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1.1 Introduction To Linear Equations
1.1 Introduction To Linear Equations
LINEAR EQUATIONS
1.1
aij xj = bi ,
i = 1, 2, , m.
j=1
The matrix
a11
a21
..
.
a12
a22
a1n
a2n
..
.
..
..
..
.
.
.
am1 am2 amn bm
93 221
23
41 3
+
x x2
x .
20 120
20
120
a
With standard definitions such as a b = a + (b) and
= ab1 for
b
b 6= 0, we have the following familiar rules:
(a + b) = (a) + (b), (ab)1 = a1 b1 ;
(a) = a, (a1 )1 = a;
a
b
(a b) = b a, ( )1 = ;
b
a
a c
ad + bc
+
=
;
b d
bd
ac
ac
=
;
bd
bd
ab
b
a
ac
= ;
=
,
b
ac
c
b
c
(ab) = (a)b = a(b);
a
a
a
=
=
;
b
b
b
0a = 0;
(a)1 = (a1 ).
Fields which have only finitely many elements are of great interest in
many parts of mathematics and its applications, for example to coding theory. It is easy to construct fields containing exactly p elements, where p is
a prime number. First we must explain the idea of modular addition and
modular multiplication. If a is an integer, we define a (mod p) to be the
least remainder on dividing a by p: That is, if a = bp + r, where b and r are
integers and 0 r < p, then a (mod p) = r.
For example, 1 (mod 2) = 1, 3 (mod 3) = 0, 5 (mod 3) = 2.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
2
2
3
4
5
6
0
1
3
3
4
5
6
0
1
2
4
4
5
6
0
1
2
3
5
5
6
0
1
2
3
4
6
6
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
0
2
4
6
1
3
5
3
0
3
6
2
5
1
4
4
0
4
1
5
2
6
3
5
0
5
3
1
6
4
2
6
0
6
5
4
3
2
1
1.2
We show how to solve any system of linear equations over an arbitrary field,
using the GAUSSJORDAN algorithm. We first need to define some terms.
DEFINITION 1.2.1 (Rowechelon form) A matrix is in rowechelon
form if
(i) all zero rows (if any) are at the bottom of the matrix and
(ii) if two successive rows are nonzero, the second row starts with more
zeros than the first (moving from left to right).
For example, the matrix
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0
0 1
and
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
3
4
0
1 0
0 1
0 0
0
1 2 0
0 and 0 1 0
2
0 0 0
1
2 0
1 1 R2 R2 + 2R3
A= 2
1 1 2
1
2 0
R2 R3 1 1 2 R1 2R1
4 1 5
right,
1
2
4 1
1 1
2
4
1 1
4 1
0
5
2
0
2 = B.
5
x + 2y = 0
2x + 4y = 0
2x + y = 1
xy = 2
and
xy = 2
4x y = 5
and these systems have precisely the same solutions.
1.3
The process is repeated and will eventually stop after r steps, either
because we run out of rows, or because we run out of nonzero columns. In
general, the final matrix will be in reduced rowechelon form and will have
r nonzero rows, with leading entries 1 in columns c1 , . . . , cr , respectively.
EXAMPLE 1.3.1
0 0
4 0
2 2 2 5
2 2 2 5 R1 R2 0 0
4 0
5 5 1 5
5 5 1 5
1 1 1 52
1
4 0 R3 R3 5R1 0
R1 12 R1 0 0
5 5 1 5
0
5
1 1 1
2
R1 R1 + R2
1
1
0
R2 4 R2 0 0
R3 R3 4R2
0 0
4 15
2
1 1 0 52
1
2
5
0 0 1 0
0
R3 15 R3
R1 R1 2 R3
0
0 0 0 1
5
1 1
2
0
4
0
15
0
4 2
5
1 1 0
2
0 0 1
0
15
0 0 0 2
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1.4
Suppose a system of m linear equations in n unknowns x1 , , xn has augmented matrix A and that A is rowequivalent to a matrix B which is in
reduced rowechelon form, via the GaussJordan algorithm. Then A and B
are m (n + 1). Suppose that B has r nonzero rows and that the leading
entry 1 in row i occurs in column number ci , for 1 i r. Then
1 c1 < c2 < , < cr n + 1.
10
Input A, m, n
?
i = 1, j = 1
-
?
?
No
R Yes
@
@
@
@
Is j = n? No
Yes
Is p = i?
PP
q
No
PP
P
Yes
Interchange the
pth and ith rows
Set ci = j
?
i=i+1
j =j+1
Is i = m?
No
+
No
Yes
Is j = n?
Yes
Print A,
c1 , . . . , ci
?
STOP
11
Also assume that the remaining column numbers are cr+1 , , cn+1 , where
1 cr+1 < cr+2 < < cn n + 1.
Case 1: cr = n + 1. The system is inconsistent. For the last nonzero
row of B is [0, 0, , 1] and the corresponding equation is
0x1 + 0x2 + + 0xn = 1,
which has no solutions. Consequently the original system has no solutions.
Case 2: cr n. The system of equations corresponding to the nonzero
rows of B is consistent. First notice that r n here.
If r = n, then c1 = 1, c2 = 2, , cn = n and
1 0 0 d1
0 1 0 d2
..
..
.
.
B=
0 0 1 dn .
0 0 0 0
..
..
.
.
0 0 0
xcr
12
1
1 0
A = 1 1 1
4
2 1
which is row equivalent to
1
1 0
2
B = 0 1 12 .
0 0
0
2 2 2 5
1 10
A= 7 7
5 5 1 5
which is row equivalent to
1 1 0 0
B = 0 0 1 0 .
0 0 0 1
We read off inconsistency for the original system.
(Here n = 3, r = 3, c1 = 1, c2 = 3. Also cr = c3 = 4 = n + 1.)
EXAMPLE 1.4.3 Solve the system
x1 x2 + x3 = 1
x1 + x2 x3 = 2.
13
1 0
0
0 1 1
3
2
1
2
0
0 6 2 4 8 8
0
0 3 1 2 4 4
A=
2 3 1 4 7
1 2
6 9 0 11 19
3 1
which is row equivalent to
1 23 0
0
0 1
B=
0
0 0
0
0 0
11
6
1
3
19
6
23
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
24
5
3
1
4
1
3
11
24 + 2 x2 6 x4
5
1
2
3 3 x4 + 3 x5 ,
1
4,
19
6 x5 ,
with x2 , x4 , x5 arbitrary.
(Here n = 6, r = 3, c1 = 1, c2 = 3, c3 = 6; cr = c3 = 6 < 7 = n + 1; r < n.)
14
EXAMPLE 1.4.5 Find the rational number t for which the following system is consistent and solve the system for this value of t.
x+y = 2
xy = 0
3x y = t.
Solution. The augmented matrix of the system is
1
1 2
A = 1 1 0
3 1 t
which is rowequivalent to the simpler matrix
1 1
2
1 .
B= 0 1
0 0 t2
Hence if t 6= 2 the system is inconsistent. If t = 2 the system is consistent
and
1 0 1
1 1 2
B = 0 1 1 0 1 1 .
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 2
A = 2 3
3 4
system is
3 4
a 5
5 b
1 2
3
4
0
1 a6
3
0
2
4 b 12
1 2
3
4
0
1
a6
3 = B.
0
0 2a + 8 b 6
R2 R2 2R1
R3 R3 3R1
R3 R3 2R2
15
1 0 0
u
0 1 0
v
b6
0 0 1 2a+8
and we have the unique solution x = u, y = v, z = (b 6)/(2a + 8).
Case 2. a = 4. Then
1 2
3
4
1 2
3 .
B= 0
0
0
0 b6
If b 6= 6 we get no solution, whereas if b = 6 then
1 2
3
4
1 0 1 2
1 2 3
B = 0
R1 R1 + 2R2 0 1 2 3 . We
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
read off the complete solution x = 2 + z, y = 3 + 2z, with z arbitrary.
EXAMPLE 1.4.7 Find the reduced rowechelon form of the following matrix over Z3 :
2 1 2 1
.
2 2 1 0
Hence solve the system
2x + y + 2z = 1
2x + 2y + z = 0
over Z3 .
Solution.
16
2 1 2 1
2 1
2
1
R2 R2 R1
=
2 2 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 2 1 2
1 0 0
R1 2R1
R1 R1 + R2
0 1 2 2
0 1 2
2 1 2 1
0 1 2 2
1
.
2
1.5
Homogeneous systems
1.6. PROBLEMS
17
Proof. Suppose that m < n and that the coefficient matrix of the system
is rowequivalent to B, a matrix in reduced rowechelon form. Let r be the
number of nonzero rows in B. Then r m < n and hence n r > 0 and
so the number n r of arbitrary unknowns is in fact positive. Taking one
of these unknowns to be 1 gives a nontrivial solution.
REMARK 1.5.1 Let two systems of homogeneous equations in n unknowns have coefficient matrices A and B, respectively. If each row of B is
a linear combination of the rows of A (i.e. a sum of multiples of the rows
of A) and each row of A is a linear combination of the rows of B, then it is
easy to prove that the two systems have identical solutions. The converse is
true, but is not easy to prove. Similarly if A and B have the same reduced
rowechelon form, apart from possibly zero rows, then the two systems have
identical solutions and conversely.
There is a similar situation in the case of two systems of linear equations
(not necessarily homogeneous), with the proviso that in the statement of
the converse, the extra condition that both the systems are consistent, is
needed.
1.6
PROBLEMS
1 0 0 0 3
0 1 0
0
5
4 (b) 0 0 1
0 4
(a) 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
2
0 0 0 1
3
1 2 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
2
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
(e)
(d)
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
4
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0
1 0 0 0
1
0 1 0 0
2
(g)
0 0 0 1 1 . [Answers: (a), (e), (g)]
0 0 0 0
0
in reduced rowechelon
0 1 0
0
(c) 0 0 1
0
0 1 0 2
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 2
(f)
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
1 1 1
2 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 3
(a)
(b)
(c) 1 1 0 (d) 0 0 0 .
2 4 0
1 2 4
1 0 0
4 0 0
18
[Answers:
(a)
1 2 0
0 0 0
(b)
1 0 2
0 1
3
1 0 0
(c) 0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
(d) 0 0 0 .]
0 0 0
(c)
x+y+z =
2
2x + 3y z =
8
x y z = 8
3x y + 7z
2x y + 4z
xy+z
6x 4y + 10z
=
=
=
=
x1 + x2 x3 + 2x4 = 10
3x1 x2 + 7x3 + 4x4 = 1
5x1 + 3x2 15x3 6x4 = 9
(b)
(d)
1
2
1
3
[Answers: (a) x = 3, y =
19
4 ,
=
=
=
=
1
4
4
7
z = 14 ; (b) inconsistent;
19
2
9x4 , x2 = 52 +
17
4 x4 ,
x3 = 2 23 x4 , with x4 arbitrary.]
a+b
5
+ 25 z, y =
3a+2b
5
19
5 z,
with z arbitrary.]
5. Find the value of t for which the following system is consistent and solve
the system for this value of t.
x+y = 1
tx + y = t
(1 + t)x + 2y = 3.
[Answer: t = 2; x = 1, y = 0.]
1.6. PROBLEMS
19
20
11. For which rational numbers a does the following system have (i) no
solutions (ii) exactly one solution (iii) infinitely many solutions?
x + 2y 3z = 4
3x y + 5z = 2
4x + y + (a2 14)z = a + 2.
[Answer: a = 4, no solution; a = 4, infinitely many solutions; a 6= 4,
exactly one solution.]
12. Solve the following system of homogeneous equations over Z2 :
x1 + x3 + x5 = 0
x2 + x4 + x5 = 0
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
x3 + x4 = 0.
[Answer: x1 = x2 = x4 + x5 , x3 = x4 , with x4 and x5 arbitrary elements of
Z2 .]
13. Solve the following systems of linear equations over Z5 :
(a) 2x + y + 3z = 4
4x + y + 4z = 1
3x + y + 2z = 0
(b) 2x + y + 3z = 4
4x + y + 4z = 1
x + y = 3.
1.6. PROBLEMS
21
16. Find the values of a and b for which the following system is consistent.
Also find the complete solution when a = b = 2.
x+yz+w = 1
ax + y + z + w = b
3x + 2y +
aw = 1 + a.
1 a
A= a b
1 1
prove that the reduced rowechelon
1 0
B= 0 1
0 0
to F , is defined by
b a
b 1 ,
1 a
form of A is given by the matrix
0 0
0 b .
1 1