Economic evaluation

Economic Analysis Equity Analysis

Economic analysis refers to the evaluation of economic impacts. These
impacts are not limited to market resources (goods traded in a conventional
market); they can be any scarce and valued resource, which may include money,
land, time, health, safety, comfort, and environmental services such as clean air
and water.
Economic analysis generally considers two types of objectives: efficiency and
equity.
Efficiency assumes that policies should strive to maximize social welfare, that is,
total benefits to everybody in society. Equity assumes that policies should insure
that benefits and costs are distributed in some way that is considered most fair.
Equity Analysis
There are several ways to evaluate equity .Horizontal equity assumes that
everybody should be treated equally. Vertical equity assumes that physically,
economically or socially disadvantaged people should be favored compared with
relatively advantaged people. Below are common equity objectives that can be used
for evaluating policies and programs.
Treats everybody equally. A policy does not arbitrarily favor one group over
others.
User-Pays Principle. Individuals bear the costs they impose unless a subsidy is
specifically justified.
Progressive with respect to income. Lower-income households benefit relative to
higher-income households.
Benefits transportation disadvantaged. Benefits people with disabilities, nondrivers, people who cannot afford a car, etc.
Improves basic mobility. Helps satisfy basic mobility (travel that society considers
valuable).

Economic evaluation
The general misconception that an economic evaluation must convert all outcomes
and impacts of a program into monetary terms, stems from a lack of basic
understanding about economics as a discipline (as opposed to a topic) and the type
of economic evaluations which are in common use. Economics as a discipline deals
with both inputs and outputs (costs and consequences) and it recognizes that as
resources are scarce, choices have to be made. Choices are currently made based
on many different criteria, some of which are objective and explicit and some of
which are subjective and implicit. An economic evaluation attempts to present and
make explicit one set of criteria which may be used in the decision-making process.
The purpose is to provide as much relevant and useful information as possible.
Results from an economic evaluation are not intended to, nor should they, be used
as the sole criterion upon which decisions are based.

There are many types of evaluations which address costs, outcomes, or both.
Evaluations which address only costs or only outcomes are considered to be partial
economic evaluations. Efficacy or effectiveness studies are evaluations which
address only the outcomes of a program, service or intervention. Similarly, a cost
analysis is an analysis which examines only the cost of a program. Either of these
types of evaluations can be quite detailed and methodologically sound; however, in
isolation they only consider one of two important dimensions of evaluation. An
evaluation which considers both costs and outcomes, and which compares two or
more programs, is considered to be a full economic evaluation.
There are four main types of (full) economic evaluations: cost-minimization analysis;
cost-effectiveness analysis; cost-utility analysis; and cost-benefit analysis. A costminimization analysis (CMA) compares alternative programs where all relevant
outcome measures are equal (i.e., equal effectiveness or equal patient quality of
life). A cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) compares alternatives and measures (in
natural units) the primary objective(s) of the program (i.e., morbidity reduction, life
years saved, functional ability on a scale). A cost-utility analysis (CUA) compares
alternatives similar as in a CEA, but uses a more generic outcome measured directly
on patients (i.e., quality adjusted life years-QALYs, healthy years equivalent-HYEs).
This type of analysis is preferred when there are multiple objectives of a program,
when quality of life is an important outcome, and when quality of life and quantity
of life are both important outcomes. The primary advantage of a CUA is that the
outcome measure is more generic, and this is helpful when comparing the relative
merit of many different types of health care programs.
The final type of analysis, cost-benefit analysis (CBA), compares alternatives by
using a generic monetary outcome (i.e., dollars). The indications for using CBA are
similar as for CUA (i.e., when there are multiple objectives of a program), the main
difference being that the subjective judgments regarding the value of health
outcomes are made by techniques like willingness-to-pay (WTP) rather than by
utilities (QALYs, HYEs). With this technique, patients (or sometimes family members,
service providers or even policy makers) are asked to express the maximum amount
of money they would be willing to pay to guarantee the outcome of a program. This
amount is interpreted as the value of outcomes of the program. Since all costs
and benefits are measured and valued in commensurate units (dollars), the primary
advantage of a CBA is that the desirability of the program can be determined.
Provided the outcomes can be measured and valued appropriately, only a CBA can
judge whether a program is worthwhile.
For the most part, these basic types of evaluation differ only in how intangible
(unprimed) health outcomes of a program are measured and valued. As shown in
Figure 2, there are common elements in all these evaluations. Both resource inputs
(economic costs) and downstream resource savings (economic benefits) are
measured and included in all types of economic evaluations. It is only when the
effects of a program are also measured and included (CEA), or when the values of
intangible health outcomes are measured in monetary terms (CBA) that the

analyses are considered to be full-blown CEA or CBA. Although the terms CEA and
CBA have been used extensively in the mental health field, these terms have been
used primarily for a narrower definition of CEA or CBA (i.e., resources consumed and
resources saved or created). For example, none of these evaluations attempt to
measure, in monetary terms, the value to patients of health outcomes per se (i.e.,
which is required for a full CBA).
Typical Economic Evaluation
1. Describe each option, including a base-case and one or more alternatives.
2. Define the evaluation framework, which identifies all impacts (costs and benefits)
and objectives to be considered in the analysis. Classify impacts to avoid doublecounting.
3. Quantify and monetize (measure in monetary value) impacts that are suitable for
each option.
4. Calculate the total monetized benefits and costs for each year that is being
considered, and apply a discount value to future impacts. Sum the present value of
benefits and costs to determine the Net Present Value.
5. Describe, and measure as much as possible, impacts that are unsuited for
monetization (such as equity and effects on strategic community development
objectives). Rates each alternative according to how much it supports or contradicts
the objectives.
6. Conduct sensitivity analysis to determine how changes in key assumptions affect
outcomes.
7. Develop various ways to important differences between the options. For example:
Produce graphs that illustrate differences in key impacts.
Produce a table or matrix that compares each alternative in terms of its costs,
benefits and rating in terms of objectives (such as whether it supports or contradicts
equity and strategic community development objectives).
Identify the distribution of impacts (which individual or group bear costs or gains
benefits).
Produce short summaries that describe key differences, and factors that may
affect these differences.
Of course, these steps can be adjusted and repeated as needed. For example,
stakeholders may sometimes request that additional options, impacts or objectives
be considered, or that additional analysis be performed to determine the
distribution of impacts.
Model Development
A model can be defined as a representation of a part of reality. A model is designed
for a specific purpose, and depending on the modeling purpose, the model may be
classified as physical model expressed as a type of scale model, or a mathematical
model, i.e. a model that utilizes quantitative equations. All models, however,
provide one common characteristic, regardless of the modeling intention: the
transformation of a portion of the real world into a model [Black 1981]. This
transformation is usually performed on a basis of the following processes:

Perception of the real world,

Interpretation of the real world,
Generalization of specific conditions or environments,
Simplification of the system,
Abstraction of the given objectives, and
Translation of the system into a type of model, following the given objectives.

If a complex system is being addressed, in which the application of a simple scale or

descriptive model is insufficient in terms of a deeper explanation of the real system,
a quantitative approach is often adopted, using a type of mathematical model. A
mathematical model employs the language of mathematics to interpret and
represent a system and its behavior. The mathematical language used to express
the complex, real world must be highly abstract. Mathematical notation is a more
precise language than English. Because it is less ambiguous, a mathematical model
is a description which has greater clarity than most verbal models [Lee 1973].
Once a mathematical model based on a quantitative approach is applied in a
systems context, the approach is termed systems modeling. Systems modeling
can be implemented by a single representative model, or by a combination of
interrelated sub models. However, in any case, either using a single model or using
a group of models, the identification of interrelationships among the system
components should be a prerequisite for the modeling.
Conventional Transportation Planning
Conventional (also called traditional or business as usual) transportation planning
refers to current practices for making transport policy, program and investment
decisions.
Multi-modal planning refers to decision making that considers various modes
(walking, cycling, automobile, public transit, etc.) and connections among modes so
each can fill its optimal role in the overall transport system. There are several
specific types of transport planning for reflecting different scales and objectives:
Traffic impact studies evaluate traffic impacts and mitigation strategies for a
particular development or project.
Local transport planning develops municipal and neighborhood transport plans.
Regional transportation planning develops plans for a metropolitan region.
State, provincial and national transportation planning develops plans for a large
jurisdiction, to be implemented by a transportation agency.
Strategic transportation plans develop long-range plans, typically 20-40 years into
the future.

 Transportation improvement plans (TIPs) or action plans identify specific projects

and programs to be implemented within a few years.
Corridor transportation plans identify projects and programs to be implemented
on a specific corridor, such as along a particular highway, bridge or route.
Mode- or area-specific transport plans identifies ways to improve a particular
mode (walking, cycling, public transit, etc.) or area (a campus, downtown, industrial
park, etc.).
A transport planning process typically includes the following steps:
Monitor existing conditions.
Forecast future population and employment growth, and identify major growth
corridors.
Identify current and projected future transport problems and needs, and various
projects and strategies to address those needs.
Evaluate and prioritize potential improvement projects and strategies. Develop
long-range plans and short range programs identifying specific capital projects and
operational strategies.
Develop a financial plan for implementing the selected projects and strategies.

Conventional transportation planning tends to focus on a specific set of options

(primarily automobile travel) and impacts (summarized in Table 1). Commonly-used
transportation economic evaluation models, such as MicroBenCost, were designed
for highway project evaluation, assuming that total vehicle travel is unaffected and
is unsuitable for evaluating projects that include alternative modes or demand
management strategies.
Conventional transportation planning tends to focus on a limited set of impacts.
Other impacts tend to be overlooked because they are relatively difficult to quantify
(e.g., equity, indirect environmental impacts), or simply out of tradition (e.g.,
parking costs, vehicle ownership costs, construction delays).
Conventional transportation planning strives to maximize traffic speeds, minimize
congestion and reduce crash rates (generally measured per vehicle-mile) using a
well developed set of engineering, modeling and financing tools. Many jurisdictions
codify these objectives in concurrency requirements and traffic impact fees, which
require developers to finance roadway capacity expansion to offset any increase in
local traffic. Alternatives to roadway expansion, such as transportation demand
management and multi-modal transport planning, are newer and so have fewer
analysis tools.
As a result, conventional planning practices support automobile dependency, which
refers to transport and land use patterns favoring automobile travel over alternative
modes (in this case, automobile includes cars, vans, light trucks, SUVs and
motorcycles). In recent years transportation planning has expanded to include more
emphasis on non-automobile modes and more consideration of factors such as
environmental impacts and mobility for non-drivers. One indication of this shift is
that over the last two decades, many highway agencies have been renamed

transportation agencies, and have added departments and experts related to

environmental analysis, community involvement and non-motorized planning.
Transportation modeling techniques are improving to account for a wider range of
options (such as alternative modes and pricing incentives) and impacts (such as
pollution emissions and land use effects). In addition, an increasing portion of
transport funds are flexible, meaning that they can be spent on a variety of types of
programs and projects rather than just roadways.

Most regions use four-step models to

predict future transport conditions (see
Figure 2). The region is divided into
numerous transportation analysis zones
(TAZs) each containing a few hundred to
a
few
thousand
residents.
Trip
generation (the number and types of
trips originating from each TAZ) is
predicted based
on generic values adjusted based on
local travel surveys that count zone-tozone peak-period trips. These trips are
assigned destinations, modes and routes
based on their generalized costs
(combined time and financial costs), with
more trips assigned to relatively cheaper
routes and modes, taking into account
factors such as travel speeds, congestion
delays and parking costs. Transport
models are being improved in various ways to better predict future travel activity,
including the effects of various transport and land use management strategies.
Parts of a Four Step Model
Trip Generation
Answers the question how many trips per family?
Most important parameter: Number of members per dwelling unit
Trip Purposes
Surveys to establish
No of trips as a function of number of people per household, of number
of cars, type of dwelling, residential area
Distribution among trip purposes
Distribution between motorized and non-motorized
Distribution between chained and un-chained trips
Number of captive public transport users: e.g.: f (No of people per
household vs. no of automobiles in household)

Trip Distribution
Answers the Questions:
How many trips per family?
Where will be generated trips will go to?
Internal vs. External trips
Internal Trips - those whose origin and destination are confined
into a city limit
External trips - those whose destination is beyond city or town
limits
Mode Choice
Answers the question Which transport mode will they choose?
Motorized vs. Non-motorized trips
Trip Assignment
Answers the question WHICH ROUTE WILL THEY TAKE?
Trip Assignment period
24 hour assignment as ADT (Average Daily Traffic)
Morning and evening rush-hour, off-peak
Time variations associated to each trip purpose
Factors affecting route selection:
Time
Cost
Human nature
Critical path
Analytical options for route selection:
All or Nothing (AOL) Winner gets it all
Capacity restraint How to incorporate mounting congestion
Equilibrium A very rational universe out there
This predicts future peak-period traffic
volumes on each route, and identifies
where volumes will exceed capacity
(based on the volume/capacity ratio
or V/C) of specific roadway links and
intersections.
The intensity of congestion on major
roadways is evaluated using level-ofservice (LOS) ratings, a grade from A
(best) to F (worst).Table 2 summarizes
highway LOS ratings. Similar ratings
are defined for arterial streets and
intersections.
Roadway
level-ofservice is widely used to identify
traffic
problems
and
evaluate
potential roadway improvements.

Figure 3 illustrates a typical model output: a map showing LOS ratings of major
regional roadways.
Terms and Concepts
Traffic congestion can be recurrent (occurs daily, weekly or annually, making it
easier to manage) or non-recurrent (typically due to accidents, special events or
road closures).
Design vehicle refers to the largest and heaviest vehicle a roadway is designed
to accommodate. Passenger Car Equivalents (PCE) indicate the traffic impacts of
larger vehicles compared with a typical car.
A queue is a line of waiting vehicles (for example, at an intersection). A platoon is
group of vehicles moving together (such as after traffic signals turn green).
Capacity refers to the number of people or vehicles that could be
accommodated. Load factor refers to the portion of capacity that is actually used.
For example, a load factor of 0.85 indicates that 85% of the maximum capacity is
actually occupied.
A typical transport planning process defines the minimum level-of-service
considered acceptable (typically LOS C or D). Roads that exceed this are considered
to fail and so deserve expansion or other interventions. This approach is criticized
on these grounds:
It focuses primarily on motor vehicle travel conditions. It assumes that
transportation generally consists of automobile travel, often giving little

consideration to travel conditions experienced by other modes. As a result, it tends

to result in automobile dependency, reducing modal diversity.
It defines transportation problems primarily as traffic congestion, ignoring other
types of problems such as inadequate mobility for non-drivers, the cost burden of
vehicle ownership to consumers and parking costs to businesses, accident risk, and
undesirable social and environmental impacts.
It ignores the tendency of traffic congestion to maintain equilibrium (as
congestion increases, traffic demand on a corridor stops growing), and the impacts
of generated traffic (additional peak-period vehicle travel that results from
expanded congested roadways) and induced travel (total increases in vehicle travel
that result from expanded congested roadways). As a result, it exaggerates the
degree of future traffic congestion problems, the congestion reduction benefits of
expanding roads, and the increased external costs that can result from expanding
congested roadways.
It can create a self-fulfilling prophecy by directing resources primarily toward
roadway expansion at the expense of other modes (widening roads and increasing
traffic speeds and volumes tends to degrade walking and cycling conditions, and
often leaves little money or road space for improving other modes).
Short trips (within TAZs), travel by children, off-peak travel and recreational travel
are often ignored or undercounted in travel surveys and other statistics, resulting in
walking and cycling being undervalued in planning.
In recent years transportation planning has become more multi-modal and
comprehensive, considering a wider range of options and impacts. Transport
planners have started to apply Level-of-Service ratings to walking, cycling and
public transit, and to consider demand management strategies as alternatives to
roadway capacity expansion.

Some urban areas have established a

transportation hierarchy which states
that more resource efficient modes will
be given priority over single occupant
automobile travel, particularly on
congested
urban
corridors.
This
provides a basis for shifting emphasis
in transport planning, road space
allocation, funding and pricing to favor
more efficient modes.

Multi-modal transportation planning is complicated because modes differ in various

ways, including their availability, speed, density, costs, limitations, and most
appropriate uses (Table 4). They are not equal substitutes; each is only appropriate
for specific users and uses.
Such analysis is even more complex because each mode includes various
subcategories with unique characteristics. For example, pedestrians include
people standing, walking alone and in groups, using canes and walkers, jogging and
running, playing, walking pets, carrying loads, and pushing hand carts. Their actual
needs, abilities, impacts and value to society can vary significantly, as indicated in
Table 5.

Similarly, public transit (also called public transportation or mass transit) includes
various types of services and vehicles. Table 6 summarizes the performance of
various types of public transit. Actual performance depends on specific
circumstances; for example costs per trip can vary depending on which costs are
included (for example, whether major new road or rail improvements are required,
whether Park-and-Ride facilities are included in transit budgets, construction and
operating costs, load factors and types of trips.
Multi-modal transport planning requires tools for evaluating the quality of each
mode, such as Level-of-Service standards which can be used to indicate problems

and ways to improve each mode. Tables 7 and 8 indicate factors that can be
considered when evaluating different modes.

Summary of Factors Affecting Accessibility

The table below lists factors that affect accessibility and the degree to which they
are considered in current transport planning. Multi-modal transportation planning
requires consideration of all of these factors.

Best Practices
The following are recommendations for multi-modal transportation planning:
Consider a variety of transportation improvement options, including
improvements to various modes, and mobility management strategies such as
pricing reforms and smart growth land use policies. Consider various combinations

of these options, such as public transport improvements plus supportive mobility

management strategies.
Consider all significant impacts, including long-term, indirect and non-market
impacts such as equity and land use changes. This should at least include:
Congestion
Roadway costs
Parking costs
Consumer costs
Traffic accidents
Quality of access for non-drivers
Energy consumption
Pollution emissions
Equity impacts
Physical fitness and health
Land use development impacts
Community liability
Impacts that cannot be quantified and monetized (measured in monetary values)
should be described.
Multi-modal comparisons should be comprehensive and marginal, and should
account for factors such as transit system economies of scale and scope.
Special consideration should be given to transport system connectivity,
particularly connections between modes, such as the quality of pedestrian and
cycling access to transit stops and stations.
Special consideration should be given to the quality of mobility options available
to people who are physically or economically disadvantaged, taking into account
universal design (the ability of transport systems to accommodate people with
special needs such as wheelchair users and people with wheeled luggage) and
affordability.
Indicate impacts with regard to strategic objectives, such as long-range land use
and economic development.
Use comprehensive transportation models that consider multiple modes,
generated traffic impacts (the additional vehicle traffic caused by expansion of
congested roadways), and the effects of various mobility management strategies
such as price changes, public transit service quality improvements and land use
changes.
People involved in transportation decision-making (public officials, planning
professionals and community members) should live without using a personal
automobile for at least two typical weeks each year that involve normal travel

activities (commuting, shopping, social events, etc.) in order to experience the nonautomobile transportation system.

RAILWAY
I. Nature of Railways
Definition of Rails
A rail is a steel bar extending horizontally between supports which is used as a track
for rail road, cars or other vehicles.
Unlike some other uses of iron and steel, railway rails are subject to very high
stresses and have to be made of very high quality steel. It took many decades to
improve the quality of the materials, including the change from iron to steel. Minor
flaws in the steel that pose no problems in reinforcing rods for buildings can,
however, lead to broken rails and dangerous derailments when used on railway
tracks.
By and large, the heavier the rails and the rest of the track work the heavier and
faster the trains these tracks can carry.
Rail weights and sizes

Two commonly used rail profiles: a heavily worn 50 kg-profile and a new 60 kgprofile
The weight of a rail per length is an important factor in determining rails strength
and hence axleloads and speeds.
In rail terminology Pound is used synonymously with pounds per yard, e.g. a 132
pound rail means a rail of 132 lb/yd.
Europe
Rails are made in a large number of different sizes. Some common European rail
sizes include:

40 kg/m (80.6 lb/yd)

56 kg/m (112.9 lb/yd)

50 kg/m (100.8 lb/yd)

60 kg/m (121 lb/yd)

54 kg/m (108.9 lb/yd)

North America
Some common North American rail sizes include:

75 lb/yd (37.2 kg/m)

(ASCE)
85 lb/yd (42.2 kg/m)
(ASCE)
90 lb/yd (44.6 kg/m)
(ARA)
100 lb/yd
(49.6 kg/m) (AREA)
105 lb/yd
(52.1 kg/m) New York
Central Railroad
115 lb/yd
(57.0 kg/m) (AREA)
119 lb/yd
(59.0 kg/m) Colorado
Fuel and Iron

127 lb/yd (63.0 kg/m) New

York Central Railroad
132 lb/yd
(65.5 kg/m)
(AREA)
133 lb/yd
(66.0 kg/m)
(AREA)
136 lb/yd
(67.5 kg/m) Colorado Fuel and
Iron
140 lb/yd
(69.4 kg/m)
(AREA)
141 lb/yd
(69.9 kg/m)
(produced by Nippon (Japan))
155 lb/yd (76.9 kg/m) (no
longer
production) Pennsylvania
Railroad

Australia
Some common Australian rail sizes include:

30 kg/m

50 kg/m (100.8 lb/yd)

(60.5 lb/yd)

53 kg/m (106.8 lb/yd)

36 kg/m

60 kg/m (121 lb/yd)

(72.6 lb/yd)

68 kg/m
(137.1 lb/yd)
(no
longer

40 kg/m
production)
(80.6 lb/yd)

47 kg/m
(94.7 lb/yd)
50 kg and 60 kg are the current standard, although some other sizes are still
manufactured.
History

Fish belly edge rails laid on stone blocks

Cross sections of early rails

Early rails were used on horse drawn wagonways, originally with wooden rails, but
from the 1760s using strap-iron rails, which consisted of thin strips of cast iron
fixed onto wooden rails. These rails were too fragile to carry heavy loads, but
because the initial construction cost was less, this method was sometimes used to
quickly build an inexpensive rail line. Strap rails sometimes separated from the
wooden base and speared into the floor of the carriages above, creating what was
referred to as a "snake head." However, the long-term expense involved in frequent
maintenance outweighed any savings.
These were superseded by cast iron rails that were flanged (i.e. 'L' shaped) and with
the wagon wheels flat. An early proponent of this design was Benjamin Outram. His
partner William Jessop had pioneered the use of "edge rails" in 1789 where the
wheels were flanged and, over time it was realized that these worked better.
The earliest of these in general uses were the so-called cast iron fish belly rails
from their shape. Rails made from cast iron were brittle and broke easily. They could
only be made in short lengths which would soon become uneven. John Birkinshaw's
1820 patent, as rolling techniques improved, introduced wrought iron in longer
lengths, replaced cast iron and contributed significantly to the explosive growth of
railroads in the period 1825-40. The cross-section varied widely from one line to
another, but was of three basic types as shown in the diagram. The parallel crosssection which developed in later years was referred to as Bullhead.
Meanwhile, in May 1831, the first flanged T rail (also called T-section) arrived in
America from Britain and was laid into the Pennsylvania Railroad by Camden and
Amboy Railroad. They were also used by Charles Vignoles in Britain.
The first steel rails were made in 1857 by Robert Forester Mushet, who laid them
at Derby station in England. Steel is a much stronger material, which steadily

replaced iron for use on railway rail and allowed much longer lengths of rails to be
rolled.
The American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) and the American Society for
Testing Materials (ASTM) specified carbon, manganese, silicon and phosphorus
content for steel rails. Tensile strength increases with carbon content, while ductility
decreases. AREA and ASTM specified 0.55 to 0.77 percent carbon in 70-to-90pound-per-yard (35 to 45 kg/m) rail, 0.67 to 0.80 percent in rail weights from 90 to
120 pounds per yard (45 to 60 kg/m), and 0.69 to 0.82 percent for heavier rails.
Manganese increases strength and resistance to abrasion. AREA and ASTM specified
0.6 to 0.9 per cent manganese in 70 to 90 pound rail and 0.7 to 1 percent in heavier
rails. Silicon is preferentially oxidized by oxygen and is added to reduce the
formation of weakening metal oxides in the rail rolling and casting procedures. AREA
and ASTM specified 0.1 to 0.23 percent silicon. Phosphorus and sulfur are impurities
causing brittle rail with reduced impact-resistance. AREA and ASTM specified
maximum phosphorus concentration of 0.04 percent.
The use of welded rather than jointed track began in around the 1940s and had
become widespread by the 1960s
II. Classification of Railways

Bullhead Rail
The United Kingdom introduced a type of rail, which was not used elsewhere
-apart from a few UK designed railways. This was known as "Bullhead" rail that sit in
chairs. These were somewhat figure-8 in cross-section wider at top and bottom
(known as the head and foot respectively) and smaller in the middle (the web).

In late 1830s, railway lines in England had a vast range of different patterns. One of
the earliest lines to use double-headed rail was the London and Birmingham
Railway, which had offered a prize for the best design. If it were true that the rail
could be turned over when the running surface became worn, the argument lost its
validity as it evolved into the bullhead rail, with a heavier profile to the top edge.
The lower edge also wore in patches where it was borne on the chairs. Although it
became the standard for the British railway system until the mid-20th century, there
seems to be nothing in the literature about any other advantages it may have had.
Bullhead rail was originally designed with reuse in mind. It was intended that it
would be turned over when the top had worn but this proved impossible because
the underside also wore where it had been secured to the sleeper. This idea behind
bullhead rails that because both the top and bottom of the rails were the same
shape, when one side of the rail became worn, the rail could be turned over to the
unused side thus extending the rail's lifespan turned out wrong simply because the
bottom head turned out to get dented, rendering the original idea useless. Since
now the turning over requirement was no longer needed, bullhead rails came to

have a flat base (narrower than flat-bottomed rail), and the top part has curved
edges that fit the profile of the train wheels. The standard design was an elastic
spike with a sprung curved top, which secures the rail. Bullhead rail has to be
mounted on a special cast iron "chair" and secured by a spring steel clip called a
"key" wedged between the rail web and the chair. In traditional British practice
using bullhead rail, cast metal chairs were screwed to the sleepers. Keys (wedges of
wood or sprung steel) were then driven in between chair and rail to hold it in place.
The chairs are secured to the sleepers by "coach screws". This was common
practice on British railways until the 1950s, but is now largely obsolete

Flanged T-Rail

Iron-strapped wooden rails were used on all American railways until 1831. Col.
Stevens conceived the idea that an all-iron rail would be better suited for building a
railroad. He sailed to England, the only place where his flanged T rail (also called Tsection) could be rolled. Railways in England had been using a similar rail that the
ironmasters had produced. In May, 1831, the first 500 rails, each 15 feet long and
weighing 36 pounds per yard, reached Philadelphia and were placed in the track,
marking the first use of the flanged T rail. Afterwards, the flanged T rail became
employed by all railroads in the United States. The modern version is made of an
alloy of steel that is much heavier and stronger than the original rail. Col. Stevens
also invented the hooked spike for attaching the rail and the sill plate (tie plate) to
the crosstie (or sleeper). Presently, the screw spike is being used widely in place of
the hooked spike, perhaps because it is possible to install the screw spike by using a
labor-saving machine that replaces salaried workers. At the present time, crossties
or sleepers constructed of concrete are in use in some places. The use of creosote
as a treatment for wooden cross ties has been declared to be detrimental to the
health of people and plants. The crossties or sleepers are embedded in ballast in
order to provide stability and drainage.

Vignoles Rail

Vignoles rail is the popular name of the flat-bottomed rail used internationally for
railway track, recognizing engineer Charles Vignoles who established it in Britain.
Col. Robert L. Stevens, the President of the Camden and Amboy Railroad, first
introduced flat-bottomed rail in America in 1830. There were no steel mills in
America capable of rolling long lengths, so it was manufactured in Britain. Charles
Vignoles observed that wear was occurring with steel rails and steel chairs upon
stone blocks, the normal system at that time. In 1836 he recommended flatbottomed rail to the London and Croydon Railway for which he was consulting
engineer. His rail had a smaller cross-section to the Stevens rail, with a wider
base than modern rail, fastened with screws through the base. Other lines that
adopted it were the Hull and Selby, the Newcastle and North Shields, and the

Manchester and Bolton. When it became possible to preserve wooden sleepers with
mercuric chloride (a process called "Kyanising") and creosote, they gave a much
quieter ride and it was possible to fasten the rails directly using clips or rail spikes.
Their use spread worldwide and acquired Vignoles' name. The standard form of rail
used around the world is the "flat bottom" rail. It has a narrower top or "head" and a
wide base or "foot" that can rest directly on sleepers. It has a flat base and can
stand upright without support.
The photo below shows a flat-bottomed rail secured by a Pandrol clip to a base plate
under the rail on a concrete sleeper. Flat bottom rails can also be "spiked" directly
to the sleepers. A wide-headed nail is driven into the sleeper on each side of the rail
so that the heads of the spikes hold the foot of the rail. Long stretches of track were
laid in record times across the US in the pioneering days of railroad development
using this method of securing rails to "ties". Nowadays, heavier loads and faster
trains require more sophisticated systems

Figure 73: Grassed Track Figure 74: Grooved rail gauntlet track on a street tramway
in
The LR55 track does not need a concrete raft foundation, so under-street utilities
are still accessible and therefore do not need relocation. The LR55is also quicker to
lay, and can be laid one rail at a time to minimize traffic management problems
Mannheim, Germany
A grooved rail, groove rail, or girder rail is a special grooved rail designed for
tramway or railway track in pavement or grassed surfaces (grassed track or track in
a lawn

MARIA VINCE NIA FLORES REPORT

Transportation forecasting is the process of estimating the number of vehicles or

people that will use a specific transportation facility in the future. For instance, a
forecast may estimate the number of vehicles on a planned road or bridge, the
ridership on a railway line, the number of passengers visiting an airport, or the
number of ships calling on a seaport. Traffic forecasting begins with the collection
of data on current traffic. This traffic data is combined with other known data, such
as population, employment, trip rates, travel costs, etc., to develop a
traffic demand model for the current situation. Feeding it with predicted data for
population, employment, etc. results in estimates of future traffic, typically
estimated for each segment of the transportation infrastructure in question, e.g., for
each roadway segment or railway station.

Traffic forecasts are used for several key purposes in transportation policy, planning,
and engineering: to calculate the capacity of infrastructure, e.g., how many lanes a
bridge should have; to estimate the financial and social viability of projects, e.g.,
using cost benefit - analysis and social impact assessment ; and to
calculate environmental impacts, e.g., air pollution and noise.

FOUR STEP MODEL

Variations on both the aggregate and disaggregate approaches (see discussion
under Types of Models) can be developed and applied as stand-alone travel demand
forecasting methods, appropriate for specific purposes. Alternatively, a set of
methods can be applied in conjunction with each other to create a larger modeling
framework. The four-step Urban Transportation Planning Process (UTPP) (Weiner,
1997), first developed in the 1950s to forecast automobile travel and now applied in
urban areas throughout the world, is an example of such a framework. To predict
how travel patterns will change as a result of future changes in land use patterns
and the transportation system, this framework integrates models of various aspects
of travel behavior (e.g., trip-making or mode choice) with spatial information on
land use patterns and the transportation network.
The UTPP is important to understand because it is widely used in transportation
planning. The basis for UTPP models is the division of the urban area into traffic
analysis zones (TAZs), which may correspond to census tracts, and the definition of
a network of transportation facilities connecting the zones (Figure 1). The network is
described by the time and cost of travel, for each mode, between each pair of
zones. Inputs include proposed future transportation networks and forecast
population and employment characteristics by zone. A four-step process is then
used to forecast travel:
1. Trip generation - Total trips generated by persons that start and end in each
zone are predicted, based on the population, employment, household
characteristics, etc., of the zone;
2. Trip distribution - The trips are distributed among pairs of zones, usually
based on a gravity model which distributes trips in inverse proportion to the
distance between zones;
3. Mode choice - The trips are allocated among the available travel modes,
based on relative characteristics (usually time and cost) of the modes; and
4. Network assignment - The trips are assigned to specific links (road segments)
in the transportation network, generally based on the shortest time path
between two zones

TRAVEL FORECAST MODEL DEVELOPMENT

DESCRIPTION OF FORECASTING PROCESS

Traffic

forecasting in Genesee County has been completed through application of a

TransCAD travel demand model. The TransCAD model is a computer simulation of
current and future traffic volumes placed on a current and future street and highway
network. The simulation is developed through a series of steps in which
development in the county is translated into traffic and vehicle movements from
place to place. A flow chart showing the traffic forecasting process is displayed in
Figure. The typical steps followed in the process are:

1. Network Development - The process of determining which roadways are to be

included in the study area network and identification of the pertinent
roadway information to be included.
2. Socio-economic Data Definition - The process of quantifying the type and
intensity of current and future demographics in the county. Demographics are
divided into population, households, and employment.
3. Trip Generation - The process of quantifying the number of daily trips
associated with the current and proposed levels of demographic development
in the county.
4. Trip Distribution - The process of distributing trips within the study area, by
origin and destination.
5. Mode Split - The process of dividing trips into three categories consisting of
automobile, transit and non-motorized vehicle trips.
6. Trip Assignment - The process of placing study area trips onto roadways
which represent the travel routes between Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZs)

NETWORK DEVELOPMENT
The TransCAD computer model network is a representation of the actual roadway
system in place in Genesee County. Roadways included in the model network are all
roadways that are functionally classified as collector, minor arterial, principal
arterial and freeway. Some local streets may be included where more detail was
required to make the model respond reasonably.
In the computer model, each of the streets is described by a series of link attributes.
Some of the attributes are listed below:

Free-flow vehicle operating speed in miles per hour (MPH).

Distance between street intersections in hundredths of a mile.

Daily roadway capacity

Area type

Functional classification

Number of through traffic lanes

Parking/No Parking

Number of traffic signals per mile

TRIP GENERATION

Definition of Trip Purpose

In this step, the travel forecasting process, the number of daily trips is quantified for
the study area and each of the TAZs. For the Flint-Genesee County study area, daily
trips were divided into four categories:
1. Home-based Work (HBW) - Trips with one end at the home place and one end at
the work place, without an intermediate stop.
2. Home-based Other (HBO) - Trips with one end at the home-place and one end at
a non-work place. A trip from a person's home to a shopping center, without an
intermediate stop, is a home-based other trip.
3. Non-home Based (NHB) - Trips with neither an origin nor a destination at a
person's own home. A trip from the office to a restaurant for lunch is a non-home
based trip. If a person stops at the day care center on the way to work in the
morning, the portion of the trip from home to the daycare center is a homebased other trip and the portion from the daycare center to work is a non-home
based trip. In this scenario, a non-home based trip occurred, even though the
primary origin was the home place and the primary destination was the work
place. Without the intermediate stop, the trip would have been a HBW trip.
Non-home based trips can also be subdivided into NHB work trips and NHB other
trips. For example, the trip from an office to a restaurant for lunch would be
defined as a NHB other trip. A trip for a vendor from one client to another would
be defined as a NHB work trip.
4. External - Trips which have at least one end outside the study area boundary.
These trips are further defined as:

Internal-to-External (I-E) - Trips which have a beginning or an ending point,

but not both, outside the study area of Genesee County.

External-to-External - Trips which have both a beginning and an ending point

outside Genesee County, but pass through the county.

Trip Generation Rates

Trip generation rates are factors which are applied to socio-economic data to predict

the level of trip-making in the study area. The factors applied are derived through
surveys of trip-making characteristics of various socio-economic data descriptors
completed in various locations around the state and the country. Trip generation
rates applied to each of the socio-economic data descriptors vary because the
travel intensity and characteristics of each descriptor vary. Generally:
Single-family dwellings generate
more trips per unit than
multiple-family dwellings

Retail employment generates

employment categories

more

trips

per

employee

than

non-retail

Retail employment trip generation is generally more intense than dwelling unit
trip generation

Trip Distribution
Trip distribution is the process through which the productions in each zone are
allocated to other zones, becoming attractions in the study area. Person trips within
the study area were distributed from their production zone to their attraction zone
through application of the Gravity Model. The Gravity Model is based on Newton's
Law of Gravity, which states that the attractive force between two bodies is directly
related to the masses of the bodies and inversely related to the distance between
them. Translated into travel forecasting, Newtons law states that the level of trip
interaction between two TAZs is directly related to the relative size of the TAZs
(measured in number of trips) and inversely related to the distance (measured in
travel time) between the two zones.
Generally, persons are more willing to travel a greater distance each day for work
trips than they are for daily shopping, school or recreational trips. Thus, a different
trip distribution is completed for each of the trip purposes described previously. The
reasonableness of the Genesee County trip distribution is measured by comparing
the average trip length from the distribution to average trip lengths for similarsized metropolitan areas.

2002 Person Trip Generation Summary

Trip
Purpose
Home Based
Work

2002
Productions
298,000

2002
Attractions
298,000

2002
Trip Ends
596,000

Percentag
e
of Total
20.4%

Home Based
Other
None Home
Based
Totals

761,000

761,000

1,522,000

52.0%

403,000

403,000

806,000

27.6%

1,462,000

1,462,000

2,924,000

100.0%

Source: GCMPC, MDOT, 2005

Table 9-1

2002 Average Trip Length

Trip Purpose
Home Based Work
Home Based Other
Non Home Based

Average Trip
Length
19.6 Minutes
19.7 Minutes
17.9 Minutes

Table 9-2

2002 Vehicle Trips

Trip Purpose
Auto Occupancy
Home Based Work
1.1
Home Based Other
1.3
Non Home Based
1.2
Totals
1.2

Person Trips
298,000
761,000
403,000
1,462,000

Vehicle Trips
277,000
627,000
349,000
1,253,000

Table 9-3

Traffic Assignment
The output from the trip distribution process is simply the number of person trips
desiring to travel from each zone to all other zones. The result of the mode split
process is the number of vehicle trips that travel from each zone to all other zones.
No specific route of travel between the two zones has been defined as of yet. Traffic

assignment is the process by which zone-to-zone trip interchanges are allocated to

a specific route. The total traffic on a specific roadway segment is a function of the
level of zone -to-zone interchanges which use the segment to get from their origin
zone to their destination zone. The travel paths (routes) are identified as a function
of free flow travel time and daily roadway capacity.
The Genesee County regional travel model uses a user-equilibrium assignment
technique, which results in a realistic multi-path assignment of traffic between
origin- destination zone pairs. An equilibrium assignment replicates the idea that
most drivers can use a number of routes to get from a specific origin to a specific
destination. Which particular route is selected for the particular trip is dependent on
the level of congestion generally found at the specific time that the trip is being
made. Thus, over the course of a day, drivers may use two, three or four routes to
get from a specific origin to a specific destination.

TRAFFIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT

1. Introduction
The intention is to establish the minimum requirements for the conduct of traffic
impact assessment
(TIA).
The consultant will determine the need to prepare a TIA based on an initial
assessment of transportation impacts, traffic generation, and parking
generation.
For traffic generation,
The threshold may be taken as 100 or more new vehicle trips during the A.M. or P.M.
peak hour as generated by the project.
For parking generation,
The threshold is a parking deficiency of one or more parking spaces generated by
the project. Or when a project might impact an already congested or high-accident
location, or when specific site access and safety issues are of concern.
An analysis can be prepared for any type of developments such as residential,
commercial, office, industrial or mixed-use project. A TIA usually needs to be
submitted by a developer before any changes in land use zoning, subdivision maps,
site plan or new driveways are approved. If a TIA is not needed the City/Municipal
Planning and Development Office (CPDO or MPDO) may require a traffic operations
analysis to address local transportation issues.
2. Step-by-step Process

Determination of
Scope of Work

Primary data (e.g., traffic

surveys)
Secondary data

Data

Collection

Traffic Impact
Analysis
-

Intersection and Arterial

Capacity
analysis
- Assessment of
infrastructure

Traffic Impact
Mitigation
- Identification of
mitigation measures
- Traffic management
plan

3. When Should Transportation Impact Analysis be Prepared?

3.1 General
A TIA should start in the earliest planning stages of a project, including at site
selection.
This would assist in the preparation of a more responsive and cost effective site
plan.
When a specified amount of area is being rezoned.
When development contains a specified number of dwelling units or square
footage.
At the judgment or discretion of the staff.
When development will occur in a sensitive area.
When financial assessments are required and the extent of impact must be
determined.
A TIA is typically appropriate for the following local processes:
Zoning and rezoning application.
Land subdivision application.
Environmental assessment.
Site plan approval.

Special-purpose districts.
Development agreements.
Changes to general and / or specific plans.
Annexations.

3.2 Zoning Thresholds (Deviations)

A TIA shall be required if a proposal falls under the Deviations clause of
the Zoning Ordinance.
For this purpose, the Zoning Administrator shall provide the following
information for the zone in consideration:
List of Allowed Land Uses
Land Use Intensity Control (LUIC) ratings
The project proponent, in turn, provides the basic information on the
project as follows:
Project location
Project classification according to the latest Housing and Urban Land Use
Regulatory Board (HLURB) Guidelines
Total land area of project site
Total floor area of buildings in square meters
Resultant floor to area ratio (considering all buildings within the project site)
Percentage of land occupancy
3.3 Project Size Thresholds
The Zoning Administrator shall prepare a list of Significantly Sized
Projects (SSP) with the corresponding thresholds. The project proponent
shall, in turn, submit information that corresponds to the required threshold
criteria. Proposals within the list of SSPs and exceed the specified threshold
criteria shall be required to conduct TIA regardless of conformance with the use or
land use intensity provisions of the Zoning Ordinance.

3.4 Public Roadway Modification Thresholds

The project proponent shall submit its requirements for the Public
Roadway Modifications to the Zoning Administrator. A TIA shall be conducted
if the modifications required fall under the criteria specified herein.
4. Who May Prepare and Evaluate Traffic Impact Assessments?
A Transportation Engineer or Planner certified by the Environmental
Management

Bureau (EMB) and the National Center for Transportation Studies (NCTS) of
the University of the Philippines as qualified to prepare TIA may undertake impact
assessment. Certification requires that the person or persons undertaking the TIA
will have the adequate background to conduct the study. Adequate background is
defined as a person holding at least a masters degree in transportation or its
equivalent in terms of training and professional experience.
Similarly, the same minimum qualifications must be true of the city or
municipal TIA evaluator(s). These evaluators may comprise a committee formed
by the local government to review and/or evaluate the traffic impact of
development proposals.
5. Scope of Work
5.1 General
The City or Municipal Planning and Development Office (CPDO or
MPDO) will evaluate and approve the proposed scope of work for a TIA. Upon
approval of scope of work, the consultant may proceed with the work and prepare a
TIA report. During the work, the consultant should discuss any new issue with the
City/Municipal Traffic Engineer or his equivalent.
The scope of work for the conduct of TIA includes but is not limited to
the following:
Transportation Improvements.
Road Geometry.
Traffic Safety.
Site Circulation and Parking.
Transportation facilities related to public transport, bicycle and pedestrian travel
Transportation Demand Management.
Neighborhood Traffic and Parking Management.
Funding for countermeasures.
5.2 Minimum Study Area
The Minimum Study Area should include all critical site access points as well
as signalized and unsignalized intersections adjacent to the site.
5.3 Additional Study Area
Beyond the Minimum Study Area, the approving authority shall determine
any additional area to be included based on local or site-specific deficiencies,
development size, traffic conditions, or local policy potentially affected by the
proposed development.
5.4 High Traffic Impact Areas

The C/MPDO should designate and maintain maps of High Traffic Impact
Areas (HTIA) within their jurisdiction. HTIAs are those that have special
sensitivity to traffic condition changes due to existing congestion,
problematic circulation patterns, burgeoning traffic operations problems,
or other traffic conditions of special concern.
6. Traffic Impact Analysis Contents
A TIA that accurately documents the impacts of a new development should
contain the following information:
1) A description of the site and study area. This will include a description of the
proposed land use (i.e., size, type, and location), phases of development and site
plan.
2) Purpose and objectives of the analysis.
3) Determination and identification of the area of influence of the
development.
4) Description of existing roadway / transportation conditions including traffic
volumes, transit accessibility, accidents, road geometry, transit, bicycle and
pedestrian facilities, traffic signals, overall traffic operations and circulation.
5) Identification of traffic congestion, accident areas and other deficiencies of the
transportation system in the study area.
6) Anticipated nearby land development (planned or under construction) and
associated traffic and overall traffic growth trends in the area.
7) Anticipated trip generation and daily peak hour traffic volumes of the proposed
development at full build and at any interim construction phase.
8) Trip distribution and assignment of site traffic on the transportation system.
9) Projection of existing traffic to a future design year, as determined by the
City/Municipal planning or traffic engineering staff.
10) A future combined traffic volume plan for typical daily and key peak hours
of the development and roadway system.
11) Identification of traffic congestion, safety problems and / or other deficiencies
of the future transportation system (for vehicle, transit, bicycle and pedestrian
travel), with and without the proposed development, including identified
transportation improvements being planned by other public or private organizations
that are expected to be in operation by the future years under study.
12) An assessment of the change in roadway operating conditions resulting from
the development (quantifying the impact of the development).
13) Development and evaluation of potential improvement measures needed to
mitigate the impact of the development to the level defined by local/ state policies.
14) Recommendations for site access and transportation improvements needed
to maintain traffic flow to, from, within, and past the site at an acceptable and safe
level of service. Improvements typically include roadway widening, turn lanes,

traffic signals, bicycle, pedestrian and transit amenities, safety measures, sight
distance, and transportation demand management strategies. Detailed
improvements and their costs specifically associated with the development should
be identified.
15) On-site issues including number and location of driveways, parking
needs/layout, circulation, bicycle and pedestrian facilities, truck access and
operations, transit and safety.
16) Coordination efforts with other affected jurisdictions impacted by the
development. The TIA report should be presented in a clear and logical sequence.
It should lead the reader step-by-step through the various stages of the
process and to the resulting conclusions and recommendations.
7. What Issues does a Traffic Impact Analysis Need to Address?
Once the developer has hired the consultant, it is important that a meeting
be held with concerned officials (i.e., stakeholders) to determine issues that need to
be addressed. Typical issues that need to be addressed would include the
following:
What is the transportation improvements needed to serve the traffic generated by
the new development?
How much will the improvement cost be and who will pay for them?
Will the new project impact traffic on any existing residential streets and how will
those impacts be mitigated?
Will the new development aggravate any existing safety hazards or create new
ones and, if so, how can those hazards be corrected?
Can the proposed development be served by public transportation and does the
design encourage ridesharing?
Is the design of the development friendly towards bicyclists and pedestrians who
need to access the development or who need to pass through or by the
development?
Is the on-site parking sufficient or is there an opportunity to share parking with
other adjacent uses?
How many driveways are needed, what design should each driveway have and is
there a long enough throat for each driveway that is clear of parking spaces and
other cross aisle traffic?
If any driveway is proposed to be signalized, is the traffic signal really needed and
can on-site circulation handle the traffic that will be queuing to wait for a green
light?
8. Data and References

Data for use in the TIA must be current (within a one-year period).
However, in the necessity of forecasting data for the horizon year, historical data
such as that for the last 5 to 10 years may be required. Data for street traffic
volumes, intersection traffic volumes, speed surveys, traffic signal timing
plans, and traffic collisions are available from the Department of Public Works
and Highways (DPWH), from the Traffic Engineering Center (TEC), and the
concerned local governments related agencies (e.g., CPDO, MPDO, and Office of the
Municipal or City Engineer).

"Trip Generation," by the Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE), is a

source for trip generation rates. The Evaluator may approve local trip
generation rates for similar developments and rates from other sources and
pass-by trip data for certain commercial land uses.
"Parking Generation," also by the Institute of Transportation Engineers
(ITE), is a source for parking generation rates. The City/Municipal TIA
Evaluator may approve local parking generation rates for similar
developments and rates from other sources.

9. Capacity Analysis
For capacity analysis of intersections and arterials, several scenarios are
required for analysis.
The four basic scenarios of capacity analysis for intersections and
arterials are:
1) Existing Conditions
2) Background Conditions (Existing + Approved Projects)
3) Project Conditions (Existing + Approved Projects + Project)
4) Expected Growth Conditions (Existing + Approved Projects + Project +
Expected
Growth)
10. Standards of Significance
The standards of significance for traffic impacts for a project are based on the
following:
If the project traffic will cause the existing intersection or highway roadway
levels of service to drop below acceptable levels (e.g., below LOS "D"); Level of
Service D is taken to be the minimum acceptable LOS for most facilities. LOS E
usually denotes congestion.
If the project traffic will contribute to the increase in traffic along arterials or at
intersections currently operating at unacceptable levels;

 If the project design does not have adequate parking or circulation capacity to
accommodate traffic increase.
If traffic increase or roadway design will result in safety concerns; or
If the project does not include adequate provision for bicycle, pedestrian, or
public transport access.

WATER TRANSPORTATION or MARITIME TRANSPORTATION

Water transportation is the least expensive and slowest mode of freight
transport. It is generally used to transport heavy products over long distances when
speed is not an issue. Although accessibility is a problem with shipsbecause they
are necessarily limited to coastal area or major inland waterwayspiggybacking is
possible using either trucks or rail cars. The main advantage of water transportation
is that it can move products all over the world.
HISTORY OF MARITIME/WATER TRANSPORTATION
From its modest origins as Egyptian coastal sail ships around 3,200 BC,
maritime transportation has always been the dominant support of
global trade.
By 1,200 BC Egyptian ships traded as far as Sumatra, representing one
of the longest maritime routes of that time.
European colonial powers, mainly Spain, Portugal, England, the
Netherland and France would be the first to establish a true global
maritime trade network.
With the development of the steam engine in the mid 19th century,
this role expanded considerably as ships were no longer subject to
dominant wind patterns. This long term attribute has been reinforced
by recent trends where changes in international trade and seaborne
trade are interrelated.
Maritime transportation, like all transportation, is a derived demand. As
of 2006, seaborne trade accounted for 89.6% of global trade in terms
of volume and 70.1% in terms of value. Maritime shipping is one of the
most globalized industries in terms of ownership and operations.

NATURE OF MARITIME/WATER TRANSPORTATION

1. MARITIME FREIGHT
Maritime traffic is dominantly focused on freight. Before the era of
intercontinental air transportation, transcontinental passenger services were
assumed by liner passenger ships, dominantly over the North Atlantic. Long
distance passengers movements are now a marginal leisure function solely
serviced by cruise shipping.
The systematic growth of maritime freight traffic has been fueled by:
Increase in energy and mineral cargoes - many developing
countries, such as China, are also increasingly involved in
importing raw materials.
Globalization that went on par with an international division of
the production and trade liberalization.
Technical improvements in ship and maritime terminals
have facilitated the flows of freight.
Economies of scale permitted maritime transportation to
remain a low cost mode, a trend which has been strengthened
by containerization.
Maritime traffic is commonly measured in deadweight tons, which refers to the
amount of cargo that can be loaded on an "empty" ship, without exceeding its
operational design limits. Maritime freight is conventionally considered in two
categories:
Bulk cargo
Refers to freight, either dry or liquid, that is not packaged such as minerals
(oil, coal, iron ore, bauxite) and grains. It often requires the use of specialized ships
such as oil tankers as well as specialized transshipment and storage facilities.
Conventionally, this cargo has a single origin, destination and client and prone to
economies of scale.
Break-bulk cargo
Refers to general cargo that has been packaged in some way with the use of
bags, boxes or drums. This cargo tends to have numerous origins, destinations and
clients. Before containerization, economies of scale were difficult to achieve with
break-bulk cargo as the loading and unloading process was very labor and time
consuming.
2. MARITIME SHIPPING
Maritime shipping is dominated by bulk cargo, which roughly
accounted for 69.6% of all the ton-miles shipped in 2005, but the share of
break-bulk cargo is increasing steadily, mainly because of containerization.
Shipping has traditionally faced two drawbacks. It is slow, with speeds
at sea averaging 15 knots (26 Km/hr). Secondly, delays are encountered in

ports where loading and unloading takes place. The latter may involve
several days of handling when break-bulk cargo was concerned. These
drawbacks are particularly constraining where goods have to be moved over
short distances or where shippers require rapid service deliveries. However,
technical improvements tend to blur the distinction between bulk and breakbulk cargo, as both can be unitized on pallets and increasingly in containers.
Maritime shipping has seen several major technical innovations aiming
at improving the performance of ships or their access to port facilities,
notably in the 20th century. They include:
a. Size
.Size if a common denominator for ships is it expresses type as well as
capacity. Each time the size of a ship is doubled, its capacity is cubed
(tripled). Although the minimum size for cost effective bulk handling is
estimated to be around 1,000 deadweight tons, economies of scale have
pushed for larger ship sizes to service transportation demand.
b. Speed.
The average speed of ships is about 15 knots (1 knot = 1 marine mile
= 1,853 meters), which is 28 km per hour. Under such circumstances, a ship
would travel about 575 km per day. More recent ships can travel at speeds
between 25 to 30 knots (45 to 55 km per hour), but it is uncommon that a
commercial ship will travel faster than 25 knots due to energy requirements.
c. Specialization of ships.

Economies of scales are often linked with specialization. Both

processes have considerably modified maritime transportation. In time, ships
became increasingly specialized to include general cargo ships, tankers, grain
carriers, barges,mineral carriers, bulk carriers, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
carriers, RO-RO ships (roll-on roll off; for vehicles) and container ships.
d. Ship design.

Ship design has significantly improved from wood hulls, to wood hulls
with steel armatures, to steel hulls (the first were warships) and to steel,
aluminum and composite materials hulls. The hulls of todays ships are the
result of considerable efforts to minimize energy consumption, construction
costs and improve safety. Depending on its complexity, a ship can take
between 4 months (container and crude carriers) and 1 year to build (cruise
ship).
e. Automation.

Different automation technologies are possible including self-unloading

ships, computer assisted navigation (crew needs are reduced and safety is
increased) and global positioning systems. The general outcome of
automation has been smaller crews being required to operate larger ships.

3. MARITIME ECONOMICS
The main advantage of maritime transportation is obviously its economies of
scale, making it the cheapest per unit of all transport modes, which fits well
for heavy industrial activities. On the other hand, maritime transportation has one
of the highest entry costs of the transport sector. Typically, a ship has an economic
life between 15 and 20 years and thus represents a significant investment that must
be amortized.
The operation of the maritime transport system requires financing that can
come from two sources:
Public. The public sector is commonly responsible for guidance infrastructures
(beacons and charts), public piers, dredging, and security and in several
cases of the administration of ports (under the umbrella of port authorities).
Private. The private sector is mostly concerned about specific facilities such
as piers, transshipment infrastructures and ships, which are commonly owned
by private maritime companies.

SHIP AND CARGO TYPES

1. SHIP
Since
the
end
of
the age
of
sail a ship has
been
any
large buoyant marine vessel. Ships are generally distinguished from
boats based on size and cargo or passenger capacity. Ships are used
on lakes, seas, and rivers for a variety of activities, such as the transport of
people or goods, fishing, entertainment, public
safety,
and warfare.
Historically, a "ship" was a vessel with sails rigged in a specific manner.
TYPES OF SHIPS
A. Commercial Vessels
The global maritime shipping industry is serviced by about 22,000 vessels.
There are four broad types of ships employed around the world:
1. Passenger vessels
There are two types of passenger vessels:
a. Passenger ferries, where people are carried across
relatively short bodies of water in a shuttle-type service
b. Cruise ships, where passengers are taken on vacation
trips of various durations, usually over several days.
2. Bulks carriers- are ships designed to carry specific commodities, and
are differentiated into liquid bulk and dry bulk vessels. They include
the largest vessels afloat.

3. General cargo ships- are vessels designed to carry non-bulk cargoes.

The traditional ships were less than 10,000 dwt, because of extremely
slow loading and off-loading. Since the 1960s these vessels have been
replaced by container ships because they can be loaded more rapidly
and efficiently, permitting a better application of economies of scale.
4. Roll on-Roll off (RORO) vessels- which are designed to allow cars,
trucks and trains to be loaded directly on board. Originally appearing
as ferries, these vessels are used on deep-sea trades and are much
larger than the typical a ferry. The largest are the car carriers that
transport vehicles from assembly plants to the main markets.
5. Special-purpose vessels are not used for transport but for other
tasks. Examples include tugboats, pilot boats, rescue boats, ships,
research, survey vessels, and icebreakers.

B. Naval Vessels
Naval vessels are those used by a navy for military purposes. There
have been many types of naval vessel. Modern naval vessels can be broken
down into three categories: surface warships, submarines, and support and
auxiliary vessels.
1. Aircraft Carriers are ships outfitted with a flight deck -- a runway
area for launching and landing airplanes.
2. Cruiser is a fast, large warship with light armor and heavy
firepower. Cruisers are designed to destroy other surface vessels,
submarines, and aircraft.
3. Destroyer is a class of warship very fast relative to its length,
generally equipped with torpedoes, antisubmarine equipment, and mediumcaliber and antiaircraft guns.
4. Frigate, warship, usually of 4,000 to 9,000 displacement tons, that
is smaller than a destroyer and used primarily for escort duty.
5. Corvette, fast, lightly armed warship, smaller than a destroyer,
often armed for antisubmarine operations.
6. Submarine, vessel that is capable of operating submerged
7. Amphibious Assault Ship, an assault ship which is designed for
long sea voyages and for rapid unloading over and on to a beach.
C. Fishing Vessels
Fishing vessels are a subset of commercial vessels, but generally small in size
and often subject to different regulations and classification. They can be categorized
by several criteria: architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method
used, geographical origin, and technical features such as rigging.

D. Weather Vessels
A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface
and upper air meteorological observations for use in weather forecasting. Surface
weather observations were taken hourly, and four radiosonde releases occurred
daily. It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support
transatlantic flights.
E. Inland and Coastal Boats
Many types of boats and ships are designed for inland and coastal
waterways. These are the vessels that trade upon the lakes, rivers and canals.

1. Barges are a prime example of inland vessels. Flat-bottomed boats

built to transport heavy goods, most barges are not self-propelled and need to be
moved by tugboats towing or towboats pushing them.
2. Riverboats are specially designed to carry passengers, cargo, or both
in the challenging river environment. Rivers present special hazards to vessels.
They usually have varying water flows that alternately lead to high speed water
flows or protruding rock hazards.
2. CARGO SHIPS
A cargo ship or freighter is any sort of ship or vessel that carries cargo,
goods, and materials from one port to another. Thousands of cargo carriers ply the
world's seas and oceans each year; they handle the bulk of international trade.
Cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being equipped
with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes. Today,
they are almost always built of welded steel, and with some exceptions generally
have a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years before being scrapped
TYPES OF CARGO SHIPS
1. Tankers carry petroleum products or other liquid cargo.
2. Dry Bulk Carriers carry coal, grain, ore and other similar products in
loose form.
3. Multi-purpose Vessels, as the name suggests, carry different classes of
cargo e.g. liquid and general cargo at the same time.
Largest Passenger Ship in the World
MS ALLURE OF THE SEAS of USA

Allure of the Seas is 1,188 feet (362 m) long, has a tonnage of 225,000 gross
tons, and carries around 5,600 people. The ship features telescoping funnels, a twodeck dance hall, a theatre with 1,380 seats, and an ice skating rink.

Largest Bulk Carrier in the world

MS BERGE STAHL of NORWAY
The 1,122 ft or 343 meters long ship has a capacity of 364,767 metric tons
deadweight (DWT). It has a beam or width of 208.3 feet or 65 meters and a draft or
depth in the water of 23 meters. Its diesel engine is 30 feet or 9 meters high that
drives a single 30 foot or 9 meters propeller and puts out 27,610 horsepower (20.59
MW) with a top speed of 13.5 knots (25.0 km/h).

Largest General Cargo Ship in the world

EMMA MAERSK SUEZ CARGO
Ultra Large Container Vessel (ULCV)
With a length of 397 m, a width of 56 m, draft of 15.5 m, and a capacity of
over 15,000 TEU, ships of the Emma Maersk class are well over the limits of the
New Panamax class

Largest RORO Ship in the world

TONSBERG
TNSBERG, the worlds largest roll-on/roll-off (RO/RO) ship*, built by
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. (MHI)
The 74,622 gross tonnage ship measures 265 meters (m) in length overall
(LOA), 32.26m in breadth and 33.22m in height (ship bottom to upper deck).
Has a capability to transport high and heavy (H&H) cargo such as large-size
construction machinery and machine tools, plant components, railway cars and
pleasure boats.
Largest Tanker in the world
FRANK A SHRONTZ
A VLCC Tanker, the Frank A Shrontz measures 331 meters lengthwise with a
gross tonnage of around 4.3 million DWT.
The vessel is capable of handling three tiers of cargo at the same time and
boasts of a landing arena for a copter.
CONSISTENCY

Consistency is the most important single rule in highway design. That is, by
making every element of the roadway conforms to the expectation of every driver.
Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:
1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.
If these guides and directions could be planned properly to convey one single
message at a time, and if these directions will be followed smoothly and easily
without undue haste, or changes in speed then, the roadway facilities are
considered satisfactory. Experienced highway Engineers recommended that
highway sign and directions should be integrated as early as the preliminary layout
studies.
Definition of Terms
AASHTO is the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials. In 1914, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHO) were established as an association of State Territorial and District
of Columbia Highway Department, and the Federal Highway Administration. The
name was expanded in 1973, when the department of Transportation was
integrated into the association renaming AASHO to AASHTO, giving the officials of
this agency the power to govern its operation. Engineering activities were
implemented by the standing committees with the task of preparing specifications
manual and standards, representing the current highway engineering practice.
AASHTO publications include:
1. Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests
2. Specifications for highway bridges
3. Geometric design standards
4. Numerous policy statements and guides
AASHTO publications are authoritative. References are made in these books
and periodic manuals. The association also publishes the AASHTO quarterly reports
on current Highway and Transportations subject including trends in forecast and
legislation.
Roads and Highways are defined as strips of land that have been cleared and
further improved for the movement of people and goods.
ROAD. Road has somewhat broader application in usage while generally used to
describe a public thoroughfare. It can also refer to railways.
HIGHWAY. The term was first used in England to describe a public road built by
digging ditches on both sides and heaping up the earth in the middle creating a way
higher than the adjacent land. Highway now connotes, a higher state of
development than road, but the words are almost interchangeable.

Expressway is a divided arterial highway for through traffic with full or partial
control or access and generally provided with grade separation at major
intersections.
Freeway is an expressway with full control of access.
Control of Access is a condition where the rights of owners or occupants of
adjoining land or other persons access to light, air or view in connection with a
highway is fully or partially controlled by public authority.
Full Control of Access The authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic by providing access connections to selected public
roads only. Crossing at grade or direct private driveway connections is not
permitted.
Partial Control of Access The authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic. Although in addition to access connections with
selected public roads, there may be some crossings at grade and some private
driveway connections allowed.
Through Street or Through Highway every highway or portion thereof on
which vehicular traffic is given preferential right of way, and at the entrance to
which vehicular traffic from intersecting highways is required by law to yield right of
way to vehicles on such through highway in obedience to either stop sign or yield
signs erected thereon.
Parkway is an arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, with full or partial
control of access usually located within a park or ribbon park-like development.
Arterial Street is an arterial route that carries traffic to the nearest access point
or through traffic. It often serves as the most advantageous routes for relatively
long distance travel. Most arterial streets are existing highways of considerable
length along which cross traffic is regulated by signals or stop but often with
restrictions on entry and exit points. Arterial street is considered as a make do
substitute for controlled access facilities when traffic volume exceeds about 20,000
vehicles per day.
Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial Roadways
1. Selection of the routes.
2. Studies of the traffic volume.
3. Origin and destination.
4. Accident experienced.
5. Width should not be less than 15meters.
6. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each direction.
7. Should be at least one kilometer in length.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate them.
9. On grid design system streets, arterials are spaced at about 600 to 900
meters apart.
10.Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum volume to justify arterial
road is 300 vehicles per average hour during the day, and 450 vehicles
hourly during peak periods.

Sometimes, peak hour traffic volume on designated arterial road exceeds the
capacity of two way streets, and to increase the arterial capacity, the following
solutions are enforced.
1. During peak hours, parking is prohibited on one or both sides of the street.
2. Parking is prohibited several meters away from each side of the road
intersections or corners.
3. Right turn is allowed on red signals any time with care.
4. Left turns are eliminated on congested intersections.
5. The direction of traffic is reversed in the center lane to provide more lanes in
the direction of heavier traffic flow.
Collector Street from smaller mesh grid pattern where passengers are picks up
from service streets and carried to the arterials. Large commercial enterprises or
amusement facilities like drive in theatres are mostly fronting arterial roads.
Local Road is defined as street or road primarily to residences, business, or other
adjoining properties. It is also defined as a road constructed and maintained by the
local government.
Highway Capacity is defined as the maximum number of vehicles that are
reasonably expected to pass a given point over a given period of time usually
expressed as vehicles per hour.
1. Under ideal conditions, one freeway lane can accommodate about 2,000
passengers cars per hour.
2. Two lane road can carry up to 1,000 passengers cars per hour in each
direction.
There is an obvious relationship between vehicle speed and highway capacity. As
the volume of traffic approaches capacity, the average speed is markedly reduced.
AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow on a highway as measured by the
number of vehicles passing a partial station during a given interval of time. It is
called Average Annual Daily Traffic if the period is less than one year. Volume may
be stated on hourly Observed Traffic Volume or estimated 30 th hour volume
commonly used for design purposes. Some highway agencies use traffic volume for
5 minutes interval to distinguish short peak movement of vehicles.
THE DESIGN SPEED
There is no single set of Geometric Standards that will apply to all highways.
For every highway segment, decisions regarding appropriate control for each of the
many details or requirements must be addressed individually or separately.
AASHTO defined Design Speed as:
The speed determined for design and correlation of the physical feature of a
highway that influence vehicles operation. It is the maximum speed that can be

maintained over a specified section of the highway when weather and traffic
conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway governs.
Basic Design Features refers to the tightness and super elevation of curves,
the sight distance, and grade. The design speed is basically higher than the
anticipated average speed. AASTHO recommend that:
The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to satisfy the
needs of nearly all drivers both today and throughout the road anticipated life.
For economic reasons, the Geometric Features of certain road sections are
designed for speed from 30to 50 kilometers per hour. And yet, some motorists drive
faster on straight road alignment or less sharply curved sections. Under this
situation, highway design adopted control by reducing the super elevation
combined with easement curves, delineators, stripping signs and rumble strips, to
alert motorists and inform them that, they are approaching sharp curves or blind
curves.
Selection of the proper road design speed is one of the most important
decisions to make, because it sets the limit to curvature, sight distance, and other
geometric figures. But because of limited funds, there is a strong temptation to
reduce the design speed. Such kind of decision is unwise, because the alignment
grade and sight distance after the roadway has been constructed and paved along
the landscape and rights of way, become more difficult, and expensive to adjust or
to correct.
The AASHTO practice is to classify first the highway as Rural or Urban, then
as Freeways, Arterials, Collectors and Local. Rural collectors and local facilities are
classified as flat, rolling, or mountainous. Although the design speed classified
presently used is 80 km per hour, highway designers projected design speed up to
120 kilometers per hour to guarantee against future obsolescence as well as the
increased margin of operating safety. The high speed road design must anticipate
future generation high speed vehicles and advanced transportation systems that
may operate on many of these road alignments.
Although the design speed of the most highways is governed by construction
costs, the concept of the relatively high speed design for freeways is Regardless
of Cost. They are planned for a nationwide high volume traffic and high speed
network.

TABLE 2-1 MINIMUM RECOMMENDED DESIGN SPEED

Design Speed

FACILITY
Freeway
Arterial
Collectors
Local

URBAN Km/hr.

RURAL Km/hr.

80-95 preferred
64-95 but 48 in built up
areas

110-95
mountainous
80-110

48 km/hr.
32-48 km/hr.

See Table 2-2

See Table 2-2

TABLE 2-2 AASHTO MINIMUM DESIGN SPEED

KM. / HR. FOR RURAL COLLECTORS AND LOCAL ROADS
BASED ON CURRENT ADT
Class
Terrain
Collector
Level
Rolling

Average Daily Traffic

0-400
60
45
30

400750
75
60
45

7502000
75
60
45

20004000
75
75
60

250400
60
45
30

Over
400
75
60
45

Over
4000
90
75
60

Mountainous

Local
Level
Rolling

0-50
45
30
30

50-250
45
45
30

Mountainous

CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL HIGHWAY

The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables to consider such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.

The volume of traffic

Character of the traffic
Speed of the traffic
Characteristics of motor vehicles and the driver

Highway design usually adopted cross section that is uniform in thickness from
end to end of the improvement. This is acceptable on high volume traffic road
facilities. For low volume traffic facilities, modifications of the features like the
shoulders width in rough areas are usually employed to reduce costs. A cross
section design generally offers the expected level of service for safety and a recent
study showed that:
1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 18% less accident compared with
pavement narrower than 5.50 meters wide.
2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 4% fewer accidents than 6.00 meters wide
roadway.
3. Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60 meters and the 7.20
meters wide pavement.
4. For the 6.00 meters, 6.60 meters and 7.20 meters wide pavement with 2.70
to 3.00 meters wide shoulder, recorded accident decreases by 30% compared
to 0 to .60 meters wide shoulder. And 20% compared with a .90 to 1.20
meters wide shoulder.
It appears that, the above difference in accident potentials may not justify
higher standard, particularly, when traffic volume is low. A drivers instinct when
overtaking or allowing other cars to overtake or meeting oncoming vehicles is to
look at the surface width of the highway, and see the kind of surface where to
position his car.
Originally, the total surface width of the roadway was only 4.50 meters, but
due to the increased number of vehicles using the roadway, the width was adjusted
to 4.80 to 5.40 meters. Lately, the width of the road was standardized to 3.00
meters for first class paved one lane highway, and now 3.60 meters wide surface
was adopted standard for freeway and major traffic roadways, although there are
strong demand to increase it further from 3.60 to 4.20 meters.
For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters wide surface is required to
safe clearance between commercial vehicles and is recommended for main
highways.
For Collector Roadway, 6.00 meters wide surface is acceptable only for low
volume traffic including few trucks traveling thereon.
For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a
30 km/hr. design speed.
For Urban Roadway, the minimum design width is 3.60 meters although
3.00 meters is allowed where space is limited.

Where there are heavy meetings or overtaking between cars and trucks, air
disturbances sometimes cause side collision between passing vehicles when
swerved within or out of their lanes. Motorists are requesting for wider lanes.

FIGURE: CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL TWO LANE HIGHWAYS

FIGURE: MULTI LANE HIGHWAYS AND FREEWAYS (HALF SECTION)

HIGHWAY MEDIAN
Recently, median in various forms becomes absolute requirement for
highways because it offers the following advantages.
1. It is an effective means of reducing headlight glares, conflicts and accident
between opposing streams of traffic.
2. The Median offers refuge between opposing traffic stream of cross traffic and
pedestrian could traverse each stream at separate maneuvers.
3. Median provides available space for left turn lanes.
4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe operation.
5. Where cost and space permit, wide median is highly recommended. For rural
sections of freeway, the 18 to 27 meters wide median is being adopted.
6. The Policy on Geometric Design states that; 3.00 to 9.00 meters median
which is appropriate in suburban or mountainous situations.

7. For rural and urban arterials, 18.00 meters median or wider is preferred
because it allows the use of independent profiles and at the same time
minimizes cross over accident.
8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow drivers to cross each roadway
separately. A 4.2 to 6.60 meters median width provides protection for turning
vehicles.
9. Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters width serves as partition- separation
of opposite traffic control devices.
10.The width of a traversable median should be wide enough to prevent vehicles
running out of control from reaching the opposite traffic.
11.The 15 to 24 meters distance between landed edges is favored, but specific
value is not stipulated.
12.Cross slope of the median should not be greater than 6:1 but preferably 10:1.
13.Dense planting of rose hedges serves as safety crash barriers.
14.
For Narrow Median, there are four means of reducing cross median accidents:
1. Provide deterring devices
2. Provide non- traversable energy absorbing barriers
3. Provide non- traversable rigid barriers
4. Provide G.M. barriers
Deterring Devices Two sets of double strip painted on the existing pavement,
raised diagonal bars, low curbing and shallow ditches.
Non- Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices. The line chain link fence 1 meter
high supported by steel post augmented by cables at the bottom and midpoint. Non
traversable rigid barriers are metal guard rail.
G.M. Barriers. A high non-mountain sloped face concrete barriers called New
Jersey. It is cast or extruded in place or precast in section and set in position by
crane.
THE GRADE LINE
Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of the highway as a measure
how the centerline of the highway rises and fall.
The grade line appears on a profile taken along the road centerline. It is a
series of straight lines connected by parabolic vertical curves to which straight
grades are tangent.
In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the following:
1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently meeting sight distances in
relation to grade line. Economy is one main consideration.
2. In mountainous areas, the grade line must be considered balanced
excavation against embankments to get the minimum overall cost.
3. In flat area, the grade line is set almost parallel to the ground surface but
sufficiently above the ground for drainage purposes.
4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with sufficient covering.
5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is governed by the expected
level of water flood.

RECOMMENDED POLICY ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN

1. The 6:1 slope ratio could be adopted on embankment, less than 1.20 meters
high and 4:1 ratio on a higher fill.
2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater than 6.00 m.
3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:1 ratio except on solid rock or special
kind of soil.

The AASHTO policy stipulated that where cut or fill slopes intersect the original
ground surface, cross section must be rounded to blend the slope with the natural
ground surface. When the side slope requires embankment with suitable retaining
wall, any of the following materials could be used depending upon the natural
conditions.
1. Hand placed stones.
2. Cement rubbles masonry.

3. Concrete blocks.
4. Conventional reinforced concrete.
5. T or counter forted designs.
6. Cribs assembled from timber.
7. Precast concrete.
8. Metal elements.
9. Tied back piling
10.Earth reinforced with metal or plastic bands.

NUMBER OF LANES
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is determined from the
estimated traffic volume for the design year (AADT) and highway lane capacity at
expected level of service. AASHTO policies accept a dually divided 16 lanes roadway
with four lanes in each direction for an inner freeway and four more lanes in each
direction on the outside. There are some instances where a reversible lane is
located at the center of freeways with unbalanced heavy traffic flow.

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

The stopping sight distance is defined as the longest distance that a driver
could see the top of an object 15 centimeters (6) above the road surface where the
design height of the drivers eye above the pavement is 105 centimeters.

FIGURE: MEASURING STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

Stopping Distance is Made-up of Two Elements

1. The distance travelled after the obstruction or object is seen and before the
driver applies the brakes.
2. The second distance is consumed while the driver applies brakes for the
vehicle to stop.
The distance covered could be expressed by the following formula:

d=

tm
s

Breaking distance:

m2
s
d=
19.6 f

( )

m2
s
d=
19.6 f

( )

where:
m/s = Initial speed, in meter per second
t = detection, recognition, decision and response initiation (brake
reaction time)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s 2 )
f = coefficient of friction between the tire and pavement
The above formula assumes that the highway level is flat. If the car is travelling
uphill, the braking distance is decreased, and for downhill, braking distance is
increased. The distance on slope is expressed by the following formula

Braking distance (m) ,

m 2
s
d=
19.8 ( f + g )

( )

where:
g = longitudinal slope of the roadway or % grade / 100
Uphill grade is positive
(+)
Downhill grade is negative
(-)

ROAD ALIGNMENT

Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt change from flat to sharp

curve and long tangents followed by sharp curve should be avoided because it will
only create hazard and invite accident. Similarly, designing circular curves of
different radius from end to end or compounded curve is not a good practice, unless
suitable transitions between them are provided.
To have a short tangent between two curves is also a poor practice. A long
flat curve is acceptable at all times. It is pleasing to loot at, with less probability of
future obsolescence. Alignment should be provided with tangent because there are
drivers who hesitate to pass on curves. A short curve appears like links. A long flat
curve is preferred for small changes in direction.

ISLAND
An island is a defined area between traffic for control of vehicle movement
and for pedestrian refuge. Within an intersection, median is considered an island.
This definition makes evident that an island is no single physical type.
It may range from an area delineated by barrier curb to a pavement area
marked by paint. On at-grade intersection in which traffic is directed into definite
paths by island is termed as Channelized Intersections.
Island is included in the design of intersections for the following purposes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Separation of vehicular flows

Separation of conflicts
Reduction in excessive pavement areas
Reduction of traffic and indications of proper use of intersections
Arrangement to favor a prominent turning movement
Location of traffic control devices

To confine vehicles in a definite location without proper route for vehicles and
pedestrian, everyones action could not be predicted by others and these are
usually the main cause of confusion which leads to accidents.
By channelization, the angle or route between intersecting streams of traffic
can be smooth and favorable. Drivers are commanded to merge into moving traffic
streams at flat angle and right speed being controlled over vehicles approaching an
intersection.

When cross traffic meets at flat angle, head on collision could be more
serious. A right angle at 75o to 105o is most favorable giving the driver that
opportunity to asses or calculate the position and speed of oncoming vehicles. By
channelization, funneling is also effective in preventing overtaking and passing in
conflict areas. A well studied super elevation is an important adjunct to
channelization that regulates the vehicle speed and:
1. Prohibited turns are prevented.
2. Refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles and pedestrian.
3. By channelization, refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles
and pedestrians.
4. The drivers has to face only one decision at a time, hence, conflicts can be
avoided.
5. It provides location for the traffic control devices like signs, signals and
refuge for pedestrians.

FIGURE 2-26 GENERAL TYPESAND SHAPES OF AN ISLAND

TYPES OF INTERCHANGE
The types and form of freeway interchange requires selection of the
conformation that is best suited to a particular situation and demand. The functions
of freeway interchanges are:
1. To provide separation between two or more traffic arteries.
2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one entry to the other or
between local roadway and the freeway.
The simplest and low cost form of interchange is the diamond type. It is
recommended where the freeway crosses non-freeway arterial. The cloverleaf type
interchange is recommended for freeway and arterial intersections. Intersecting
arteries are separated and free of intersections.
OBJECTIONS TO THE CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE DESIGN
1. It requires large area of land.
2. At higher design speed, more time is consumed just to traverse the longer
loops.
3. Vehicles making left turn execute 270 o right turn and travel greater
distance becoming very unpleasant and hazardous due to the sharp
curves and steep grades.
4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant weave those entering the
adjacent loop from the through roadway.
Alternative cloverleaf design with collector distributor road is recommended
for one or two through street if the cost of added land paving and structures can be
justified.

Under this type, weaving and merging movements are separated. It also
provides an opportunity to speed adjustment clear of the freeway. When Freeway
meets Freeway where traffic movement is heavy, interchange is provided with
directional left turn in all four quadrants.

FIGURE: TYPES OF FREEWAY INTERCHANGES

INTERCHANGES

FIGURE: CHANNELIZED

FIGURE: CHANNELIZED INTERCHANGES

FIGURE: FULLY DIRECTIONAL INTERCHANGES

ROAD MAINTENANCE
I. Highway Maintenance
- The preservation and keeping each type of roadway, roadside, structures
and facilities as nearly as possible to its original condition as constructed or
as subsequently improved the operation of highway facilities and services to
provide the satisfactory and safe transportation.
Objectives of Highway Maintenance
Highway programs and activities are measured by the amount of
expenditures for construction of new facilities and reconstruction of existing
structure with the aim of keeping up with the traffic demand
Maintenance has its own role: by giving priority to local, rural and urban
facilities particularly the paving and rehabilitation after the construction has
been completed.
Maintenance is focused on the do betterment projects grading and paving
for short alignment, to correct steep grades and sharp curves, planting, flood
and erosion control.

Maintenance is categorized into:

a. Road surface maintenance
b. Shoulder and approach maintenance
c. Drainage maintenance
d. Traffic services
A. Road Surface Maintenance
Road maintenance requires speed performance to cause the least possible
disruption and danger to traffic. Maintenance operations require:
1. For gravel roads blading and periodic re-shaping or resurfacing
2. For surface treatment of low type bituminous pavement patching, seal
coating, remixing, and relaying
3. For slick asphalt surface roughening, burning or non-skid seal is
required
4. For concrete road removal and replacement or filling of damaged
areas, mud-jacking or under sealing
Mud Jacking maintenance method adopted to restore the sub-grade
support under pumping pavement and to level uneven slabs. The liquid filler
is injected under the slab through drilled holes. The mud or slurry filled all the
voids that if continuously injected applying hydraulic pressure will force the
slab upward.
Under Sealing an alternative for mud jacking. The advantage of under
sealing is the formation of asphalt as seal against the penetration of surface
water in the sub-grade.
B. Maintenance of Shoulder and Approach
Maintenance of the shoulder and approaches of the highway is governed by
the surface characteristics in the area.
1. Sod shoulders should be removed and periodically bladed down to the
roadway elevation to avoid entrapment of water in the travelled way.
2. Grass prevents shoulder erosion. If necessary, fertilized, re-seeded, or
treated to keep them in good conditions.
3. Gravel and earth shoulder should be maintained by blading under
favorable weather conditions.
4. Rutting or setting of the shoulder should be corrected at once by
reconstruction or re-surfacing.
C. Drainage Maintenance
1. Cleaning of ditches, culverts, drop inlets and catch basins to
accommodate free flow of water.
2. Removal of sediments, branches and other debris gathered at trash racks,
culvert and structure entrances.

3. Repair of eroded channels and dikes.

4. Riprap and bank protection to prevent recurrence.
D. Traffic Service
1. Stripping is a continuing functions
2. Repair of road signs
3. Maintenance of street and highway light and signals.
4. Coping up with emergencies. Personnel on patrol to keep the road open,
and rescue stranded vehicles.
II. Rehabilitation
- Pavement rehabilitation is an activity primarily to provide good riding and
skid resistance or to improve the structural effectiveness of the pavement.
Objectives:
1. To improve the smoothness of the road surface
2. To extend the pavement life
3. To improve the skid resistance of the road
4. To construct the sections with poor foundations
5. To improve the drainage facilities
Resurfacing the addition of pavement layer over the existing roadway or
bridge deck surface to provide additional capacity.
Pavement Maintenance actions that are corrective or preventive.
Reconstruction refers to the removal of existing pavement and
replacing them with a new pavement and under course.
Overlays could be either by Portland cement or Asphalt concrete lay on
an existing pavement.
Recycling the repeated use of existing materials working on asphalt
materials, Portland cement or lime.
PAVEMENT DESIGN
Effective pavement design is one of the most important aspects of project
design. The pavement is the portion of the highway which is most obvious to the
motorist. The condition and adequacy of the highway is often judged by the
smoothness or roughness of the pavement.
To select the appropriate pavement type/treatment and properly design a
pavement structure, the Designer must obtain information and input from the
Pavement Management System (PMS), the Pavement Design Engineer (PDE), and
Research & Materials. The Designer must also apply sound engineering judgment.
Steps in the design process include:

Review Pavement Management Data to determine the appropriate scope

of work and treatment type (i.e. new pavement, reconstruction, reclamation,
resurfacing, or pavement preservation);

Evaluate existing pavement to confirm the scope of work and determine

preliminary design and appropriate construction strategy. Research roadway
history and traffic data; verify existing pavement materials and structure.
Perform field trips to make site inspections, prepare a pavement condition
checklist, communicate with engineering and maintenance forces for history
of roadway performance, groundwater problems and other background
information;

Evaluate sub-base and sub-grade for drainage characteristics and

bearing capacity;

Make structural calculations. The traffic, soils, and existing pavement

data is used to calculate specific pavement course requirements;

Set specifications. The pavement materials, construction methods, and

finished project requirements must be both practical to attain and clearly
defined. The Designer must ensure that the plans, specifications, and
estimate clearly and unambiguously define the requirements.

PAVEMENT TYPES
A. Flexible Pavement (Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) and also known as bituminous
concrete)
A flexible pavement structure consists of the following layers the sub-base,
base course, intermediate course, surface course, and where determined
necessary, a friction course.

The sub-base consists of granular material - gravel, crushed stone,

reclaimed material or a combination of these materials.
The base course is an HMA or concrete pavement layer placed upon
the compacted sub-base. A gravel base course can be designed and
specified for low volume roadways (<2,000 vehicles per day)
depending upon loading and other design considerations.
The intermediate course is an HMA pavement layer placed upon the
base course.
The surface course is the top HMA pavement layer and is placed
upon the intermediate course.
A friction course is a specialized thin-lift wearing course which, when
specified, is placed over the surface course. Friction courses provide
improved vehicle skid resistance, but do not provide any structural

value to the pavement. Typically friction courses are placed on high

volume limited access roadways.

Pavement Courses for flexible Pavement Structure

B. Rigid Pavement
A rigid pavement is constructed of Portland cement concrete (PCC) placed on
a granular sub-base. PCC pavements are either plain and jointed or
continuously reinforced.