12 Extraction of Metals | How easy if is to get a metal out of its ore all comes down fo the melal's position in the reactivity 1) A few unreactive metals like gold are found in the Earth ae the motal iteelf, rather than as a compound. 2) But most metals need to be extracted from their ores using a cheinieal reaction. 8) More reactive metals, like sodium, are hardor fo extract — that’s why it took longer to discover them. Some Metals can be xix. d by Reduction with Carbon 1) Electrolysis (splitting with electricity) ie one way of extracting a metal from its ore. The other common way is chemical reduction using carbon or carbon monoxide. 2) When an ore is reduced, 70, + 800. 5 2fe +» 600, ‘xuden le removed from It, e+ | yoni) oxide + emrbon monoxide > ron + carbon doxde 8) The position of the metal in the reactivity series determines whether if ean be extracted by reduction with carbon or carbon monoxide. a) Metals higher than carbon in the reaotivity settee have to be extracted using elentrolusls, _Egtreoted ue - hich is expensive. ‘akg ae b) Metals below carbon in the reactivity series _—-—=Electrolusis: ‘oan be extracted by reduction using carbon, For example, iron oxide ie reduced in a blast furnace to make iron. Extraoted by, This is because carbon van only take the ail oxygen away from metals which are less oe reactive than carbon itself is. ace Meneses Wy (ite (ONTO oa) Brenprinitie fokcoutdfndgoldesayercush justly seca about notreans, and thenmelt(citoingataandjevelony arudotatacoof ADBA cri thei 857 comeback our but contrgupustha fulyoparationalelecticlis plat toextract _sadimmetalfrenrack salt, conplotousthplatle yuccasin tha fexenjuotlypaddingaboutabi. ontley AMore Reactive Metal Displaces a Less Reactive Metal 1) More reactive metals react more strongly than less reactive metale. 2) This means that a metal can be extraotad from ifs oxide by any more reactive metal. ‘The more reactive metal bonds more strongly to the oxygen end pushos out the less reactive metal. E.g. Jin could be extracted from tin oxide by more reactive iron. tin oxide + iron — tron oxide + tin 8) And if you put « reactive matal into the solution of a dieeolved metal compound, the reactive motel will replace the less reactive metal in the compound. E.g. put an ion nail ina solution of copper aulfate and the more reactive iron will “kick out" the less reactive copper from the solution. You end up with iron ulfate solution and copper metal. oppor eulfate + iron -> iron aulfate + copper 4) Ifa plece of silver metal ie put into a golution of copper culfato, nothing happens, ‘The more reactive metal (copper) is already in the solution. Learn how m else. | Extracting metals isn't cheap. You have to pay for epectal equipment, energy and labour. ‘Then there's the cost of getting the ore to the extraction plant. If there's a choice of exiraction methods, a company alwaye | pioks the cheapest, unless there's a good reason not fo (like with copper). They're not oxtraoting it for fun. Section Two — Products trom RocksSection Seven — Equations and Calculations 51 1) This is just a way of saying how heavy different atoms are compared with the mass of an atom of carbon-12. So carbon-I2 has an A, of exactly 12. 2) Wt tums out that the relative atomio mass A, is nothing more than the mags number of the element Uo the nearest whole numhar). 8) In the pertodic table, the elements all have swo numbers. ‘The smaller one is the atomic number {how many protons it hae). But the bigger one is the mass number (how many protone and neutrons if has), which is also the relative atomic mass. Easy peasy, I'd say. ——! You may have noticed thal the Q relative atomic mase of chlorine 35.5 | ian't @ whole number tke the there. That's beoauce i has more than one stable isotope — i's all explained on page 58. Helium has A, = 4. Carbon has A, = 12. Chlorine hac A, = 35.5. Relative Formula Mass, M. — Also E sv SV If you have a compound like MgCl, then it has a relative nass, M,, which is just all the relative atomic masses ai For MgCl, it Sue M 9Cl ee + (85.6 x 2) You can easily get A, for any element from the periodic table (see incide front cover), but in a lot of questions they give you them anyway. I tell you what, since is nearly Christmas Hl run through another example for y Saiencr) m= CaCO = \ 3 Go the relative formula 40 + 1% + (lex) =100 mags for 0200, is 100, And that's all it ie. A big fanoy name like relative formula inase and all t meane is “add up all the mase What a ewizz, eh? You'd have thought itd be something a bit juioier than that, wouldn't you. |, that’s life — ifs all a big disappointment in the end. Sigh. Ou We _ Loam the dofinitione of relative atomic mase and relative formula mace, then have a go at the: (1) Use the periodic table to find the relative atomic mass of these elements: Cu, K, Kr, Cl 2) Find the relative formula mass of NaOH, Fe,0,, C,H, MglNO,), ‘Section Seven - Equations and Calculations58 Isotopes and Relative Atomic Mass’ Some eleinente have more than one icotope. | dsotones are the Same Except for an Ext wa Neutron_or Two A favourite friok exarn question: "Explain what is meant buy th ‘The trick is that it's impossible to explain what one isotope is. You have to outsmart them and always start your answer "Isotopes are..." LEARN I sm that, isnt i. def ;ofopes must have the game proton number but different mass numbere. 2) If they had different proton numbers, they'd be different elements altogether. See page 4 for 8) A very popular pair of isotopes are carbon-12 and earbon-14, used for garbon dating. ——_moreabout Carbon-12 Carhon-14 ¢ i ec 4 : Cc 6 { \ 6 PROTONS: 6 PROTONS | i 6 ELECTRONS / 6 ELECTRONS j 6 NEUTRONS: 8 NEUTRONS ‘The number of electrons decides the chemistry of the element, If the al number (that is, the number of protons) is the same, then the number of electrons must be the same, so the chemistry is ‘the came. The different number of neutrons in the nucleue doosn't affect the chemical behaviour al all. Relative Atomic Mass Takes All Stable Isotopes into Account | 1) Relative atomic mass (A,) uses the average mass of all the isotopes of an element. It has to allow for the relative mass of each isotope and its relative abundance. 2) Relative abundance just means how much there Is of each isotope compared to the foal amount of the element in the world. ‘This can be a ratio, a fraotion or a percentage and is easiest to see with an example: This means that there are 2 isotopes of chlorine. One has a relative mass of 86 35 38 (°Cl) and the other 87 (Cl). chlorine 7 1 ‘The relative abundances show that there are @ atoms of 0! to every 1 of “Cl, element | relative mass of isotope | relative abundance 1) First, multiply the mags of each isotope by ite relative sbundance. 2) Add those together 8) Divide by the gum of the relative abundances. A= x 8)+(87 x1) gH Relative atomic masses don't usually come out a whole numbers or easy dec! but they're offen rounded fo the nearest 0.6 in periodic tables (see p57). _ Will this be in your exam? — isotope so... | Some isotopes are unstable. That means they don't stay as they are forever, but change (decay) | Into other elements. When they do this, they release nuclear radiation. Section Seven — Equations and Calculations59 Mass and Empirical Formulas Alhough relative storia macs and relative forrula maee are ony enous, Ht oan get Just a ted friokior qihen you start getting into other csloulations which use therm. It depends on how sod {your mathe ig basioally, because its all to do with ratios and per roontages. sof an Element in a Compound | 0 long as you've leaint this formula: | Calculating % mas this is actually dead easy — si | Petoentape mass OF AN _ A. Xx No: Gfatome (ofthat element) ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND = ACRE 'F you don' learn the formula then you'd better be pretty smart — or youll ettugle, eo Te eee ee CVn) ALE Tay cr ANSWER: —M, of (NHL), Now use the formula: i) usec nat When ace neo) i CALE lagen oninetecooratint itl narree eae einen bo Saeco OSD. etna Go) Tiss Ste si eoeannteSk hn EE Lean Minh ne acces ale RUE EC eRET at) QU SoeM teuRoiyne ssa lect enee eset Wate OCiah inter e ramet Compound, | Example: Find the empirical formula of the iron oxide produced whon 44.8 g of iron reno! ullh 19.0 £ of oxygen. (A, for iron = 56, A, for oxen = 16) Method 1) List the two elements Fo 0 2) White in the experimental m 44.8 19.9 8) Divide by the A, for each element: “48g =0.8 19.46 -12 4) Multiply by 10. 8 12 va-then divide by 4: 2 8 5) 80 the simplest formula ts 2 atoms of Fe to 8 atoms of Oi. Fo,0,, And that’s it done. You need to realise (for the exam) that thie ompivioal based on experiment) is the goly way of finding out the formula of a compound. Rust is iron oxide, sure, but lei FoO, 2 F0,0,7 Only an experiment to determine tho empirial formula wil tll you for oorain. col G (th this irical fe laf cay le the world! — mwa ha ha ha... Take eure you lear the formule and the ve rules in the ved box. Then try these: moma or peg 1), Find the peroontage mace of oxygen in each ofthese: a) Fe,0, b)H,0 c) CaCO, a) H,80,, 2) Find the empiiel formula of the compound formed thom 2.4 g of carbon end 0.8 ¢ of hyeosen. Section Seven — Equations and CalewationsCalculating Masses in Reaction ‘These can be a bit scary foo, but chill out, little trembling one — just relax and enjoy. [ The Three Important Steps — Not to be Missed... {Mise one out and if all go horribly wrong, believe me.) | 1) White out the balanced equation 2) Work oul M, — just for the jwo bits you want tee VM eH Pitt torte CMR e CEs) crepe snuullalmalo (Mate CMeia nun eautc Mn searce icra. | Scneethensyoulook at information about, and then the other one!) He gennrlobelon: Example: What mass of magnesium oxide is produced when 60 g of magnesium is burned in alt? Anewer: 1) Write out the balanced equation: 2Mg +0,» 2Mg0 2) Work out the relative formula masses: (don't do the oxygen — you don't need it) 2x2 > 2x (24418) 48 > 80 8) Apply the rule: Di multiply fo get all The two numbers, 48 and 80, fell us that 48 g of Mg reaot fo give 8O g of MgO. Hore's the drioky bi. You've now got to be able to write this down: 48 g of Mg... ‘The big clue is that in the question they've said we want to burn "GO g of magnesium", i.e. they've fold us how much magnesium to have, and that’s how you know to write down the left-hand side of it first, because: Youll first need to + by 48 to get 1g of Mg and then need fo x by 60 to get 60 g of Mg. ‘Then you can work out the numbers on the other side (shown in orange below) by realising that you ‘must divide both eidee by 48 and then multiply both cides by GO. +40 € 48 g of Mg. 80g OF MEO & 145 cil of a reaction. You should realise that in praclice you never ¢ 1g of Mg 0. 1.67 g of MgO xe $94100% of th yield, so tho x 5 7 st amount of product will be slightly. 60 g of Mg .. 100 g of MgO routed (oo pe). ‘This Anally tells us that G0 p of mapnesium wi 100 ¢ of magnesium oxide. I the question had said, "Find how much magneslum gives 500 g of magnesium oxide’, you'd fill in the MgO cide first, because that's the one you'd have the information about. Got it? Good stuff. a. tions — no worries, mate i _ The only way 10 got good at these ie 4o practice. 80 have a go at thesa: ‘Avauere on pogo 124 | 1) Find the mass of calcium which gives 0 g of calcium oxide (CaO) when burt in ait. 2) What mass of fluo {uly rant with potessim to make NG of potaeum Moi (KF)? Section Seven — Equations and Calculations6i ie the word that puts people off. It's very difficult to eee the relevance of the word "mole" to different-sized piles of brighlly coloured powders. “THE MOLE” is Simply the Name Given to. Certain Number | Just like "a milion” ie thie many: 1000 000; or “a billion” is this many: 1 000 000 000, ‘so "a mole" is this many: 602 800 000 000 000 000 000 000 or 6.028 x 10”, 1) And that's all it fo. Just a number. The buming question, of course, ie why is it euch a eilly long one like that, and with a six at the front? 2) The answer is that when you get provisely that number of atome of carbon-12 it weighs exactly 12.3. So, gel that number of atoms or molecules, of anu olement or compound, and conveniently, they weigh exactly the same number of grame ae the relative atomic mass, A, (or M,) of the element {or compound). This is arranged on purpose of course, 4o maka things eacior, One mole of atoms or moleoules of any substance will have a mase in prams | | equal to the relative formula mage (A, or M,) for that substance. Examples: Iron has an A of 56. So one mole of iron weighs exactly 66 g : Nitrogen gas, N,, has an M, of 28 (2 x 14). So one mole of N, weighs exactly 28 g Carbon dioxide, CO,, has an M, of 44. So one mole of CO, weighs exactly 44 ¢ This means that 12 g of carbon, oF BB g of iron, or 28 g of Nyy or 44 g of CO,, all contain the same number of partioles, namely one mole or 6 x 10% stome or molecules, Nice Easy Formula for Finding tle Number of Moles ina Given Mass; nea ae (Cir Pacem Chie feet) i Example; How many moles are there in 42 g of carbon? ! Answer: No. of moles = Mess (g)/M, = 49/12 = 8.5 moles, Easy, ‘Relative Formula Mass" is Also "Molar Mass" 1) You've been quife happy using the relative formula mass, M,, all through the calculations. 2) In fact, that was already using the idea of moles because M, is actually the mass of one H mole in gr oF as we sometimes call it, the molar mass. A“IM Solution" Contains "One Mole per Litre" | Penccoveriwe ola ccheon This is pretty easy. 80 a 2 M solution of NaOH contains 2 moles of NaOH per litre of solution, You need to know how many moles therel be In a given volume: ITUISTSACoTS TOTS SAMA ete fxamplo; How many moloo in 185 om® of a 2M solution? SES ae Ans: 0.185 x 2 = 0.37 moles Lola = Ya pa bot wo! Eerth | H's possible to do all tho calculations on the previous pages without ever talking about molee. ¥ You just concentrate on M, and A, instead — M, and A, represent the mass of one mole anyway. Loam both the equations above. They'll make your life more complete (and be useful in the exam). Section Se Ven —~ ‘Equations and CaleulationsPercentage Yield Percentage yield tells you about the overall suacess of an experiment. It compares what you ‘think you should get (predicted yield) with what you get in practice (actual yield). [ Per jae Yield Compares Actual and Predicted Yields | Tho more reactants you start with, the higher the actual yleld will he — that's pretty obvious. But the eroentage yick! doosn't depend on the amount of reactants you started with — H's a peroantaro. 1) the predioted yiold of a reaction can be calculated from the balanced teaction aa (see page 60). 2) Percentage yield ie given by the formula: actual yield (grams) predioled yield (grams) 8) Percentage yield is always comewhere between O and 100%. 4) A 100% percentage yield means that you got all the product you expeoted to get. 5) A.0% yield means that no reactants were converted into product, i.e. no product at all was mada. Yields are Always Less Than 100% In real life, you nover get a 100% percentage yield. Some product or reaotant always gets lost along the way — and that goes for big industrial provegsoe as well as school lab oxporiments. How this happens depends on whal sort nt is and what apparatus ie being used. Lots of things oan go wrong, but the four you need to know about are: 1) The Reaction is Reversible 2) Filtration In reversible reactions (like the Haber process, ceo page 81), not all the reactants change into produot. Instead, you get reactants and products in equilibrium. Inoreasing the temperature moves the equilibrium paroentage yield = x 100 to remove solid lways love a bit of 1) If you want to keop the liquid, you lose the bit that remains with tho solid and fitter paper cation (00 page 80) {as they alwaye stay a bit wet). 80 heating the reaction ay it it to ke Mi you want to kee th to speed it up might some of if usually gets. 7 mean a lower « behind when you sorepe it off /' the filter paper — even if 3) Transferring Liquids youre really careful. You always lose a bit of liquid when you fer it from one container to another 4) Unexpected Reactions = even if you manage not to epill it. = ‘Things don't always go exactly to plan. fF ‘Sometimes you get unexpected reactions happening, ; ‘80 the yield of the intended product goes down. | ‘These can be caused by impuritios in the reactants, but sometimes just changing the reaction condilions: ) —_affeote whet produote you make. t.. A high percentage yield means there's — which ie good for pa tosourees, and keeping production cosis don. Ifa reaction’s going to be worth doing commercially, it | generally has to have a high peroentage yield or recyclable reaotante, 0.g. the Haber process. Some of it always gets left behind on a when you finish. Section Seven — Equations and Calculationsion is one where the products of the reaotion ean reaot with each other convert back into the original reactants. In other words, jt ean so both ways. A teversible reaction 1s one where the produots of the reaction can themselves reaot to produce the orginal reactants es = 1) {a reversible reaotion takes place in a closed system then a state of equilibritun will always be reached. 2) Equilibrium means that the relative (%) quantities of reactants and products will reach a certain balanoo ane and stay there, {A ‘closod sustem! just means that vals none of the reactants or products oan escape.) 8) I is in fact a DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM, which means that the reactions are still taking place in both : disootions, but the overall offect ia nil because the : rau forward and reverse reactions cancel each other out. | Sel The reaotions are taking plaoe at exactly tho sate in both diraotions. Changing Jemperature and Pressure to Get More Product 1) Ina reversible reaction the ‘position of equilibrium’ (the relative amounte of reactants and products) depends very strongly on the Jemperature and pressure surrounding the reaction. 2) If you deliberately alter the temperature and pressure you can move the ‘position of equilibrium’ to ‘give more. produots and fewer reactants, Temperature All reactions are exothermic in one direction and endothermic in the other. {f you raise the temperature, the endothorini¢ reaction will increase to use up the extra heat. Hf you reduca the femperature the exothermic reaction will increase fo give out more heat. Pressure Many reaotions have a greater voluing on one side, either of products or reactants (greater volume means there are more molecules and less volume means there are fewer molecules). If you raise the pressure it will encourage the reaction which produoes less volume. Hf you lower the pressure it will encourage the reaction which produces more volume. Adding a CATALYST doesn't change the equilibrium position: 1) Catalysts speed up both the forward and backward reactions by the same amount. 2) Go, adding a oatelyst means the ronotion reaches equilibrium quicker, but you end Up with the game amount of produot ae you would without the catalyst. [Changing the temperature alwaye changes the equilibrium position, but that’s not true of prescure, Hf your reaction has the same number of moleoulas on each side oF the equation, changing the preceure won't make any dforene a al 4 the aquliam postion (etl afte the tate of esctin though) Section Nine — Reaction Rates and Energy Changes[i Bl ‘This i at pyar oo abs 1) The nitrogen is obtained easily from the g roxsen (and 21% oxygen). 2) The hydrogen comes from natural gag or from other sources like crude oil, 8) Because the reaction ic reversible — it ooours in both directions — not all of the nitrogen and. hydrogen will convert 40 ammonia, The reaction reaches a dynamic equilibriun. (+ heat) idustri¢ itions; ure: 200 atmospheres: P re: 450 °C; Catalyst: tron Ihe Reaction is Reversible, So There's a Compromise to be Made: 1) Higher pressures favour the forward reaction (since there are four moles of gas on the left-hand side, for every two H, gnd Nmixed in moles on the right). ca 3:1 ratio Le 2) 80 the pressure Is set ae high as possible to give the best ome yoo % yjeld, without making the plant too expensive to build (itd be too expensive to build a plant that'd etand Trays of pressures of over 1000 atmospheres, for example). iron catalys Hence the 200 almospheros operating pressure. 8) The forward reaction is exothermic, which means that Increasing the Jemperature will aotually move the equilibrium the wrong way — away from ammonia and 450°C towards N, and H,. So the yield of ammonia would be 200 aim greater at lower temperatures, 4) ‘he trouble is, lower temperatures mean a slower rate of reaction. 80 what they do ie inorease the temperature wound ‘anyway, to get @ much faster rate of reaction. is recyoled &) The 450 °C Is a compromise between maximum ybold and speed of reaotion. W's betfer fo wait just 20 seconds for a Condenser’ 10% yield than to have to walt ra 20% yield. @) The ammonia is formed as a gas but as it cools in the condenser it liquelies and is removed. 7) The unused hydrogen, H,, and nitrogen, N,, are yocucled so nothing is wasted. She Iron Catalyst Speeds Up _the Reaction and Keeps Cosis Down 1) the iton catalyst makes the reaotion go faster, which gete it fo the m proportions ‘more quickly. But remember, the catalyst doesn't affect the position of equilibrium (ie. the % yfeld). 2) Without the catalyst the temperature would have 4o be further to get a quick reaction, and that would reduce the % uleld even further. So the catalyst is very important. | ‘ | 1 doesn't matter that the percentage yield ie low, because the hydrogen and nitrogen are reoycled. You n to learn this stuff — qo on, rt gO ‘The trickiest bit ie remembering that the temperature is raised a bolfer equilibrium, but for speed. Cover the page and! eoribble down ae much as you oan remember, then check, and try again. Section Nine — Reaction Rates and Energy Changes i | i i i