including Cu-sulpho-
salts (transparent only to infrared wavelengths) and quar, ni-
cate that the mineralizing Ruid may have a salinity of 2-3 wt
NaCloq, though there can be marked increase in salinity with
‘epi, 10 20-30 w% NaCl eq below the ore zone”. This spatial
Separation of low-salinity liquid associated with high-sulphida-
tion ore above highersalinity guid at depth is distinct from
that noted for deeper porphyry Cu deposits, where hypersaline
brine coexists with low-salinity vapour; this separation may be
caused by the high density ofthe brine, which cannot ascend
easily to shallow depths. The close association of Cu and Au in
the relatively oxidized high-sulphidation and porphyry environ-
‘ments suggcsts that both metals may be transported under simi-
Tar conditions, though in the high-sulphidation pithermal
environment mineralization is related to a lower temperature
fan les sane igh
Low-sulphidation epithormal ore deposits. In contrast to por-
phyry and high-sulphidation deposits, magmatic signatures in
Tow-sulphidation epithermal Au deposte are more elusive, Ore
concentrations of Cu do not occur, presumably because the Tow
Salinity, near-neutral pH and reducing (sulphide-dominant)
fluids preclude effciom transport of Cu. tn general, low-sulph-
idation deposits form distant from the inferred magmatic heat
source’ at temperatures of 200, 300°C (ref. 57). Pressures are
controlled by hydrostatic conditions, meaning that the maxi-
mum temperature at 4 given depth jy constrained by boing,
4 common process in these systems", Although variety of
lassifcations of this deposit type exist™, a divsion based on
metal assemblage appears to reflect intrinsie geochemical difer
ences. One style is Aurich (with Ag/Au of 1/10-to 10/1 and
‘only trae base metals), whereas the other is AB-rich (with Ag
[Av of >100/1) with economic quantitis of Za and Pb present
‘The Aurich deposits are associated with low-sainty But gas-
rich uids (<1-2 wis NaCl but up to-4 wt gases, mainly CO;
with H:S)". By contrast, deposits rich in Ag and base metals
re associated with more sine fluids (10-15 94% NaC. This
dilference in salinity is important for the metal-transporting
‘capacity of the ids, as Au s transported as a bisulphide com-
plex whereas Ag, Zn and perhaps Pb are dependent om transport
by Cleomplexcs in this reduced envionment", The low-salinity
Fuds of Aurich epithermal deposits are largely similar tothe
‘Muids of most active geothermal systems”, whereas there are
no saline geothermal systems in a tctonic environment siilar
to that hosting Ag- and base metal-rich epithermal deposits
528
This lack may be due to transient, tetonically-indveed pulses
of saline. mineralizing Quid imo an otherwise low salinity, metal
barren hydrothermal system, a prooess we have not yet seen.
Stuble-isotope studies of low-sulphidation deposits commonly
demonstrate the predominance of meteoric water’. with O-
Jsotope compositions of hoth water (Fig 3h; ‘O-shft’} and rook
‘modified to varied degrees by their mutual interaction”. How-
ver, most samples studied to date have been late-stage, barren
‘Quai veins, formed after the period of ore deposition”, Where
Samples are associated directly with bonanza (high-grade) ore,
such as from the famous Comstock lode, Nevada (Fig. 36, sold
Star). large shift in both 3"O and SD values from the composi-
tion of local meteor water (open stat) is taken as evidence for
a significant magmatic-water component”. Paradoxically, the
evidence for meteoric-wvater dominance in epithermal systems is
‘most obvious where magmatism was most voluminous, because
the large magmatic heat source creates large and long ved cells
of convecting metcori water, convection that will erase most of
the evidence for any early component of magmatie water. For
txample, in the Pacific Northwest of North Americ, region
fof many eroded plutons, the rocks exposed over >37% of the
"3 O-totope signature indicating alteration by mete-
Furthermore, the S- and C-sotope evidence indi-
cates that many epthermal deposits can have a magmatic source
for both clement although there is commonly also a sedimen-
tary component to the S, as well as occasionally an influx of
organic C. The resulis of Pb-isotope studies on a variety of|
epithermal deposits indicate several souress for the Pb, including
Teaching of basement rocks and the overlying voleanc rocks oF
thee intrusive equivalents, not surprising given that meteoric
‘water convection can extend to depths of $7 km (ref. 62).
The muliple sources of components in Tow suphidation epi=
‘thermal fluids is caused largely by the extensive amount of inter
action between thermal waters and crustal rocks that occuts
in this environment. Any reactive magmatic components are
neutralized and reduced, in turn deriving components from the
thos rocks, This proces leads to an intcgrated isotopic signature
that may mask & varity of discrete Muds present in the early
sages of activity: that i. pulses of fd recorded by cycles of
‘mineral deposition. Despite the overprinting that may oecur ia
epithermal deposits, advances in microanalytical techniques now
lly the isotopic composition of preserved domains in minerals
to be analysed, domtins that show evidence for a varity of
lserete wate and gas sources including magmatic and erst
‘Geothermal systems, In some volcanic arc-hosted gothermal
stems, the evidence for a magmatic component i common
and unequivocal. These systems are characterized at depth By
neural-pH fluids of low salinity (<1 we» NaCh but variable
4 content (up to 4 wes, including CO, and HS)". Coupled
With their alteration mineralogy, these characteristics indicate
they are analogous to the epthermal systems responsible for
forming jow-sulphidation ore deposits; indeed, in two of the
world’s largest and youngest epithermal Au deposits (Hishikar,
Japan and Ladolan, Papua New Guinea) late-stage waters (70
1o1>130"C) sil flow through the eins
The advantage in studying active systems i that disrete Mids
can be simpled, allowing an examination of ime sices through
the history of hydrothermal activity. For example, the isotopse
compositions of the highest temperature waters in a variety of|
those geothermal sysems have two different trends (Fig. 34)
fone trend suggests a mixture of up to S0% magmatic water with
local meteoric water, whereas the other indicates only meteoric
\water-rock interaction” (horizontal arrows). In the ease of the
Broadlands geothermal sytem, New Zealand, the deep thermal
‘water (Fig filled cick, Br) hasa H-shift that indicates about
220% component of low-slinity magmatic vapour mixed with
local meteoric water (open circle). The deep liquid is also gas
rich (~2 wt mainly CO,), and has a N,/At ratio characteristic
fof are “magmatism (caused by. subduction of | Ne-ich
NATURE - VOL 370 - 28 AUGUST 1994REVIEW ARTICLE
sediments)". By contrast, the deep liquid from the nearby Wai-
kei geothermal system (filled crle, Wk) has an isotopic com
position similar to meteoric water that slightly O-shifted. This
fluid is low in total gas content (<0.1 wt), and has a Ns/
At ratio typical of airsaturated ground water, indicating no
Significant magmatie contribution fo the system. Ths distinc:
{ion in fuid composition may help explain the observed ciffer-
fences in mineralization between these. (wo stems, The
Broadlands system is mineralized locally with Aurich proc
ates in hot springs (to 80 ppm.) and wellhead pipes (10 6 wt
fef, 66), and Pb-Zn sulphides are common at depth, whereas
precious metals and Pb-Zn sulphides are absent at Wairaket
‘The difference in mineralization also correlates with Pb-sotope
signatures. Broadlands sulphide minerals have a homogenous
signature, identical 1 that of foal cale-alkaline intrusions, sug-
sting these are the source rocks, ether through contribution
from a magmatic fluid or by leaching, whereas the Pb-isotope
compositions of altered rocks from Wairakei indicate that most
‘ofthe Ph was leached from sedimentary rocks.
Similar geothermal systems with variable magmatic inputs
(based on chemical and isotopic signatures) are common also
in other ctcumm-Pactic voleanie ares", Dailig in some sSs-
tems in Japan and the Philippines has encountered deep fractures
containing ho, acide Nude within otherwise neutral-pH waters;
the acidity is caused by an absorbed magmatic vapour that is
not neuralzed by water rock interaction" Perhaps such a mage
‘matic dui, although neutralized at depth, direlly contributes
‘metals to the Broadlands system. Alternatively, the acidic vp.
‘our may conteibute only ligands such as CI” and HS, using
the resulting Mud to leach metals Feom the wall rock. This var:
ability in magmatic signatures between geothermal systems may
bbe eased by intermittent contributions (or lack theoot) of mag
rmatie uid. Thus, gas and isotopic analysis of uid inclusions
in orecelated versus barren minerals will help to determine the
role of magmatic contributions to hydrothermal ud compos
fiom and ofe formation,
‘Magmatic fluids and hydrothermal environments
‘We have mentioned the relationship between magma type and
syle of intrusion-related mineralization, stresing the ned for
metal scavenging from the magma by an exsolving aqueous fui
Here we examine how this magmatic fuid may be involved in
mineralization away from the intrusion.
‘The acidic environmont. Studies of high-sulphiation epither-
mal ore deposits have confirmed the involvement of fuids with
isotopic, composition similar to hightemperature voleanic
vapours?" (Fig. 36). When such vapours are absorbed by
rmeteorie water, they form acide springs, which commonly have
{pH of 05-15 (rel 68). The composition of these acidic springs
feflecsisochemical dissolution ofthe rocks through which they
flowed, a process that forms leached zones similar to those that
host ofe in high-sulphidation deposits. However, studies of the
metal concentrations of high-iemperature fumarole™” associ-
ted with quiescent depassing of volcanoes indicate that these
‘vapours cannot form ore deposits". For reasonable ifespans of
‘magma degassing and hydrothermal activity related to 8 single
intrusion (~10" yrs ref. 2), the metal luxe related to fumaroles
(Cable 2) and their associated acide oprings™ are insuficiet to
account forthe amount of Au (10,1001) and Cu (>10":) found
in high-sulphidaton ore deposits!
There are several possible explanations for this seming para
dx. First, these deposits may form over much longer time spans,
in association with multiple intrusions (as suggested for some
porphyry deposits"). Second, the acidic water may leach metals
Ss il eacts with the wall rock at depth”. Third, the greater
‘depths of these deposit (in contrast the surficial fumaroles)
means that pressures are high, thus inereasig the concentration
‘of metal chlondes inthe vapour’ For example aerosols assoc
ated with magmatic eruption are responsible for much higher
‘etal fluxes than quicscently degassing voleanoes, even though
18 Aucust 1994
NATURE - vot 370
the discharge femperatures and flux of species such ex H.O,
and Clare similar (compare White Island and Satsuma Iwojin
‘Table 2). Ths observation can be explained ifa relatively NaC-
and metal-rich vapour, equilibrated with a magma at a pressure
‘of several hundreds of bar (Fig. 2), accompanies eruption. this
accounting for the high Na/S and Cu/ in aerosols, in marked
ontrast 10 the low Na/'S and Cu/S in the metal-poor fumsaroic
‘Yapour associated with quiescent degassing. Absorption of
Similar high-pressure and metal-rich vapour by a hydrothermal
‘System may therefore frm the low-salt ful (<5 Wt" NaCl)
responsible for mineralization in high-suiphidation systems
‘The deeper, high-salinity (<30 t's NaCl) fluid beneath these
deposits refered to earlier, may be related to the immiscible
hnypersaline counterpart ofthe vapour.
The neutral-pH environment. Te sources) of Au and other
retals in low-silnity, neutral-pH @uids of low-sulphidation