PETROGRAPHY OF IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS Anthony R.Philpotts Designed for students taking their first course in petrograpy, this laboratory manual is a collection of the essential information needed to lear the techniques of petrography and to apply them to common igneous and metamorphic rocks. In a single source, it combines— * descriptions of the textures and structures of igneous and metamorphic rocks. ‘* a compilation of the optical properties of the common rock-forming minerals. a treatment of the classification of these particular rocks. Dealing with the description of rocks and not their origins, the coverage is not exhaustive and is limited to what students need for an introductory course. For those with no experience in optical mineralogy, Chapter 2 briefly introduces the subject. Chapter 3 alphabetically lists the rock-forming minerals. On the inside front cover a full-color table compiles the most distinguishing features of these minerals. Over 200 illustrations of rock-forming minerals and the textures of rocks are alphabetically indexed together at the end of the text. Each of these illustrations is available in color with commentary on a two-hour video cassette from the author. ‘The classification of igneous rocks used in the book is the one proposed by the International Union of Geological Sciences (UGS) Subcommission of the ‘Systematics of Igneous Rocks. A list of commonly used rock names—many not part of the IUGS classification—is keyed to this classification. Also, the widely-used Irvine-Baragar classification of volcanic rocks is included. PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632 sh HI ll 78013 36623137 OF IMEDUS AND my ISBN 0-13-b62313-1PETROGRAPHY OF IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHICKURT NAT INTE Metamorphic Rocks This comprehensive laboratory manual teaches students taking their first course in pet techniques of describing and classifying rocks as well as how Ope esac et age iterate oom eerceeTe ncaa ers oom Gro Sh econ cog (eet eee Ut cee Moc ae ote sat tedeng CIS lards iely seererar tect * Over two hundred illustrations detailing the relation between optics and crystal morphology * An accompanying CD-ROM with color slides illustrating rock-forming minerals and the textures of Tocks, many with text and audio annotations by the author pe ee aptions of the textures and structures of igneous and metamorphic rocks 2 important properties of all the minerals compiled in an easy-to-access, full-color table Ks for determining the approximate modal (volume) percentage of minerals in nose m Of igheous rocks used in the book is the one proposed by the International Union of Fingithgs ects meas una CN eure te eleureia oc CWI e etter “hames—many not part of the IUGS classification—is keyed to this classification. Also, ised Irvine-Baragar classification of volcanic rocks is included. ts has organized a large amount of information to be easily and rapidly accessible, He” Ever SLE Poet Messe reg ten ees tte cet Rett areas Ce Tee ka crete ea ia PA hcerics ts + WWw.waveland.com a1 Petrography ni tt ag SET De Huis Ve yee = a ay Tr / Ne fe is *, } accompanying CD-ROM Pa a ha ayVII Gi cI IIIT TICS SSIS SSSI d Ib E “SHEEP 40, € JOKED eos EENN=G “WIMEUN=N TdONDS|=| dor ay) S803" poe >pU: uw FF 1= 1“ win~pous Bugunow B: 8 Gel ae bes sei ace ll ac ni perso 8 noesPetrography of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks Anthony R. Philpotts The University of Connecticut ETE AAA CED WAVELAND) = i } FFor information about this book, contact: Waveland Press, Inc. PO. Box 400 Prospect Heights, Illinois 60070 (847) 634.0081 info@waveland.com wwvewaveland.com Cover photomicrograph by the author Drawings of photomicrographs by the author Copyright © 1989 by Anthony R. Philpotts 2003 reissued by Waveland Press, Inc. Pearson Education, Inc. previously published this book. ISBN 1-57766-295-4 All rights reserved, No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without permission in writing fram the publisher VMRUMEMEREEUP MOREE ELLE PPLE TET TT tt Printed in the United States of America 76543249 Syygraphy of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks Petro TUVALA LEELATo my Parents oui wn a eee EE eeContents PREFACE is INTRODUCTION 1 2 REVIEW OF THE MICROSCOPE AND MINERAL OPTICS 4 ‘The Microscope 4 Passage of Light through Crystals 7 ‘The Optical Indicatréc u ‘Observation of Crystals under Conoscopic Light “ ‘Observation of Crystals under Reflected Light » ion of Thin Sections a ‘General Hints on Doing Petrography zB 3 ROCK.FORMING MINERALS AND THEIR OPTICAL PROPERTIES B Important Minerals and Their Formulae. 2% ‘Optical Properties of Minerals x» Mustrations of Igneous Rock-Forming Minerals o Ilustrations of Metamorphic Rock-Farming Minerals 4 4 CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEQUS ROCKS. 3 Mode and Norm ” CIPW Norm 98 General Classification Terms % TUGS Classification of Plotonie Rocks 100 TUGS Classification of Volcanic and Hypabyssal Rocks 105 ‘The Irvine-Baragar Classification of Volcanic Rocks 108 Igneous Rock Names 13 5 TEXTURES AND STRUCTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS iM TEXTURES us 1. Degree of Crystallinity a4 2. Grain Size 4 3. Grain Shapes us 4, Textures of Glassy or Fine-Grained Recks us ‘5. Flow Textures 16 6. Intergrowth Textures 6 7. Reaction Textures aw STRUCTURES 18 1, Structures in Volcanic Rocks 118 2. Structures in Plutonic Rocks 121 3, Structures Resulting from Inclusions 13 ILLUSTRATIONS OF TEXTURES AND STRUCTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 12 6 CLASSIFICATION AND TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 140 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION io GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF METAMORPHIC MINERAL ASSEMBLAGES 141 ‘CLASSIFICATIONS REFLECTING CONDITIONS OF METAMORPHISM as TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS wi Recrystallization Textures ast Textures Associated with the Growth of New Minerals cr ILLUSTRATIONS OF METAMORPHIC TEXTURES 9 INDEX 167Preface Petrography of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks is designed for students taking their frst course in petrography. It combines, in a single book, a compilation of the optical properties of the common rock-forming. minerals, descriptions of the textures and structures of igncous and metamorphic rocks, and @ treatment of the classification of these rocks. The book deals with the description of rocks, not their origins. The coverage is not exhaustive and is limited to what students are likely to encounter and need to know in an introductory petrography course, The material is organized so as to make it as rapidly accessible as possible, For those who have not previously had a course in optical mineralogy, Chapter 2 briefly introduces this subject The minerals described are the so-called rock-forming minerals. ‘These are the major building constituents of rocks, with which the studemt of petrography must have some familiarity. For quick reference, they have been listed alphabetically in Chapter 3. Some minerals, such as the amphiboles, micas, pyroxenes, and feldspars, have been listed together under their group names, ‘The mos: important distinguishing properties of these minerals are compiled inio a single table on the inside front cover. For routine petrography, this table provides most of the information necessary io distinguish the common minerals. ‘The interference colors shown in this table are those found in 30- san-thick sections, the standard thickness af'a petrographic thin section. ‘The classification of igneous rocks used in this book is the one proposed by the International Union of Geological Sciences (UGS) Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks. In addition, a list of commonly used rock names, many of which are not part of the IUGS classification, is keyed to this classification. Also, the widely used Irvine-Baragar classification of voleanic rocks is included. Mlustrations of minerals and rock textures are grouped together at the end of appropriate chapters, Each of these 214 illustrations is shown in color on the CD included with the book. The CD provides a convenient means for the beginning petrographer fo gain extra experience examining thin sections, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Ina book such as this, in which many data are compiled, all mistakes are difficulr to eliminate, However, careful reviews of the manuscript by Steven R. Bohlen, University of New York at Stony Brook. Christopher [. Chalokwu, Auburn Univer Susan C. Eriksson, Virginio Polytechnic Institute and Stale University, Timothy M Luvz. University of Pennsylvania, and Stearns Anthony Morse, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, have helped eliminate most. The ones that remain are the author's responsibility, and he hopes that users of the book will communicate any errors that they find to him. The author ix particularly grateful to his colleague Richard P. Bennett, A. J, (Mike) Frueh, Norman H, Gray. Raymond L. Joesten. and Randolph P. Steinen who have helped in vatious ways during the preparation of the manuscript. The greatest debt of gratitude. however. is owed the many students who, through their questions over the years, have kept the author peering down microscopes. Anthony R. PhidpottsVLDL ELLE EEE EEL DD ELLE bbb bbb bl 1 Introduction Petrograpiy is the science of describing and classifying rocks. It relies heavily on observations made with the petrographic microscope, but observations on the outcrop. and with the hand lens are also important, A petrographic description of a rock first involves identification of the minerals and, where possible, determination of their compositions, Textural relations between grains are noted, for these not only help in classification but provide evidence of processes active during the formation of the rock. ‘The rock is then classified on the basis of the volume percentages of the various rock-forming minerals (mode). In an introductory petrography course a student can become familiar with only a ‘small fraction of the great variety of rocks found in nature. Fortunately, the number of important types is surprisingly small. This is because rocks are formed in only a few tectonic environments on Earth, and the conditions in these have changed little, if any, throughout most of geologic time. ‘Thus a Precambrian basalt appears identical to a modern one. A few rocks, however, are peculiar to the early gealogie record. Although the goal of petrography is the description and classification of rocks, this in itself 1s of limited imterest. Only when considered as part of petrology (the study ‘of the origins of rocks) does it take on wider significance. Petrography supplies most ‘of the data that petrotogy strives to interpret and explain. It is expected, therefore, that students will take a separate petrology course. It is desirable, but not essential, that some practice in optical mineralogy has previously been gained. A number of excellent books provide all of the information needed for petrogra- phy (see suggesied readings at the end of this chapter). These include reference works ‘on the optical properties of minerals (Deer et al., 1962-63, 1966; Fleischer et al., 1984; Ramdahr, 1969; Troger, 1979; Cameron, 1961}, atlases of colored photographs of minerals and rocks (MacKenzie et al., 1982), and petrography texts (Williams ¢1 al., 1982; Spry, 1969; Harker, 19S4; Nockalds et al., 1978). These books provide far more information than can be used in an introductory course. Furthermore, a selection of books including ene from each of these groups involves a considerable expense Students should, however, be aware of these sources of information and make use of them for extra reading. This laboratory manual is a collection of the essential information needed to learn the techniques of petrography and to apply them to common igneous aed metamorphic rocks. It presents the optical properties of all the mincrals likely to be encountered in the common rocks. It also describes the textures and classifications of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks arc mot included. because the manual is designed for the laboratory part of a course in igneous and metamorphic petrology ‘The optical properties of the common sedimentary minerals are, nonetheless. included in the manual The manual contains a large mumber of figures illustrating the rock-forming mine tals and the textures of rocks. The figures are black and white drawings rather than phowographs for these allow emphasis to be elven tothe: properties being usted jor, especially that due to birefringence. is an important optical property of a but inclusion of color photographs would substantially increase the cost of the manual. The figures have therefore been reproduced in color on the CD that is bound with the book.‘The figures in the text and the CID are in four groups covering Igneous Rock- Forming Minerals (IRFM), Metamorphic Rock-Forming Minerals (MRFM), Igneous ‘Textures (IT), and Metamorphic Textures (MT). Figures in each group are numbered consecutively from one, and references to them in the manual are given by the reference letters followed by the number of the figure. Beside each figure is a short caption and sufficient space to make your own motes on the features ther you feel are ‘important in identifying a mineral or in characterizing a rock texture Proficiency in petwography comes only with practice and experience. It is desirable to devote more time to studying petrography than is available m the normally Scheduled laboratory periods in a course. It is recommended therefore that, iy eddie ie the ‘work done with the micrascope in the laboratory. time be spent studying the ‘figures in this manual (including the CD) or in the texts referenced betow, RECOMMENDED READINGS Optical Mineralogy Blass. F: D.. 1961, An Inireduction to the Methods of Optical ‘Mineralogy, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 294 p. Shelley, D., 1985, Optical Mineralogy, Elsevier, New York, 321 p Stoiber, R. E...and Morse, S. A., 1973, Microscopie Identification of Crystals, Ronald Press, New York, 278 p, (1981 edition, Kricger, Melbourne, Flotide) Wahlsttom, E. E1979, Optical Crystallography, John Wiley ‘Sons, New York, 488 Pp. ‘Optical Properties of Minerals Cameron, E. N.. 1961, Ore Microscopy, John Wiley Sons, New York, 293 p. Deer, W. A. Howie, R. A., and Zussman, J., 1962 and 196%, Rock Forming Minerals, 5 vols., Longman, London, Dect, W. A.. Howie, R.A. and Zussman, J., 1966, An Introduction to the Rock Forming Minerals, Longman, London, $28 p. Fleischer. M., Wileox, R.E., and Matzko, J. J.. 1984 Nonopaque Minerals, U. MacKenzie, W. S., and Gi Optical Mineralogy: The Nonopague WH. Freeman and Company. San Francisca, 677 p. B. 1969, The Ore Minersis and Their Intergrowths, (English translation ofthe 3rd ed.). Pergamon Press. Oxford, 1174 p. Troger, W, E.. 1979. Optical Determinution | of Rock-Forming Minerals, E- Schweiverburt sche Verlagsbuchhanlung, Stuttgart, $ih ed (English edition by Bambauer. H.U_Taborsky. F.. and Trochim, H. D.) 188 p, Al ll Mk ol 0c 18 Uk ok te ed tad Ue ek ed ed ee ee a es s i eee ee » Peesa es pe eb nn Petrography Harker, A., 1954, Petrology for Students, Cambridge University Press, London, Sth ed. (revised by C. E, Tilley, S. R. Nockolds, and M. Black), 283 p. Johanssen, A., 1931-1939, A Descriptive Petrography of the Igneous Rocks, 4 vols., University of Chicago Press, Chicago. MacKenzie, W. S., Donaldson, C. H., and Guilford, C., 1982, Allas of Igneous Rocks. and their Textures, John Wiley Sons, New York, 148 p. Moorhouse, W, W., 1959, The Study of Rocks in Thin Section, Harper Row, New York, 514 p. Nockolds, 8. R., Knox, R. W., and Chinner, G, A., 1978, Petrology for Studeni ‘Cambridge University Press, London, 435 p. A., 1969, Metamorphic Textures, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 350 p. ums, H., Turner, F. J., and Gilbert, C. M., 1982, Petrography: An Introduction to the Study of Rocks in Thin Sections, W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 626 p.2 Review of the Microscope and Mineral Optics ‘The Microscope ‘Most petrographic microscopes are of essentially the same basic design. They are expensive, precision instruments and should be treated with considerable care. The ‘user must be familiar with their workings and be aware of any problems that may arise. Avoid touching the glass in the lenses, and at no time should any moving Part of the microscope be forced; insicad ask for assistance. For purposes. of ‘ilus- tration, the Carl Zeiss standard polarizing microscope is shown in Fig, 2+ Modera microscopes are fited with a built-in light source. On some instruments the brightness of this light is adjustable, For general work, the light intensity need not exceed three-quarters of the maximum walue. With normal tungstea bulbs, a blue filter must be placed over the Light source in order to render the light simi Jar to daylight. IT this is not done, the colors of minerals under the micrescope will be distinctly yellow, The eyepicec, or ocular, normally has a magnification of 8X, 10X, oF 125X. Mul- tiplication of this factor by the magnification of the objective lens gives the to- ‘tal magnification of the microscope. The eyepiece contains cross hairs which must be focussed by each individual user. In doing this, take care not to m the eye too close, or too far from the lens, for this diminishes the fic of view (Fig, 24). Relax the eye so that it is focussed at infinity; this can be done by moments ooking at a distant object. Thea, keeping both cycs open, bring the cross hairs into sharp focus by rotating the adjustable eyepiece. You may find this can be performed more casily by removing the eycpicce from the microscope. I can then be placed in front of the eye while you obscrve some distant object. When replacing the eyepiece, note that keyed slots om the side of the microscope tube allow the cross hairs to be oriented in the 0° (N.S, EW) or 45° (NAW, N-E)_ positions ‘The N-S, E-W oricatation is used most commonly. Most microseopes are equipped with three objective Ienses-ow, intermediate, and high magnifications--and possibly a fourth, an oil immersion leas for extra high magnifications. Each Iens is marked with a series of numbers, such as 40/0185. 160/0.17, which indicates the objective has a magnification of 40X and a numerical aperture of O85 in a microscope with a tube length of 160 mm, and it is to be used with microscope slides covered with O17 mmthick cover glasses. The total magnifica tion of the microscope (ie, objective x eyepieec) cannot exceed 1OKIX the numerical aperture. Magnifications above this are said to be empty; an enlarged image is ob- tained, but with no gain in resolution. Very low magnifications can be obiaincd with the Bertrand lens and no objective at all, The image produced is, however, of poor quali Objective lenses arc commonly moumed on a turret that can be rotated by a knurs led wheel; never rotate the turret by pushing on the Iemscs; this will almost ccrlainly cause misalignment of the lenses. Each of the lenscs must be centered with respect to the axin of rotation of the microscope siage, The axis of rotation can be idemified as that point on a microscope slide which docs not move when the stage is rotated. By use of centering rings or serews on the objective lens, this point is ‘moved tillit coincides with the image of the cross hairs. MUU aa a el a ad a ‘| FPP PSLAietance of aye from eyepiece. at a the field st viey he vedered S — rrrtece (oes tanert anove) Bartraad lene Wieh sencering knobe AVEO EL EGE EE DL OGGUDU BT Figure 2-1 Carl Zeiss Standard Polarizing Microscope (reproduced with permission of Carl Zeiss, West Germany).The substage assembly consists of three important parts~-condenser lenses, aper- ture diaphragm, and polarizing filter. The catirc assembly can be racked up or down is used mostly in the up position, A lower condcasing tons normally remains in @ptical path at all times. An upper one can be flipped in whcn comascopic light is required for interference Ggures. An iris diaphragm, which controls the amount of light passing through the microscope, is opened and closed by rotating a lever. Contrast in relief between minerals can be exaggerated by partially closing phragm. Normally the diaphragm is open, ‘The polarizer, or polar, which is a ‘on most modem microscopes, constrains light to vibrate only in an east-west ion. Os some microscopes the polar is rotatable, and on still others it is orien- ed north-south. Its orientation ean be determined with a thin section containing biotite, This mincral absorbs light most strongly (will appear darkest) when its cleavage traces parallel the vibration direction of the polar, The upper polar, or analyzer, constrains light to vibrate in a plane perpendicu- {ar to that of the lower polar (sormally N-S), A lever oa the side of the microscope tube rotates or slides the analyzer in or out of the optical path. Immediately below the analyzer is a slot for inserting, at 45° to the planes of polarization, various accessory plates, such as the first-order red plate or the quartz wedge Above the analyzer is the Bertrand lens, which can be swung into the optical path for observing interference figures. The microscope is focussed using both the coarse and fine adjustment knobs. Care aust be taken in using the fine adjustment with high powcr objectives. The working distance between these lenses and the cover glass is very small (~06 mm). If the Point of focus is missed and (he section is raised in contact with the lens, suff. Sient force can easily be unknowingly applied with the fing adjustment knob to break the glass slide or damage the lens, Many high power objectives have spring-loaded lenses to avoid this problem. If you are doubtful whether the section ix above or blow the plane of focus, make a visual check fram the side of the microscope that the fens is mot contacting the cover slip. Then, focus by increasing the working dis tance--newer the reverse. A common problem encountered in focussing under high po- wers is 10 have the microscope slide (thin section) upside down. Because the thick: ness of most glass slides is greater than the working distance of high power objec- tives, these lenses cannot foeus. through a slide, Moreover, the lenses are buill for use with 0.17 m-thick cover slips; thicknesses that deviate significantly (+0.03mm) {rom this will impair the quality of the image. It it becomes necessary to clean any of the lenses, do so using lens tissue Tircathing om the teas normally deposits enough water 30 thal finger prints can be ‘oped off, Ether can be used to remove more stubborn deposits, but never use alco- hol, for this may dissolve the cement between Hews clements. The front lens element in many high powcr objectives is comeave, which makes these kenics particularly 1r0U- Mesome to clean. Utmost care must be taken to keep the microscope ina clean envi- ronment at all times, and a dust cower should be used when the instrument is mot in bse. (CCU Uo a ed a a Sa a eee ray { PPPVUE L LEP E ELLE EDR EL DEDEDE EDEL ELD DL ODL LbE Passage of Light through a Crystal ‘The velocity of light passing through most crystalline substances depends on the di- rection of propagation relative 10 the erystal structure. Only in crystals belonging to the isometric system and amorphous materials, such as glass, is the velocity the same in all directions; such material is ssid to be isowopic. Other crystalline substances are said (o be anisotropic, that is, the velocity of light varies ‘with direction in the crystal, Although variations in the velocity of light are re- sporsible for most of the optical properties uscd to identify minerals, the velocity of light itself is not detcrmincd. Instead, we measure the refractive index, which is the ratio of the velosity of light in air to that in the mineral; that is, Refractive Index (R.L) = velocity in air / velocity in mineral. From this relation, the refractive index is seen to be inversely related to the velo- ity of light in the mineral, Thus a mincral with a high refractive index will trans: rit light more slowly than one with a low refractive index. When light enters an anisotropic erystal it is constrained to vibrate in two mu- tually perpendicular plancs, the orientations of which depend on the symmetry ond orientation of the exystal. The petrographic micrascope uses polarized light in or- dcr to determine the oricotation of these vibration directions and to investigate other optical effects associated with this phenomenon, Light emanating from the microscope lamp, oa passing through the lower polar is constrained to vibrate in only one disection, which in most microscopes is E-W (Fig. 2-2). The light rising from the polar can therefore be represented by a sinusoidal electromagnetic wave that vibrates in an EW plane. This light, which is said to be plane polarized, is cot om completely by the upper polar, which passes light vibra- ting only in a NS direction, If, however, we could rotate the upper polar toa NE-SW direction, as can be donc on research microscopes, the plane-polarived tight rising from the lower polar would transmit a component of its vibration through the upper polar, but the amplitude of the transmitted wave would be less than that of the ori ginal wave (Fig, 2-2). Planc-palarized light, om enicring an anisotropic” crystal, will resolve itself into wo components that wbrate ia the mutually perpendicular planes. ‘The Fight vi beating in these planes will not, except im special cases, have the same velocity of propagation. There are one or two directions in anisotropic erystals along which the selocities. of the two components are identical. ‘These special directions arc known as optic ares, Crystals having only one optic axis are known as uniaria!, and those with two, as biaxial Uniaxial crystals belong to the trigonal, hexae onal, oF tctragonal symmetry systems, whercas the biaxial oncs belong to the ortho- thombic, monoclinic, oF linic systems, Because the velocity of light vibrating in diflerent directions in anisotropic crystals varies with direction, so must the refractive index. In uniaxial erysials, ‘aly @ maximum and minimum refractive index nced be defined, but in biaxial ones, an ‘additional imermediate valuc must be given, In any anisotropic crystal the diffe- rence between the maximum and minimum refractive indices is known as the birefrin- sence,ee POLAR aNenat ‘ORAI COLL aaa ee Wr eH Potak Figure 2.2 Light passing through the lower polar of the microscope is constrained ‘to vibrate only in an E-W direction. In A, the upper polar, which allows light to vibrate only in a N-S ditcetion, cuts out completely the E-W polarized light, and no light passes through the microscope. Is B, the upper polar has been rota. ted to a 45° position, 30 that a component (diminished in amplitude) of the E-W polarized light is transmitted. In C, the plane polarized light is con- strained (0 vibrate in two mutually perpendicular planes in an anisotropic mine- ral One of these directions is the fast and the other the slow vibration direc- on, Beth vibration directions produce a componcat in the N-S plane of the up- er polar, but because of the different velocitics of transmission, the two ‘waves are out of phase whca recombined by the upper polar, and an interference ‘color results. reece MITTS IL, AQAA EE LEDER DUE DEDEDE DODD L bo ALL ‘When aa anisotropic mineral is placed on the stage of the microscope, the plane- polarized light from the lower polar is resolved info the two vibration directions permitted by that crystal; these two directions are then resolved into. onc by the up- per polar (Fig, 2-2). Because the light in the two vibration directions travels with different velocities, the waves arc out of phase when combined by the upper polar, and an interference color resus. The amount by which the waves are out of phase, known as the relardation, depends on the difference in the velocities (hence in the refractive indices) of the two vibration directions and the thickness of the crystal; that is, Retardation « Thickness x Difference in Refractive Indices. Because thin sections are normally ground to a thickness of 30 jim, variations in re- taedation result primarily from variations in refractive index differences (which de- pend on erystal orientation). Small grains that do not extend through the entire tickncss of 2 section wil however, have smaller retardations became of reduced thickness, ‘A retardation of 100 nm produces a gray interference color, whereas 300 am duces 3 yellow color (sec inside front cover), Colors resulting from retardations between 0 and $50 nm are said to be first order. First order red changes to see- oad order bluc as the retardation increascs above 550 am. Scoond and higher order co- lors repeat at rctardations which arc multiples of $50 nm, but the higher the order the less intense is the color. For example, fist order red is deep red, whereas third order red is pinkish, If the vibration direcions’ in an anisotropic crystal are rotated so as to paral: lel the polars, mo light is transmitted through the microscope, and the mineral is said ta be in extinction. ‘The orientation of extinction positions with respect to identifiable erystallographic dircetions, such as erystal outline, twin planes, ot cleavage planes, provides a useful diagnostic property. In addition to extinction positions it is useful to ideatify which of the two mu- tually perpendicular vibration directions is the faster. This is done by rotating, the grain to the 45° position and inserting am accessory plate, such as the first order red one, in the slot provided, The last and slow vibration directions in the accessory plate arc marked on the plate. Should thesc correspond with the fast and slow directions in the mincral, their combined Re) Figure 2-3 Light passing from a medium of higher refractive index 40 one of lower refractive index (R.I. 2 > Ru. 1) is refracted towards the normal 10 the inter. face according to Snell's law, where i is the angle of incidence and t the angle of refraction of the light ray. Refraction of light by mincral grains that have a higher refractive index than that of their surroundings resulis in light being Soncentrated above the grain, as scen for convergent and parallel light and for two differcni-shaped grains. If the refractive index of the mineral were less than that of the surroundings, the light would be concentrated over the surroune ding material Wd a ol 9 td ed ia — A) CA Ey ee 45 + AAV E LEEDS EE ELDER REED D LED Died bt distance) a zone of brightness, or Becke line, will be seen to move into the mia- terial of higher refractive index. In thin sections, this allows the refractive index of grains to be determined relative to that of their surrounding grains or mounting medium, The term vefief refers to the difference in refractive index between the minceal and the mounting medium. Prior to the use of epoxies, Canada balsam, with a refractive index of 1.537, was the main medium used. Thus, minerals with a higher refractive index than 1537 have positive relief, whereas those with lower, have negative relief, ‘The color a mincral bas in thin section under planc-polarized light (upper pola- rizer removed) depends on the color of the light source (normally white) and the wa velengihs of light absorbed by the mineral, Not all wavelengths that constitute ‘white light are necessarily absorbed to the same catent by a mineral. Preferential absorption of colors at the red end of the spectrum gives a mineral a bluish color in transmitted light, whereas absorption of blue light makes the mineral appear red. Furthermore, anisotropic minerals may absorb differently in different directions, ‘with the result that they change color when rotated in plane polarized Tight. This sgives rise to the property known as pleochroism, ‘The Optical Indicatrix ‘The variation in refractive index with direction in anisotropic crystals is comveni- ently represented by a geometrical Ggure known as an optical indicate (Fig 2-4), It is am cllipsoid in which the vector from the origin to the surface gives ‘the magnitude of the refractive index for light vibrating in that particular diree- tion. Within the erystal, this light is constrained to vibrate in two mutually per- peadicular planes, the traces of which arc the maxinium and minimum axes of the cllip- tical section through the indicatrix normal 1 the direction of light propagation; that is, the plane of the thin section (Fig. 2-5), Except for the special directions of the optic axcs, these two vibration directions will have unequal velocities and thus different refractive indices Tn uniaxial crystals, that is, ones with only onc optic axis, the indicatrix is an ellipsoid of revolution. The axis of revolution is the vibration dircction of the so-called eatra-ordinary ray (c). The refractive index for light vibrating in this direction is commonly designated by the Greek letter epsilon (@). The circular sec: tion of the ellipsoid is the vibration direction of the ordinary ray (0). Light prow Pagating perpendicular to this section can vibrate in any fadial direction and it ‘will have the same velocity regardless of vibration direction. This. propagation rection is known as the optic axis. The refractive index for the ordinary cay is commonly designated by the letter omega (u). If the refractive index for the exra- ‘ordinary ray is greater than that for the ordinary ray (€>w), the erystal is said to have a positive sign, whereas if €). Two citeular sections exist in a triaxial llip- sid. The refractive index for light propagating normal to cither of these is equal to that of the intcrmediate valuc (8). The normals to the circular sections arc the optic axes, and the angle between them is the opuc angle, or 2V. The crys nUNIAXIAL tre sew positive negative positive negotive Figure 2-4 The optical indicatrix is 4 graphical means of representing the magnitude of the refractive index (distance from origin to surface of ellipsoid) for light vibrating in that particular direction in an aniso- tropic mineral, In uniaxial minerals, the indicatrix is an ellipsoid of revolution whose equatorial plane is a circular section (shaded) through the ellipsoid. Light travelling normal to this plane has the same velocity (equal refractive index) regardlcss of vibra. ion direction; this unique direction ig the optic axis, ‘The biaxial indicatrix is a triaxal ellipsoid which has two circular sections through it (shaded) and two optic axes normal to these, The acute angle between the optic axcs is known 5 2V, The positive and negative sign conventions are indicated, tal is said to be positive if tbe slow vibration direction, 2, lies in the acute ‘optic angle, and nepaive if the faa disection, x, occupies this position. In ‘common usage, the acute angle is referred to as the optic angle. But often it is con- venient, especially with minerals where 2V increases beyond 90° with variation {in composition, to refer the optic angle (0 a particular axis, for example, 2V,_ Plane-polarized light cnicring a randomly oriented erystal op the stage of the microscope will be resolved isto two mutually perpendicular vibration directions. ‘of these directions in a uniaxial erytal must be the ordinary vibration direc: tion (Fig. 2-5). The extra-ordinary direction, bowcver, will not be the maximum val- less the indicatrix is lying in the unique position with the © direction on ‘of the microscope. In 2 gencral position, therefore, this vibration dirce- esignated e'. A randomly oricoted bianial crysial may have none of the ‘exes of the indicatrix lying in the plane of the section (Fig. 2-5): so vibration directions ae referred to as x’, y, and 2° to indicate the they most closely approach, B & pAEERR ES ecg J. ue ae a ed a i eh a inho fea abi Bek ea Yok kk i Bab a ab bab ba a ba Figure 2-5 Plane-polarized light passing vertically through a randomly oriented grain in a thin section (shaded plane) will be constrained to vibrate in two mu- tually perpendicular directions. In a uniaxial crystal, onc of these directions always corresponds to the ordinary vibration direction (0), but the exiracrdina- fy direction in most oricotation: will be fess than the maximum possible and is therefore designated bye’. In a biaxial crystal neither of the vibration diree- tions need correspond ta the x y, or z vibrations; thus they are designated by any two of x, y, of 2, depending on which axes of the indicatrix are closest lo the vibration directions Because the indicatrix is an expression of the interaction of light with the crystal structure of a mincral, the oricatation of the indicatrix must obey the Fe- strictions imposed by the symmetry of the crystal. Thus, because all uniaxial crys- tals belong to either the trigonal, hexagonal, or tetragonal systems, the optic axis must be the © crysiallographic axis, The symmetry of biaxial crystals, likewise, restricts the orientation of the indicatrin. A. mirror plane, for example, forces one fof the principal axes of the indicatrix to be normal to the mirror plane. Only in the triclinic system is the indicalrix {rec to take on any orientation. Refractive indices listed im this manual arc referred to the vibration diree- tions with which they correspond (¢ and o, or x, y, and z) rather than using the Greek letters (¢ ands, of a,f, and). This is done because of the convenicnce of listing in tables other properties which can also be related to these directions, BbObservation of Crystals under Conoscopic Light Under sormal orthoscopic viewing, light passes through a thin section either paral- Jel to or at a slight angle to the axis of the microscope. However, when the upper sondenscr is swung into the optical path, a strongly convergent beam of light is pro- duced. Light rays rising through the center of the condenser lens are still normal Jy incident on the thin scction, but those towards the edge of the lens converge at increasingly larger angles. A crystal lying on the axis of the microscope thus has rays of light pass through it in many different directions. With crossed polars. these rays produce an optical figure in the back focal plane of the objective, The figure is made visible by inserting the Bertrand lens or removing the ocular. A high power objective with large numerical aperture must be used for this work, Consider, for example, the effect a uniagal mincral would have om a convergent beam of plane-polarized light if the optic axis was parallel to the microscope. Rays of Tight rising through the center of the convergent Jens would be transmitted through the crystal parallel to the optic axis (Fig. 2-6). The vibration directions of light in such a ray, being normal to the. direction of propagation, produce a hor zontal circular scetion throuih the indicatrix. Crossed polars would completely ! minate this light, and thus the central part of the ficld would appear dark. Strong- ly convergeat light rising from the west towards the cast would give rise to an el- Niprical section through the indicatrix, but because the vibration directions paral- Jel the polars this ray of light would also be climinated. Convergent light rising from the S-W towards the N-E would also produce an elliptical scction through the ins dicatrix, but because the vibration directions would be at an angle to the polars, Tight would be transmitted. Similar arguments follow for fight falling in the other quadrants, When all possible ray paths are considered, it is cvident that those Paris of the field in extinction outline a dark cross known as a uniarial optic is figure. The dark bands of this figure are known as diogives, ‘The color of light transmitted in cach of the quadrants of a uniaxial optic axis figure depends on the birefringence of the mincral and the angle of convergence of light, which varies radially with the distance fram the cemer of the figure, Be- cause light towards the edge of the ficld of view converges ata greater angle than that near the center, il passes through the crystal at a greater angle 19 the optic axis, AS a result, the more convergent light exhibits greater birefringence. Concen- tric isochromatic rings may surround the optic axis if the birefringence of the mine- ral is sufficiently great. The sign of @ uniaxial mincral can be determincd easily from an optic wis fi- gure. In Fig. 2.6 it will be seen that every section theough the indicatrix formed by the various ray paths contains the ordinary vibration direction. At right angles fo this and following radial lines is a component of the extracordinary ray, c’ When the first-order red accesury plate is inserted, the isogyres turn red and the interfercnee colors in adjacent quadrants increase or decrease depending oa whether the vibration directions in these quadrants and in the accessory plate match or op- Pose onc another. The fast vibration direction in most accessory plates is parallel to ite length. If the muncral is pasitive (RU ¢> 0), as is the case in this exam ple, fight vibrating parallel to the extraordinary tay will be slower than that pa- rallel 10 the ordinary ray. in the N-W and SE quydramts the ion between these rays will be opposite to that in the acecssory plate and the intcricrcnce com lors will decrease, for example, to yellow, In the N-E and S-W quadrants, however, the retardations match, and the inlerference colurs increase, fur example, to second MW ay 7 Tl ol ad a al DDD Ag ag a \ 1 wil {' ua Lua WATTPED et VEEL OL EE LEE PPL LLL Eel Figure 26 Generation of a unisxial optic axis figure. Conoseopie light passing, through a uniaxial mineral with its optic axis oriented parallel to the axis of the microscope will vibrate in the two directions indicated by the principal axes of the elliptical sections through the indicatrix, Where these vibration directions parallel the polarization planes of the polars, extinction occurs; where they do not, light is transmitted, The color of the transmitted light de- pends. on the gence of the mineral; also the interference colors increase ‘outward and may produce concentric isochromatic rings. Insertion of a first-or- der red accessory plate causes isogyres to become red. The imterferene colors in the various. quadrants increase or deerease from first-order red depending on whether the retardations in the accessory plate add to or subtract from the re- tardations in cach quadrant, For positive mincrals the N-W and 3-E quadrants arn yellow while the NeE and SW quadrants turn blue. ‘The epposite occurs with ancgative mineral. order blue, If the mincral had been acgative, the N-W quadrant would have increased to blue and the N-E quadrant would have decreased to yellow, Minerals with high birc- fringence will have many isochromatic rings, which may make the change to blue of yellow near the optic axis difficult to sce. in such a ease, the quart wedge can be used to increase the changes in retardation. issweep across the field, The sign of the mincral can also be determined in these off- C : centered figures as long as quadrants are correctly identified. It should be cmpha- sized that once the optic axis moves well out of the Geld it is difficult to distin. guish a uniaxial mincral from a biaxial one with a small 2. Figure 27 Various possible optical figures from a uniaxial mineral. From top to bottom: Cenlered optic axis figure. If the optic axis lics outside the field ‘of view, a straight isogyre will sweep across the field as the slage is rotated, &% shown in the successive positions 1, 2, and 3. If the optic axis is a long way out of the ficld of view, the isogyre will bend as the stage is rotated and the figure could be confused for 4 biawal one, In the ceniered flash figure the diffuse cross breaks up and leaves the field of view after only a few degrees of rotation, The isogyres leave in those quadrants that contain the optic axes. POO aa CC CP. » i» a a7 4 ALLA EET ELLE DELLE biaxial crystal having any one of the principal vibration directions of the dicatrix parallel to the axis of the microscope and the other to the i two isogyres, The resulting figure depends on the orientation of the indicatrix The main types of interference figure and their relation to the indicatrix: 2-8 for a crystal that has been rotated into the 45° position, § | leave the field completely following a stage rotation of only a few degrees (leas for crystals with 2V near 90°). Flash figures are useful, for they identify those crystals thal have the x and z vibration directions on the stage of the micro- scope, Measurements of extinction angles, for example, commonly require that grains have this orientation, If the z or x vibration direction parallels the axis of the microscope, a bi- seetrix figure is obtained, The bisectrix can be acute or obtuse depending on the optic angle, When 2V = 90°, there is no distinction between the acute (BXA) and ob(usc (BXO) figures. Figure 2-8 illustrates a positive mineral with a moderate 2V; when the 2 vibration direction parallels the axis of the microscope, a BXA is ob- tained; when x parallels the axis of the microscope, a BXG is obtained. As the sage is rotated to the 45° position, the cross of a centered BXA opens slowly (not rapidly, as with a flash figure) as. the isogyres separate into the quadrants coniaining the optic axes. The optic axes can be identified as the points ‘of greatest curvature of the isogyres, and if the mineral is strongly birefringent, ‘sochtomatic lines will form a figure cight pattern with the optic axes at the cea- ters of the two circles. As long as the optic angle remains less than about $5° (this value depends on the lens aperture and the Ru. of the mineral), the optic faxes will remain in the field of view. If they just leave the field of view, 2V must be slightly greater than 55°. If, however, they Ieave the ficld of view well before the stage has been rotated 45°, 2V must be very large. In such cases, there may be uncertainty as to whether you are dealing with a BXA or BXO figure. Mis- identification of the figure can lead to an erroneous sign determination It therefore preferable to seck an optic axis figure, 7ms OPTIC BAA AXIS wo A i LH- Pram | = | i . \H yf Saar ana ist Natron Figure 2-8 Main types of optical figures associated with a biaxial mineral. All are shown rotated to the 45° position Sign determinations are easily made on the acute bisectrix (EMA) and optic axis figures, because the y wibeation dirce- tion is tangential to the isogyre at its point of maximum curvature when the fi- pure is in the 45° position, The identity of the other vibration direc- {x oF 2) cam be determined with an accessory plate. In this cxample, the mincral is positive (sce text for explanation). The 2V can be estimated {rom the survature of the isogyre in the 45° position, With a biscctrix figure in the 45° position, the y vibration direction lies between the optic axes and is tangential 0 the isogyres al the optic axes (Fig. 2-8). Whether y is faster or slower than the other vibration ditcetion ¢an be determined with an accessory plate, In this cxample, the area between the isogyres would tum hive, and therefore y is the dow vibralion direction. The other vibra- tion direction must be x By elimination, then, 7 must parallel the axis of the mic roscope and lie in the acute bisectrix. The mincral is therefore pesitive A cemered optic axis figure consists of a single isogyrc, which rotaics around ike a propeller as the stage is rotated. The isogyre may curve as the crystal is rotated into the 45° position, The amount of curvature depeads om the optic angle (Fig 28). If 2V = WP, the isogyre is straight; fl 2V = 0° (uni- anal), the isogyte curves through 90°. The curvature of the isogyre for vari- ous 2¥'s is given in Fig 2-8. Because, in the 45° position the isogyre is con- vex towards the BXA, and the y vibration dircction is tangential to the wogyre at 18 PP Pe ea aa aaa Ph PPD s gE rh rrr eesWao Wen i oh eh eh We neh een oP Poo PY which may be difficult to identify uniquely. If a figure is misidentified, crroncous observation of optical properties will result. It is prudent, for grains with other orientations if there is any doubt as to the identity of a fi- t i spectrum on passing through a glass prism. When the refractive indices of a mineral arc listed with no reference to wavelength, it is understood that the values are for the dominant wave- Keagth of sodium light, which is $89 om. The. vibration directions of light also can vary with changes in wavelength. Any change in optical properties resulting from changes in the wavelength of light is known as dispersion. In biaxial minerals, dispersion can lead to striking optical effects in interfe- rence figures. If the three refractive indices vary differently with wavelength, a different indicatrix exists for each wavelength, This, in turn, causes the optic angle to change with wavelength. If white light is used, the optic angle for wave- lengths at the red cad of the spectrum may be larger or smaller than that for wave~ lengths at the blue end. If, for example, the optic angle for blue light is greater than that for red light, the blue isogyre would occur farther out than the red one in a BXA figure rotated to the position, But the bluc isogyre marks. those locations in the figure where blue light is in extinction. If no blue is transmit. ted, the remaining light in this region wall appear red. Likewise, in the region of the red isogyre the transmitted light will appear blue. Thus, when the blue optic axis is greater than the red one, a red fringe will appear on the outside (concave) of the isogyres in a BXA figure in the 45° position, and a blue fringe will ap- pear on the inside (convex) of the isogyres. ‘The dispersion in such a mineral would be described as being less for red light than for blue, or r Figure 2.9 Basic arrangemecat of the optics in eflecting microscope, LULL UYU a ee ‘ abe TL uy " . « OPPO‘The amount of light reflected from the polished surface of a mineral is known ax ‘Obviously opaque minerals are more reflective than transparcat aes sin ene eperes lai Gere soeicerti ee The val- ‘the reflectivity cam be measured accurately with photometers, but for routine petrography, visual estimates of the brightness of minerals are adequate. i ck nae a els fe enn at nt ear i light, Thc colors cnoountered with reflected light, however, are far less vivid than those with transmitted light, Indeed, when first encountered, most opaque minerals appear almost the same color in reflected light--some shade between whilc, gray, and =< ‘With experience, however, subtle differences become far more. easily recog- Under crossed-polars, isotropic opaque minerals can be distinguished from aniso- tropic ones. Here, again, the interference colors are far less vivid than those ob- tained with transmitted light. Nonetheless, anisotropic mincrals under reflected Fight will brighten and darken four times while the stage is rotated through 360 degrees, unless, of course, the optic axis of the mincral is oriented paralicl to the microscope axis. Commonly, the polars are slightly uncrossed (few degrecs), ak Towing some light (o pass through the microscope and illaminste the field. In this postion, howeser, the polars do mot cause a complete extinction, only a darkening ‘of the field. Nor will they cause the extinction of isotropic minerals; but isotro- pic minerals will remain an unchanging dark color as the stage is rotated. Although refractive indices of opaque minerals are mot measured, it is possible to observe diflercaces in bardocss between mincrals simply from the relief on the polished surface. Accurate hardnesses can be measured with microhardness testers. But for routine work, relative hardnesses arc adequate. By increasing the distance between the sample and the objective, a bright line of light, similar in appearance to the Becke line, will move towards the softer grain. Hardnesses of opaque minerals are commonly given in terms of the Talmage scale, rather than the Mobs scale, The Talmage scale has seven divisions, designated by letters, with A being the softest and G the hardest. Preparation of Thin Sections ‘A petrographic thin section is @ 30 pm-thick slice of rock mounted on a glass micro- scope slide and cither covered with a cover glass or left uncovered but polished. Al- though sections can be thicker or thinner than this, Fisted interference colors for minerals in standard tables and in this manual are for 30 um-thick grains. This thickness (or thinness, if you are struggling to make your first section) is easily attainable with equipment that is in proper alignment, In sections that are thinner than standard, the decreased contrast im interference colors between different mine- rals makes identification more difficul, And in sections that are thicker than nor- mal, grain boundaries that are not vertical appear as fuzzy zones insicad of dis tinct lines. Indeed, with fine-grained rocks, cvcn a 30 pa-thick section may not produce a distinct image of the grains. In extremely fine-grained rocks, a distinct image may be obtainable only in reflected light from the polished sarface. aTo prepare a thin section, « slab of rock approximately 22 mm x 40 mm x 10 mm thick is cut with a diamond saw. ‘The surface: that is to be glued to Be is then ground successively with 240, 600, and 1000 grit carberundum powder. The pur- pose of this is to obtain a perfectly Mat surface. This stage of the process is onc of the pr face that is glued to the slide is curved, there is nothing be to sahage the section, Even if the upper surface of the slide is pesfectly Mat, the beveled lower surface at best will cause variations in the thickness of the sec- tion (hence of interference color), and at worst will result is ding away of parts of the section. Grinding with 1000 grit powder can be omitted, but it does produce cleaner-looking sections and docs help prevent plucking of ea- sily cleaved mincrals (phenocrysts. of amphibole, for example), If extremely fine fea- tures arc being sought in a thin seetion, the lower surface of the rock chip can even be polished before it is glued to the slide. This would be done only if the upper surface is also to be polished. It should be noted, however, that in doubly: polished sections, the apparent roughness of high rclicf mincrals is not visible; feldspar and otivine, for example, would appear to have the same low relief 5 F 5 E 5. 3 The rock chip is glued 10 a petrographic glass slide (typically measuring 27 x 6 mm) with cpoxy. Traditionally Canada balsam was used for this purpose, but now this matural glue is uscd only for attaching cover glasses; epoxies are simply much stronger. Nonetheless, it is desirable to have an epoxy whose refractive index is similar to that of Canada balsam (R= 1.537), because the relief deseribed for mine- als im the literature is given with respect to Canada balsam. A number of cpoxics are commonly used, for example, Petropory 154 of Palouse Petro Products, Buchler 20-8130, and Hillquist A-B and C-D, Only Petropoxy has a refractive index of 1.54; the others are all between 1.57 and 1.58. This is particularly important to keep in ‘mind when identifying minerals on the basis of relief. Epoxies cure more rapidly when heated, bul most will cure at low temperature, if given time. Petropory, however, must be heated in order to harden, Rock chipe are heated before the epoxy is applied, not only to raise the rock to the recommended Curing temperature, but to drive off moisture from the sample. Water given off after the epoxy has been applied forms large bubbles that may cause the rock to detach from the slide during the subsequent culling and grinding steps. Some racks contain minerals that continuously give off water as they are heated, for example, zeolites and gypsum, Rocks containing such mincrals may have to be mounted with cold setting cpory if gas bubbles keep forming on heating. One particular advantage in using heated epoxy is that it has substantially lower viscosity, which allows the excess epoxy between the sample and the shide to be squeezed out more easily by placing a weight on the rock or clipping the slide and rock together with & spring-backed Paper clip. Variable thicknesses of gluc on different sections slow up the process of section making, because each section has to be checked individually many morc ies than. are ones that all have a constant thickness of glue. A more serious prob em, however, atiscs with thasc sections in which variations in the thickness of glue cause the thin section to tbe wedge shaped. Such sections may require extensive final grinding by hand in order to compensate for the rock chip not being mounted Parallel to the glass slide, Once the cpory has hardened and the rock chip cooled to room temperature, the mounted specimen is placed in a cut-off saw and sliced so that an approximatcly 2SOumathick section is ‘ft attached to the glass slide. The initial slice can be thinner than ibis if the equipment is in good alignment; but the next, and final, Pea ee eee eo a 2d a Pw »ATLL ELLE LEED GG Eb DEL step goes so quickly that there seems no justifiable reason for pushing one's luck by cutting extra thin sections at this stage. Commonly, when the initial section is cut too thin, vibrations from the saw blade may loosen the sample from the slide or fracture unnecessarily coarse cleavable mineral grains which will later pluck out, Next the seetion is ground, either by hand, or preferably on a grinding machine. When a thickness of 30 jm is approached, the section is removed from the grinder and the interference colors examined under crossed polars in the microscope. Interfe- rence colors provide a very simple but extremely accurate means of judging section thickness. This does, however, require that the section maker be able to identify the mincrals, know what intcrfcrence colors they should exhibit in a 30 jmethick sec- tion, and be aware of the effect of grain orientation on interference colors. For the novice, a micrometer is simpler to use. ‘The final grinding steps are repeated lintil the correct thickness is obtained. If a polished thin section is to be pre pared, the grinding is stopped when the section is ~35 um thick. The following step with polishing powder removes the final Sum. If a normal thin section is to be pre pared, a cover glass is mousted with Canada balsam, which is then cured at approxi- mately 90°C for approximately half an hour. Petropoxy can also. be used for this purpose, because it is extremely fluid when hot, and it hardens in just 3 mi- utes. at 125°C. General Hints.on Dong Petrography Perhaps through an earnest desire to apply everything learned in optical mineralogy, the novice petrographcr tends to start viewing a thin section at too bigh a magnifi- cation and with too many accessories inserted into the microscope. The experienced petrographer, by contrast, uses the lowest possible magnification commensurate with the grain size of the rock and examines the rock mainly under planc polarized light or possibly crossed polars. Of course, when first learning petrography a high power objective may be necessary to determine properties that will confirm the identity of a mineral, With experience, however, most of the common rack-forming minerals ean be distinguished simply under ptane-potarized light. ‘Start your inspection of the thin section under a low-power objective and with plane-polarized light. You should distinguish felsic mincrals (low relic/--cormmonty negative, and mostly colorless) from ferromagnesian minerals (high rclief, mostly colored), In addition, features such as pleochroism, grain shape, textural rela. tions between grains, and cleavage ean also be noted. Only then should the polars be crossed. Do not lose track of the identity of the felsic and ferromagnesian minc- rrals while examining the section under crossed polars. For example, orthopyroxene and plagioclase, which commoaly occur together ina type of gabbro known as norite, have very similar interference colors and may appear similar under crossed polars ‘The difference in relicf of the two mincrals, however, makes them quite disti der plane-polarized light, Finally switch to high magnification and conoscopic light if itis necessary to obtain an interference figure. The light source on the microscope should not be turned up to its brightest set- ting for the initial petrographic survey, nor should the upper condenser be inser: ted. These will decrease the contrast in color and relief between mincralsPen re qe Gale wie fall E Ese HG unl, Hau il f al5 ) ILD LEED EL EDELLELELGLLDLbL 3 Rock-Forming Minerals and Their Optical Properties ‘This chapter contains a tabulation of the common minerals and their formulas, fol- lowed by a listing of their most important distinguishing optical propertics. Most of the mincrals are listed alphabetically for cass of referencing. Exceptions occur where minerals belong to well-recognized groups, Thus, all ALSO, poly: morphs are listed together under iO, Other mincrals listed under a common heading include amphiboles, carbonates, epidotes, feldspars, garnets, micas (+ pyrophyllitc), olivines, opagues, pyroxcnes, silica polymorphs (under quartz), spinels, and zeolites (+ analcite), For cxample, the optical properties of the amphi- bole grunerite are fisted with other amphiboles under AMPHIBOLE rather than al- phabetically under G. If a mincral cannot be found under the alphal list- ing and you arc uncertain to which mineral group it belongs, the mineral can be found in the index, if it is included in the manual, A blank page is provided at the end of this chapter for the addition of optical propertics of less commen mine- rals that you may wish to add to the manual. The optical properties of cach mincral are given in a standard format which is self explanatory, Illustrations of the relation between optics and crystal morpho- Jogy are included for those minerals where this information is useful, If the mine- ral is illustrated in the thin section sketches (and color slides), the mumber of the illustration is given in parentheses beneath the mineral name, with IM# refer- ring to the sketches of igneous minerals and MM# 1o those of metamorphic minerals. In addition to the listings of optical propertics of each mineral, a compilation of the most important propertics of all the mincrals is presented in a single table on the inside front cover of the manual, For most routine inspections of thin scc- tions, this table provides most of the information necessary to identify the common minerals. It is worth spending a few minutes familiarizing yourself with its organi- zation, The table is divided down the center by 2 chart of interference colors, To the left are listed mincrals which are colored vnder planc-polarized light, and to the right are mincrals which arc colorless. Some minerals appear on both sides if they are only faintly colored, or they are colorless for some composition but colored for others. Both groups of mincrals are listed in order of increasing birefringence, with isotropic ones given first, The interference colors in the centeal strip are those found in normal 30 jum-thick thin seetions for the particular birefringence indi- cated. The refractive index range for each mincral is indicated by a bar with the actu al values being indicated across the top of the table, The relief relative to the refractive index of Canada balsam (1.537), is indicated by the density of stip: pi ‘The refractive index bars in the left side of the table are colored to indicate the typical appearance of these minerals in plane polarized light; pleo- chroic mincrals have two colors. The table alsa gives the optical character of the mincral--isotropic (I), uniax- ial (U), and biaxial (B)--optic sign, optic angle, and prominent cleavage planes and the angles between them,IMPORTANT MINERALS AND THEIR FORMULAE, third, the accessory minerals, The rock-forming minerals are the major building com- ponents of a rock, and they determine its composition and name. Minerals in the low ive indices (RI < Canada balsam), and thus have low re- colorless; “they include quartz, feldspars, feldspa- i ierite. Minerals in the second group balsam) and thus have high relief in thin ‘colored; this imeludes the ferromagnesian mincrals. The acces- in more than trace amounis, but their presence oF the interpretation of the genesis of a rock. Most acces- sory mincrals are formed from elements that do not readily enter thé structures of Ki u [il il i Name Formula Quartz ‘Tridymite Sia, Cristobatite ‘Sanidine Onthoclase (KNa)AISi,0g FELDSPAR Microcline Albite NaAlSigOg Anomthite CaAlSi:0g (aKIAISIO, (KNA}AISIO, FELDSPATHOID RAEA0G NagAleSigOnaCly NaAlsi,O, HO Scapolite {Ns,Ca.X) ,Al(ALSi),5i,0 4(C1.CO,80,,0H) Cordicrite (MeFedpAlgSicOyg (U0 US Wa aes a a wo a el \ 1 ’r rs; r- r IL ROCK-FORMING MINERALS WITH HIGH REFRACTIVE INDEX (Mostly colored) r- r Name Formula, r Porsterite Mg,SiOg = OLIVINE Paylite FeSO, - ‘Monticelli CaMgSiOg r Fr. os MeySiz0g, — ORTHOPYROXENE: =e si a osilite ' aig Og a r Diopside CaMgSi,0, r Hedenbergite CaFeSi,0, r Augite (CaMg.Fe Al) (SiAl) 70, = CLINOPYROXENE - Pigeonite (hig. Fe,Ca)(Mg,Fe)$iz0¢ = ‘Acgetine (Acmite) — NaFe* 8,0, eS Jadcite NaalsigO, - - Wollastonite CaSiO5 "= = ‘Anthophylite (Mz.Fe}Sig029(OHF) Gedrite (Mg.Fe)sAL(Al,Si,)029(OHF) Cummingtonite —_(Mp-Fe)ySig0y9(OH.Fy AMPHIBOLE Tremolite-Actinolite Cay(Mg.Fe) SigQyo(OH,F) Homblende Cag(Mg FeAl) s(SiAl)g029(OH,F)2_ Ricbeckite NajFe3*7Fe, *3Sig0g,(OH.Fly Glaucophane NaMgyAlySigO9(OH.F)I. Continued Micas: Melitite Name ‘Biotite Muscovite Pyrophyllite Tale Chlorite Serpentine Pyrope Amandine Spessartine Grossular Andradite ‘Vesuvianite(Idocrase) en} Kyanite Sillimanite Mullitc Staurolite Chioritoid Epidote Clisoroisite Lawsonite Geblenite Akermanite Soda melilte Caeite Dolomite Formula KOM Fe) ssi 04g )(OHLM, EALYAIS0, OHM Nal (Al 0 g)(OH.%y ALS40 (OH). MaySig09(OF)a (Mg ALFe),(A1S1)40; (0H) MaeSig0 (Hg MasAbsiOy2 FegAlySi0y2 MajAlSi3012 CayAlgS0,2 Cag(Fe*5.13),853045 Cayg(Mg.FeAl) Si g(O,OKF ze, ALSIOs 3Al,0525105 FezAlysis 7302(0H), (Fe* ig Ma) (ALFe*)A1,0,(5i0,)(OH), Ca,Fe*FAL,0(8i,07)(510,)(OH) CayAtAl0(Si,07)(8i0, (OH) CaAl(OH):5i0)4,0 SagAl S05, CayMaSi0; NaCaAlSigOy caco, Cameco), ras ball PPD uns ‘h POL Pe IreMVUVOLE LEE EEE EEE DULL DDE LE LE LD ODELDLDEBEEELEI IH ACCESSORY MINERALS: Spinel Chaleopyrite Gypours Barite Formula CagPO,),(OH,F,C) CaTiSiOg caTio, Na(Mg.Fe Al) yAlgSigQ)9(B03)3(OH.F), FeTiO, FeqliOg Feq0q FeCrzqALSO, ANDALUSITE _A1,Si0, ‘Onmomrombie (MM 9.12) ‘Refractive Index irefringenee = 2V. Extinction a sas aor parallel y LSS TAB length faut F LoL et one white Calor Cheavage calories = x (110) good f0)*4AT0) 877 y Morphology: Coane columnar grins with almost squire croat sects. Cpstals may contain many leclasions, those of satbonucesst material commonly being concestrated into the core or along planes thal represent the ites Of he prin faces a he cra gem, Chiasolte i a varety in wRih the incisions form & prominest erat Some Composition: Andstesie varies file im compasiton anctia costain sll amoania ‘of fer iron and Mn. which mates ou ‘een failly pleoch roc in hader of pink and pre Distinguishing Properties: Low birefringence and large 2V0 ow Gulngvish —andabssite from silimanite, —Kyaniee hax inclined exactions ad bigher relic. Pleochroic vaneties of andatwile 2 resemble hypenthens, bul hypersihese i length show, Apatite | GO ehiaval = Under crossed polars, large inclusion filed poeptyrobiasts a. of andaluane meiemBle those of ‘contieric, bat wader plane-pokanied Inge nncaluisie Bas higher relief; Commonly altered to museoite. on Occurrence: Forms in metamorphosed peliis rocks st low 10 eedivn A wrsdes of reponal meta Ta alabiity “limited 40. premoret We Sem that 0305 GPs GIF Mari atore ths saps te he pete a more kyanite. aod at hgh temsperateses, 10 the polymorph lomanite, tenn inthe adjoining figere. Andante # conMOS contact ‘Phase relations among the AI,SO, ‘metamoriue einerat at pele rocks arousd highieve! pletom potymorpin Hotieway IPP. KVANITE ALSO, Biasal- ‘Trxteie anu s9) Retracne lieder Birelnngence = 2 Extincion ehh art Cor oan oots ren .aZ SE lengih sow Han Ions rd Gaiee Denage Precepts Sense Ande artnese ave . 200) perfect > Sant? ' {010} gros» all S-90 ' 100i) pareag > phology: Bixded copia vives apyreat raed when viewed on (H00hshea sect fine an eitinction at 20° Yorselegineand narrow wen sewed on (OT) tee Hon have eviachn sles! pure te the leagih Composition: Kyonite shows aman no venation on rompouteon Distinguishing Properties: Althosph colurew. whe hgh rebel makes kyaaiie appear quiic dark inthis section vuly along frat fousdanes aod clemages — Cleavages and crus pareng are prominent. The sanahie éatincon Ingle (01) of the How neation direction the lengil of crystals characters of byanate Occurrence: Sinety metamorphic mineral formed Gunng tepenal metamiephim of pele mucks hh is the highs PrEMTe aluminem sibesic polymoep! and. slabie at imigemediate grades of metamorphiim., Depending oe the nature of ‘Yee geothermal Fragient durng metamorviam. adalusite May be preach! at lower grader whereas the hightemperature (POON. silmasse, ws SoeMally stable a higher grades, » arts "| La ER VF Sue CRP we WITTEEE EEE EERE EE DOLE DDE SILLIMANITE 41,510, sens Refnctne Idee Birefringence «Vinton ass nz paral yee 2030 eth slow 1 eee 2nd ander bloe Color Ceavage x {910} goat 7 Morphology: Prins of fives aggregates (Mbvoite). rims have square cross section! with diagonal (010) Composition: As with the eer ALSO, polymorph, mani dite it (rom he fora. Distinguishing Properties: Stender prima with widelpspsced cross fractures, paraiiel_einctiog, engin slow, moderste birefnagence, and strong dispersion (¢>b) dasiogoish lllemanie, —Apaite needles hive euch lower biretringence, are bength fast, and have hexagonal rout sections. Aathophfiie bax x large ZV (7090), and in cross mectiont has the rypical to cieavage iteiont of ampnitole. Fibrout silimanite ‘may be more difficult to Gitinguch (rom frost aathopbyllte: crom sectioos Of prime are tbe mos diagnostic. propery is this oxse Sllimanite i iffeumt 10 distinguish from muthte. Malice it, however, a relatively rare mincral restated to higtelevel, high-ternperature contact mietamorphened pelites (specially as sencliths im asic igneaus orks); it commonly us faa ile pleoehrosse, Occurrence: Oscars in high-grade regional and contact metamorphic rocks AL lower temperatures byaniie and aodalusite sre stable, but invention of allimande io these polymorphs on cooling it uncomiman Became of sluggish reactions MULLITE — 1,0,280, (cs 13,14) Relraciive Indes lrefringence © 2V_Eatintion Reliet ier! Color Elorsatioa e Lelat aorony paral! y Loebar 4540 tengih slow 2 LES L40 2rd omer blue Color Cleavage roe Cen rt roloeiess colorless 4010) good 1 Y eolorsess 2 pale ioe Morphology: Slender pains wih squaze cross sections and diagonal (010) cleavage. Composition: —Mutite is not a polymorph of AL,Si0,. for it is more aluminous and hat» composition scar JA1j0, 2510 Irean aso contain some ferric ton and Th Distinguishing Properties: Fropcrins arc very similar 10 those of silmanste, tut muse cin costae more ron sboch makes Ht plcachroe. Mulile rice, and sis fesincied made of occurrence may felp stingosh w from simanice Occurrence: Resincurd te high-temperatere lowprciayre coniact metamorphee pelien 1h typwcally oreun nolitin in mafic ppeous rocks, amunborn eR, de ii | Oe i § iyi a |i i H aq ; “S ak al + ie if aj Hagges litylliad . eg of HATE dE tn Ee Sage che a é gé tty i hy zal it bid “| i Hi eT eee all G2.) Wk HE i yep ae Ha rid Lil pliit ill Ferdng fo) dbp ies opdyes 18g 1 ec EH ety I tiie ty Ih mal Os Ae eof FE Tai. (110) pod fat (HTQ)SS Morphology: Prismatic ofbrous, Prisms may be curved ‘Composition: The mole % Fe/(Fe+Mz) ia commingronite ranges from 30 10 72 and im gruncrite, from 70 to 100, The ZV" iecresscs from +65 at the Mg-ich end to 0 at Fe/(RerMg) of 0.75; from O75 the sign is negative, amd the 2V 9KOILE) Sa Zeal of these substations is uiualy not great, Refaewbe indices increase with increasing iron content Pineal eect Fertohastingste bar a 2V of only 10, and beciwe of the very strong absorpuon ‘hewn by th Funeral the ogres may not be clearly defined and the optic figure may appear almost wmiszial The 2" incremes to Basaltke Hornblende resembles common hornblende. but mwch of the som is Fe", and © seplaces some of the ‘O11 formed in iva by oxidation allowing eruption. Ic has deep red and brown pleochrosm. Kacrsutite + yellow to esp reddit trown pleochmic amphibole init coetsing some feric iroa, but ts ‘hemical charactensic wu high Ts cootent iahed from basic horoblencc by Guperuon-1> in kaerutie, ‘Tete baaiicRomblente, Katruas i Soinen a aahor roca I fonmulaw NACA, (Spe Fe™), THAIS, Ora HOH Py Occurrence: Homblends wont of the mest common rockformng manera One of the major mineruk in RENT oTNaee sulle gsenk chi in the amphibole fer Hm ioe main fervomagnesas mince in musy ‘nicalbaine ypneous rocks, and the Luersuliie and barkevkibe vanches are abundant um alkaline rocks POCO OO. a ’ a Vos » PPL PPP OP LL!' , LODO LEE LLL EDD DE LL LDU LL GLAUCOPHANE He MaA1J540,K0117, uoaas.sty Refractive Index Birefringeose © 2MExtintion —Fisliel__—_Imterf. Color ___—_Boneation LL 01-008 wes 7 LOret 50 lengih alowe ziasiaT It onder ret Cole Crvage Risch emege Ane Hades ie avender rate {uo} good Oye yravender Te ‘Morphology: Prima or coornarsgarepie. Composition: The formula of plancophane can be derived from that of tesole by mobettuing Na for Ce ant rsithinang charge Balance by replacing Ma with AL Typicaly some Fe swbattotes for Mp Dist i : Blush ci ther minerals, Riebeckiie is Berea tenet oes Aen aa Occurrence: Glascophane is formed 44 regional metamorphism at low temperatures and hig ures is fumly mecca’ eth the ‘manana, beso’ tis eumps”auiacerons ta” pocopiune sci cl Dect ff he blue color of glaucophanc, cvcn in hand specimen, schists containing this mineral are coomonly referred to a Ilueschisisto gomirast them with preesschiss, which contain Mone, epiGate, ae actiaalce. RIEBECKITE —No,FeyPes{80,, 01"), awa (6) Monecsini aa Refrecine Index Hlrefringeace = 2VElinction Bee __ntert. Gojor_ongation 2 L670 one. 016 aes y Laden igray but easked 4090 length ast Pasta7 Dy be colar Color Genage —Hisgchrotim _Glenvage _ Angie Haiocss dark ble = ep bive (110) poo fusoyrifoyss 5 ight bise t preenish Morphology: Prsmatc wo fiorous ‘Composition: Repiacement of Ca by Na is coupled with esbsutution of Fe™ for Pe”. Distinguishing Properties: Tec dark bloc 10 green pleochroam of ricbeckite dlstinguises i from other minerals “Tourmaline wmianal and lacks clomage. Glaucophase has paler solo, smaller 2V, und it length slow, Oceurrence: Ricbectite occurs ix No-nch fei speseous reeks 38ANHYDRITE casa, Refenctve index Pirilomace 2 Enact xs? om partie Hints tinea Gator Genoa: Reset __Ohcrrnge __Angie™_ Hasina ; {io} emypnea 2 as0 a i {001} goods Morphology: Geren forms anhedral aggregates, bu tabular crystals do form in vein, Composition: Smaltamoents of Se ani Ba may subaiute for Ca, Distinguishing Properties: ‘The thee prominent rctangula cavages and high birftingence are characteristic Occurrence: The main mode of occurrence is is vaporite depoaits, Near ihe Earth's surface in tends to alter to Fsum through the addition of water. I! ako forms im veins, bul here too it tends 10 De altered of remowed _shopeihes leaving aly tabular eno. APATITE ss(PO) (ONE) Unis - Hetagsaat MIM 79) ‘Retractwe loden — Baretengence tinction i Me © s « tacer oon parte ro) Tole oaks? tsverdcrgmy ——Jengsh fast Color Gewvage Pevenroam Chsvare “Angie largess hte . oe s Morphology: Sivbby hnesaponal prams in mafic igneous rovka. sleader prisms in (etic igncout rocks, and anhedes! runs metamorphic exis. LongslenGct prams may have an anual cary fled wath lser-eratalizng mers, Composition: Tee mint version 9 m ihe proporsons of OH. F, and Cl, all posible enieenes exit ‘The rare fame clemenis, ie parucvlar Ce. ca, subaisivic for Ca and commonly produce Muoiescence when boobarded wih eect (cient raiatedn. ‘Distiemuishing Properties: Thc bom pwrinagee! neuaponal pram sath high rect are chariclertie of apse ihe, uneral ucla ‘leaeage, bot rims commoely have a snstiy spaced crash fractore. Sllimanite bas ‘sislar tees ‘emcaures bt has tughes birtringence, ws femgth srw and Baus and has square crea. weetons Occurrence: | Th oa common Fettanag Maeat and tha a 8 Miguel ares je ih ignoe meunocii, and sedimentay ‘tk ls abendaoce w Oelermined ump) hy the ahongeace of Pin ihe teak Thee ne ‘em striae rocks elaine abundant eh mai an wteroedane revs, tad les teuant i Tec a 2.0.0 6 4 a a wg { Up (I = | hor fe Ae SPP PPL LCRefrictive Index Birefringence © 2V_—Bxinction eee Vee Relist Inert, Color Blangation é BRACE é BS ata ia = ate CRIES y et 37” [601] lowe = pars Int oneryetiow Color Cenage lores fm) perfect (0o8){010) 908 y {210} very good (210)°(2T0) 75 ® (10). goo ‘Morphology: Pate-ike crsias flattened parale! vo {901}, Composition: arte shows lite vusiation in composition, but Sr can replace the Ba, Pisinguishing Properties: Cmaps dings baste fm ansoie and ate, Anite the ha mah Ste (Occurrence: Commooly formein veins with quarts sedcalcite, [t cerurein the cemeni of wome sandstones. BERYL BeyAlsSigO pg oil « Mexapreat Retractre Index Bret Bxtnciion © 15648 ‘coon pallet 0 1st 140 Asconder grey length fast aloe evar: Sloare Ane Haniorss ee {0001} poor a a Morphology: Large bexegonal prima with commoe termination by (O01) Compasition: Large holes in the sing structure of tert permit the entry of lange alkali tons; most ben! conning tone bliais. Sell amouets of Cr aceon fr ihe pen golor of the gem vanery meri, sbing Properties: The only mineral raembling beryl i apeite, bot apatite has much higher retrace odes sd inchs Basal cleavage, Cuar is emiaval petitive Occurrence: Mast beryl forms in prpmatites or te stage muarctiue cities in gritos and myenitca It ako ferun in marbles and achacts the variety exveraid being found typecally mente echit.‘Composition: Substitution of Mp. Fe, and Ma ean oecr. At low tesperse, homes, calcite relatively pure Distinguishing Properties: Fatreme bireiringesce distinguthes eatboaates from moti other minerals, Sphene has high bictiogeatc bu appears yeiorch or: Deorsiah under plane lp and Ghat Cate and” clon ta "be ddasinguished by the relation of the twin tumelle to the clewmage planet. In dolomsie, twin lamellae parale! both the tong. aed short diagonals of the cleavage shombs; in alee the twins parallel the long diapoaal and the capes cf tie rhomts, The hiphpeessore polymorph of cate, argoaiie, ako har extreme ‘ombommommae ‘ith negative 2V of 16 ad has only one poor cleavage (B10), which has parael extinction. Occurrence: Calcite is a common mineral in sedimentary timesiones, enetamorphic marbles, nydrotvermal veins, gpeows earbonatite, and mt a deutene alleation product ef mafic sgoeous mca The bigh presiore polymorph, ‘Aregonite, occur in glaucophanc achista, but it also occurs melastably at surface eonditians when precipstated ‘organically at for example bn shes. Heals cecor metastably oi fine needle iliog vesicles and wean in boat ringeece, bu DOLOMITE = GMg(CO,), Unser - ‘Trgonal Retractive Index Birefringence Extinction —Bete__intert Coton osgation, © 150 oss Gator —Ticsbrowm _Clewage _anrie _Handeess Foiowesiegry : « (107) pester, 78 ‘ ‘ Morphology: Monty anheGral bet rhombs with curved cna faces do occur, Composition: (Mn, aed Ca can sbstisuee for Mg Vancten wth more than 20% of the ion component are known A ankepie, und the wan ) 60 dispersion, Gccurrence: An important consiivens of tinny tow rade metemorphic rocks, and the mame greene lst fist eee Mice oe ths mineral in hand apccimers Mt cece in both meta-peites and metamaic igneous, rocks Corre. ‘Stuo'a common leraioe, prodect of ferromapician minerals focsed daring the cooling of igcowe racks. It {eon hpdeoihermaly i mal pecs woes nd commonly osocialed with preter are deposits, MgMa},(ALFe?")A10,150,) (OF, Beaxial + Monoctinic Birefnngente 2 Extinction exon (001)<30 ow Istonder 45.68 (O01) faut Peoloriess Morphology: Forms tabular crstats that_may exbit homepuss zoning. Ht typically proms as porphyrahlas fe rmeta-pelues Lamellar rwanninng on (003) w very common. (Composition: Chiontond w resincied to Fe-nch compositions. Distinguishing Properties: _ Pireckroum ia shades of een. gy, tod blvt are distinctive, especialy shee aeeec or tine wonng. Rescoles chianie sigh. bul 90957 0 od od dd Se Bd a Pepa (4, if y ROO » wl PPP PeTATE DEOL GUL RPIDOTE = oy ayoe,gEOKoR sears) ‘Refractive Index Birefringence: wv Eabnctios: aus omnes parallel length y LL bright 6890 low and fax, 2 U0 2od.3rd onder Cobar Cemvage —Fisochroism __Cieavage _Anele _ ards Yellen prece paleyel green (001) perfect é 1 greenish yellow 2 yellows gree Morphology: Mos forms granular aggregates, but some forms crytals sloegated along their 8 axis, ‘Composition: Subsimtion of Al for Fe save epidote to grade into clinarolsite (see below); ite bircinageace and refractive indice Distinguishing Properties: Very tight acd vasible iterferece colors are chance. Became. piste copie are citegred. pera! to. envtaliceaphic b, csi: re Poth loegis Mow awd begih et. Dicogtaded from supte i seciont showing” hale ceavape pari ta” the. lengih ‘of the” gran by baving the optic” pase paeaee core Occurrence: An extremely common mineral in mediem grades of regions metamorphism, erpccially in mctxmafic ‘preous rocks. 1 also occurs asa euler mineral ad fils vesicles and fractures in basalts CLINOZOISITE ca,A1A1,0181,0,180, OH) Biasia! « Monoctne eM a3) ‘Rafracwve Index Dinelringence = 2V_—Etinction —Retiel___olert Color lemgation. 2 ELI ones-oms parle length y LeeLaE anomalous 16.90 low and frst eT low Ist onder Color Cleavage —Bicochmism _Cleauge Angie Martness . [om pestese as Morphology: Commonly forms erstals elongated partie! to emstallgraphic . ut aso forms pranvlar aperegates Composition: Aa sluminem-nch, irompone end member of the epwiote semen At the extveme inat-poor end of te tenes onthohomtse raise fomas Refractive indices, brreiningeece, and ZV of clinoronics increase with encreaing Distinguishing Properties: One of « small group of munersls (+ meliite, vesunanite, chlonte) that exhice fnomous blue” ssierference colon It dfers from melite nod veswranste io beep banal and (rom chlonte by fai mech biprer relmctne indices, — Clinorocile commonly ctu an grains that are toned 1 moe iFOA-nch ‘mpm and may therefore ab coesiderable vanation in Birefnngence Occurrence: The cceurcece of clinocoaite ws euennally the same as thal of epaote, orcurmng. in amphi Ine parevlety eaocated wih tbe alecraon of cae pagpoclase a1PIEMONTITE — ca, *?.Re?* An),015%,0,1150, KOH) Biasial + ‘Mosectinie (ao, 45) . Ref Index Bietringeore © «2V_—— tinction — Bellet ______letert Gator __tpemation vip una F ee ws ns om _ —Pisochiiam _Clemvage _Angic _Harctosae ae ‘ yamethyet = Morphology: Commonly form prismatic crystals eloogated parallel wo. crtallogrphic by Compasitian: Porn s sos sotutionueres with enema epiote, Distinguishing Properties: ‘The :tciking pleochroi distngwiches it from other minerals, Occurrence: Form oct the tame range of conditions as other epidotes, but is restricted ee metamorphoerd ‘anpaniferous rocks, such as chers, which form piemontie. spessartine-hearing quartzite, ALLANITE = (Ca,Ce),(Fe?* Pe?" JAL,0181,05 1150 KOH) ‘Monoetini Refractive Index Biveffingenee = 2V tinction —Beliel___Incert Cejoe _Biongation 2 198179 coven ‘parallel temgth y Lea 40.50) ‘show and fast PUTRI ow 28d onder Color ‘Ceavage —Bicothrmium __Qeavage __ngie _Mandress_ TDrowush yea gat Dron {001} poor: 6 § yellowuh brows, Fart bromn Morphology: Forms ruby prisms which are commoniy very cracked ue 16 the metamict nature ofthe miner. ‘Compasition: This Cedesring epidote commonly contains other rare canth elements and TR and U sich, om uncenpoing ‘mdvoactrve decay, destroy the structure of the mincral, making it metamict. Distingulsbiog Properties: Optical propemics muy be difficult to obtain if the mineral is strongly metamact, Meumict vaneves may appear wotrope. Pleochrone haloes may be produced in yustaposed biotite. Dutinguaded from ‘brown amphibole by sing cleavage, agatart which the exsincion & parallel m elongated grming. Occurrence: Common io found also i some ron oe scvestory im gruaites, yemiccsand pepmatives, it od preter and rontact a2 VUPEPPPRPEPEPPEPEPPEPEPIL! Vid. iy CCC Rae We- FELDSPAR Feldspers are the most common réckforming minerals ie pene ae ‘cxsential 2 Ca endamembcr, Anorthite (An}, a Na end-member, Afbite Aeaetnite E ‘complete solid solution exists between anomie and Pyreumite we * oct iiadie Otigeclase fa plapociaes, especially ones, is 9 small, Plapacinwe ir commnoly expremed in tcems only of is SIS% Tnordhie-ame “eoatent (recaiulated 10 100%), which it ‘written as An, aunt perancuast onthe temperstores of formation, his ps Tue inne ntl feldpars where ibe depot of order tae sien tcrmiedn ane cause Radi ober pia itera ‘Scheie regesentation of relalove temperatures ‘twhich variousalkal felispans form, ALKALI FELDSPAR RNDAIE Og! Blain. Monoctinie, ‘Tlie Rete ser faringene 2 Gees — Sa ——— la ie 51581529 a0 perfec {010} -0 3152215 oss) perfect (001) Pisnisy Ist onder ry poor (1) = 116 General Optical Properties Altai feldspar are colorless ie thn section, but they may appear & cloudy grey pevem due tt alteration 10 clay minerals. They may form cubedral fectangular eryilais expecially ac phenucrw Npreous mocks. ‘They also oct a anhedral grains im many frenites and upgrade miamorpic roc Two. prominent Benvages intersect at tbove Tomnog common tw most yous. alkali Clispars a Caribad twin 2 presen je ine reine fekispan albie and penchne wim cam abo De present Ln sen \ncrecang ordering of the Aland Sum the tetrahedral ates, ‘Tha, moat high-tempersire sikh Tubs formed in woleuew rocks and ‘cooked mpely presence Ue Guordered Al and Sand the ZV small in Heteee iguccat rocks and mefamorphx Forks where cooling ries arc slow, ondcang has more. chance fo cur, and the eee ager Awthpenialy-formed shal feldspar at sedimestary rocks has n large 2V. Wath faning pratt Romagencos afta feldspar may eso imo Ke am Ne-nch phases That ensclution proces lees of ePimnsee in tie other aed referred tos pethte or meroperinite depending, on whcibet, 4 RKICAcOpE A Tut te coun the phenomence Exsclaion may develop in rapdh-cooked fekdspars on woth» fine tale that ht eas “Tae be ecceicd aly by temps these oppure opicaly homogsacows ldspary ae Anown at “cptopertbien ayJolel bel el ol gl lL UU UP e P Pe e FELDSPAR i ie igs hi #eQhes ag sgyy Be 2) aug * ee agli f 3 zee deere 1 ghee pa llt i pata ye jalinli ithe nt ; fi uh lig eli Hel ra ei é Hed ger a alll ania | tt Bull = Ruddr r cr i i i Fe z F a re a r= r z r = . . . 5 5 > y , » ) ) - - - rc rc r = “= - = = a - — — PLAGIOCLASE. Na{AlSi,0,}- CHAL5i 0] | i : i i i ‘riage i compoution fima are maid. tobe normally roned, whereas those that are fore caiee on the rim are reversely zoned, Some crystals exist ‘which caciiaes between shighthy diierent postions This ype, which resembles the growth bands in a tree, ie Enown as oscillatory coming, Althowgh soning. i eas common ia metamorphic plapclate, sormal and Composition of plagioclase in lowcprade metamorphic mocks thar reatscied 10 the Abeich end of ihe, neni. More falar plaporiase dors not form uml the amphibolite cies reached plagioclase form a temperstores labore the persicrite field and on tow cooling can develop fine exsolution lamelise, ‘hich may give the crtals an increase inerty woh mereaing AR coniest.” Alviic plapociste bat Tepe ebet with respect te Canads Batam (RL =1537) ‘ol epones wih upper refmacive indice Fupaas: ore alec than about Asi, Bas poutrs Tore cake than abWuL Any) bab sedis pourri \E Baasial + (-) ecct FELDSPAR eneetse Toelinic“ FELDSPAR scan es sprenowiy oe dee for tah femen ange m he AR tone ar peng eo en ‘ees, With a univeral stage, where the precise onentation of the indicaivix can be meaivred, tha [Simple sk (On the Mat stage of the microzcnpe, however, we are limited to measuring. taadom accion through the indicatris and “having to relate these to cryuallographic directions that ate iadicaled by Known fin onadslions or Promises cleavages. ‘Three of the most commésly wied methods are described tek, 5 reais ladicated by the twin lamelise, i measured in Both sets of lamellae. Hf the grain is correctly oriented, the ten should be identical, Uf they gre close. a8 average con be Wt they differ by mace than S" the grin & wo misorenied to ‘used. The fast vibration direction obtained in this way is only sshance the x direction in the indicat, But only sectioas that fave the x vibration direction parallel to the sage of the ‘microsrope will give the maximem extinction angie: any other ‘section will phe a composent of this angle. Ik is therefove neeessary to measure a umber of different grains belore the maximum ‘can be known wiih any certainty. With ther angie, the composition “of the plagioclase is mead from te paph. Tuo values are obtined for plapoclaie more sede than Af, But Prapoclase in many voleasie mca forms miroites clongnted parallel to a Their composition is determined ‘trom the mantoun -exliaetion angle from & Extinction Angle fn Sections Normal to {010} and (001) ‘That meinod requires Maat (O10) anc. (001) oth te. sormal Wo the section. This plane is eaully Meatiied Because (001) Iv the beat ienage in plapoclse: it appear. ss sharp hes “apprcsiowteh, perpendicelar to the afte twins The extinction angie berwees ‘he fast vibration dusecton, x. and the {010} plume measured sand ‘he sompuition read from the graph. ‘The’ advantage of thik ‘mecibad. if thal only Gee grass need be measured. Nott’ that lor ompoutions between Amy 4nd At the tosimom extetion ange ‘on (O10) and that mocasuted in sechtons normal 10 (O10) and [OO1} am uacnially the same. AL more. calc composiions, howereh, ‘the two: cones ovate, and in ths range the Manis extinion stg more sensitive to compontonalvaration, Extinction Angles in Grains with Curisbad and Albite Twins Many igneous “plapociast crystals contain, in addition 10: ate fein, single Carlbad twin le aech enatat, the ate Peias fre two different acts of eminction “angles on eilhet inde ef the Carkied ran wiih these 2 composition can be determined directly AAs Wa the other mechous, the (010) plane must be vemical. Crystals ‘with Carina and alivie tom are wuairated im Figs IM. aS te the Fesioon albite won are ROL Mahnie. Bul the Carkbad in ik when (020) is paraiicl wo te polar the alte ‘tnd Carlabad twon lamellae have the same color amd are eon siunie Eanacton anges between x° and (010) are measured in alte tetas im oth tales: of the Cartthad Fee Compeninoms are read from the adjsning. apts ty plotung the lamer of tne two exlanctoe siapies on the old curves and. the taller on the Sashed curren Most plapociate As ch a iom-tousicrmedane tinetural“tiale Tor nese use the low plapocluse praph If the plapectaic im formed 4 highs tempcentute aod aw quenched mapidy, use the geoph for the ugh strectural sists, Where too companions fit the dela, mooiher smeauuremeat or felractive indices can righ between the eo 4% C0 UU a af » >»! Pee ee' ? ss Ms Aen hen be Bb BP Fe Dn YP YO FLUORITE or wosropie ubie ase ‘Colorexs trotropic Purple Me In veins, fluorite may form cubes and octahedra, but in iy rocks ii crystallines late acd its oe te a ee ee ‘Composition: Gaentilty pure calcium fluoride 1 perfect 4 Distinguishing Properties: Hei the lowest refractive index of any of the common minerals, i bus strong aepathe ‘elie I ix ieoteopic and common ha purple spots and bands, expecially in eomtact wich adsoactive minerals. Qecurrence: Common in byeirothermal veins and as a Tatecryializing accessory in some ranted, ayeaites, und sepbelse syenites GARNET (MgTe Ca) ALISO gh, wera) Tie —redvpimk Cavareties one 7 Morphology: Sox and cightsided sections through euhedral cystals are common expecially im schists. Anbedeal (erains are a3s0 common, and they may eaclove many smali grains of quar ‘Composition: Shows exrentive solkd solution berweca six common chd-member In general they fai lato two proups ‘ependingon the presence of Ca, whch én turn Sepends on the esmpasition of the rock. Color in hand specimen Prope Pate pi ‘Amansine Desp red Spessaming — Moy AfsiSi(4|) Red sveak birefringence: Gromularite CoAALISIOW, Hosey-biown _anualous birefringence Aninedite Cavbe Tin 1S# Yellow-hrown —_apomalouc biel angence Uerowie Caicrt8i0y Green ‘ronaious buetrngense Distinguishing Properties: The cely otter common huph: refractive index wotropic miseral is spinel, which occurs ts octahedra cf anhedral grains Common spinels are green, except for thoue coolarsing Cr whith are dark Drown to Gpoque The Connick gatnels cewmonly Rive Raootalous tow imerference colar which my allow (aint vector iat 10 be sible. Spessemine may alvo-exhitil weak bieteingence, Occurrence: One of th mest common metamorphic minerals snd it foond in a wide range of contact: and repooal meiamomphne rocks. Garnet Ach in the SimAndine component (Rith minor apewarine and pyrope) arc common in ‘inlermedte- to high-grade regionally mctamosphosed peli and mafic igncoes rocks The cores of these rytals tend to be Monch Weih sncreating “melamoepiac gmde anc particulary wih increasing pretuure, the pyrope comtent increases Caonch garnets form. in calcareous rocks bout of regional and contact metamorphic onpn. Grane. ‘comamveated with aleminous rocks may crysalizre almandice, acd some nepheline ayesites contain a Thnch andradite ns as melanite. Mantlelerwed nodules in kinbertites commonly eoatain pyrope-rich garac GYPSUM 80, 21140 Biaxial « Monae ee nce 2 Chmage pte sdce dated Cor Plane Hardness an sts oot SH (010) peer 2 : iS yas (100), 1S TAS} twonderwhie {018} fe i Morphology: Typicaly forms antes guns su racks In vem, may form lrgecryiat Maltened on {010) ‘Comporition: Devates very litike from ss formula. Distinguishing Properties: Low ticetnngeace and negate relief haraeterwe prem and catinguah ot from snhydte. Cnpmur has strong dispenson (1b) (Occurrence: The main occurrence is as 4 sedimentary suncral st evaponte depoaits where es commonly aucruied sub ashninte Italo occun enth bmesiones and shales andas a cement in some xanduones a7 moMorphology: Behedra crystaiewith rhombic er rectangular outline. Single aad Lele todas on (101) are commen, Composition: Leworite has 1 compat Fa sore a ompositlon: Lawns has + compiion tat can be thon of at eed Indeed, heting Distinguishing Properties: Lawionite resembien limcooike butters the anomalous interference estors ‘has beter cleavage aoe costal shape than clieogoicit. Lawaonite has very strong. éipersion (7). Oceurrence: Foes i tow emperatres and hich pressures. A sociaice constituent of ghncopbine schists LEUCITE KIAIS,O,) ‘Prcudo tsotropic (+) ‘Tetragonal (164,65) Refrecive Inder Color Birefringence _Gerage Mrdness, cei ‘colores dark gray none 6 Morphology: Exhedra crysuals with octagonal outline. Above 600°C lewtile ti cubic and grows as trapezohedral ryMalk Ge cooing it becomics tetragonal and fine lametiar twinning develops in sumerous uectors within a crystal ‘Composit Distinguishing Properties: Faia amdiar reins eeurrence: Restricted slot: cnsiely 10 highly potasuic volcanic rocks where forms phenccnath Ik commonly auoriated with sepinae, Mis also found io shallow pocaasic intrusions, but here il commonly imems or reacts with the magma to form antergrowins of nephaine and emhociase. These intergrowths retain the morphology of ‘the onal leucte crystals and are therefore referred tas pacedoicucie ‘Shows lite deviation from it formula but muy contain w kmail amawnt of Na substiutiog for K. an almsastisotropic mineral and tbe crystal outne Wi CAAA eee eee eeAAD EDULE LLP EE GDL LEDDELDLEL Morphology: Rectangular crytas atened parate to (001). luo as anhedral grains (Composition: The metites have three principal end-members wih complete sold solution between them all ‘Akermanite Gy Me 50, Gehienite f, AD AIO, ‘Soda melite Gn AL 80, Meiilines with compositions berween akermunite and gedlenite are common in high-temperature metamorphcecd impure \dolomites, Metilites in igneous roeks contain x considerable proportion of soda melilt. Distinguishing Properties: All metlites have low birefringence (eimum, Ist onfer pry) and ane unin Geblemte-rich varieties are nepathe, whereas akermanite-nch ones are posite. The change ftom negative 40 Poscve secure approsiqucely tall way through this sche. Intermediate “members are therelore ulnost wotropst and show ‘anomalous blue’ and brown” inceterence colo. Meliice diffe from nepheling, with which Hix commonly soocised, bby bing och higher refracine indies. Apatite as beamgoral cross sections and does not exhibit uncmalous ‘nerference ‘guior. Medline cece omy ia rociu wath low asicn actinty. For example, it a ever Koved. wah Jeldspar, but wth nepheline; does not oxcur ith pene, but does with peroakite ‘Decurrence: Mellies between gehlenie and sbermanite are common constituents of high tempersiure metamorphosed ‘impure dolomite, where they may be associated with mosticelite, diopeve, or fortente. — Melilte ala ours im highiysticavundersaturated ataline igpcous mks, where t usualy contai # large acsouot of soda meliste, MICA ange of ignccat ad metumoyphie socks, and they are stable over ressures. ‘Their pervect Bassi clewape, which i a consequence of the sheets 1 iGeatly in oth asd wpecunen Micas are preseot ia consigerable range of temperniies and of linked (SAO, nd in the ection. Micas can be derided to two subgroups, di-octahedral and ti-ceudedml, on me basis of me number of cctabedea! stomi between the teimahedeal yen. The Gvcctahcdral micas hive relent ocubedral ions (eusiny ALFe") and the tncetabedral micas have ivateet ices (mainly MpFe"). thes mainiining charge balance, —Micas are sscntaliy posaustum-earing minerals, but in the diextahedeal ones wome sodium may substitute for poimmum A riscility Ep separaier sodium-dearog masonite {rom Ibe essentially sodiem-bearing Gioctahedm mica paraponite. Im the tn-ccthedral micas compiete sold solution exits between the Mg usd Fe ead members of the snes te both the die and treoctahedrat micas K cam be replaced by Ca to form the rarer Writtle micas marpante and cimorine respecte, Micas and amphiboles form the to important groups of hydrow rockdorming. mineral. Micas wre stable over viet ruoge of coowiuous thin are amphitoiea formiog im tuth here environments aq sedimentary rocks and epper manic perdoticn —Althowgh the dr and tvociabegral micas both contain sluminum, the dhociahedral ones hin an cess over the amouat of alksle, Dhacthedral meat are tut more common is aleminrich rocks Musromie, for ‘ample, it the main mincral in. crst low 10 intcomcdie-grade memgelien Muscowe ho curs in many graites bere Al is in excess over alkalis The geseass of these pansies likely lavohes the incorporntion of a upuficant fimovat of peliic rock Droit alo common is granses and many metamorphic sora, but docs pot require an acess of alumina for sts formalion Biotte 8 Sommon contitutnt of alkaline mafic ipetout rocks, and in some may feren form phencery The Mg-tch varity, phlogopite, commonly occurs im mafbier and a & principal comtiteent of the mck fp bere, ta wich Giamonds te foun.MUSCOVITE — kx1,Jas5,0,,KOHLF, (0041, 4% MMA, 18, 21,22) Refractive Index Birefringence w 158157 antans y LETT wos | 2 Lsase igh 2nd onder Morphology: Forms tabstar enya pariel (O01): these may be slntided or invegular in coiling. ln pepmatites suicvite may form said pis that are longed reli othe eas. * Composition: whims ow comin iti a compontin, oat tit not cay determined trom cpg j ot aces a ‘soit solution towards aragonite, the Na amadogue of faecovte Some. messes cnn Moher proporions of nea in the tencin” unt’ alee ho highslica muscovite oF phengste. In these, charge balance ik maintained Py subatiction of Mp or Fe" for Al in the ‘sclahedalstes—these,conseqoeaily tnd to be pinkish or greenish in hand upecimen. Distinguishing Properties: Easily datinguished by Ms bigh bieringence, esesialy parael extinction stag teeny cere dirrton, (Ott). The sewage dec leagh, sw. Momonte cane wel tbe pocsomenct as Cinteye eainction, wich is characcric of al the mak: When ousted 1 extinioa the grain appa 2 fe cnc enti the au Iie ape wrlerace colom (Ist order eamy wiite) and complcicy ck igus of clennge, they appear to be of 4 completely ‘Galerent mineral (rom the museovic: pint that tee onened it these aia stevens thal ahow avery asikag Dacetat pre math chroma 45 bul with screaingllca content the IV decrces fo au kw as 13 th ‘henge. Tha ic il aner the the 2Vof mont phlogopite wha unl ronideabl asta 1. i ty HT & z = i i i . a 2 : Occurrence: A cimmin consituen of pele schiss formed at low: 10 medivengmdes of regional metemorphiie 1h ‘Sako an pore! consinueet of pepmnies Sd absmisow franca shew i commonly moet wih Rote PARAGONITE Nadi {A51,0,g1 0H. aia - Monotinic Refractive Index Birefringence = 2V. tinction 2 156158 way (001) ~ paraiiel y LSC-16L a0 (001) slow 2 LOLA {ed orcer yeliow: Color Ceavage Diesen __Qheevege __Angie_Hardosus_ colorieas . {001} pesfecr EE] i Morphology: Forms tabsisr cota fattened on (061), Composition: A: high temperatures pungomite can dione wp to 20% af the muscomte romponent. At low Aemperatures, however approaches lost the Formule show Distinguishing Properties: Without chemical analyss parmgooue cannot be dastinguished for certain from muscoie set Se Properties, ‘The JV of most paragoniie i smaller (Rah that Gf muscovite, but highsihce muscomie mall 28, Occurrence: Paraporite occur: sob muicome in greemichat metamorphic rocks. It may be mort ahundam tan resend recopmaed breast of the dilleuhy of “dauepeating wl Opicaly from | musromic. Wh ereanng eumorphic ade, farafonic becomes more icicle im moacocte Recwuir mutcoe is tyaly the more abundant of the toc miners paroporie disappear as eheparate pase by Gnschangi the maine so SOO C ECO OLDAL OOD eee ee er a » JyBIOTITE KOMEFe) {A540 gOHL, (IM 3943, MM 17-20) Titers tei Ritingsce 1 Beets x S61 ooeaor (oni 0.9 y L801.70 025 (O01) tow 160.90 Ine. des order Color Cleavage —Fleoheoiten__Olesvuge _Angle_Hardaess ea brown geen sight (001) pester a ca. Morphology: _Commoniy Soboce eee i cyualives iste ‘nad is uahedral In tome altaline cerystallize earty and form tabular phenocrysts sate ompeniton: oss rng ie comettog wah ke mle cio Yee MS fF a be flo reqeiriog eotatiution of trimlemt ions (Fe, A) into the 3 turns Dootte a deep red, and Fe™ turns it green. The lthiwmerich tri-octatedal mica is lepitolite, Distinguishing, Properties: Mix! cay dings color and ptochrsm. promise: (61) clamps. snd igh Wwrefdngenee tod extinction ‘nearly parallel wo (001). caly commoe imiceral resembing. biotite. i bomblends; tioute differ from it ir having ‘ely one clewage ditection, nearly parallel extinction, and a iippled appeamace in the extinction powition known as Birdseye texture, which is characteristic ofall the micas, 4 welbformed tubule eqs a pelic metamorphic voce and in grace. te, many may Occurrence: Ove of the mast commoa of the rock-forming mincrat. It occurs in all but the very lowest and highest feenamarptic, prege' pelt rockx, In many anies it may be ihe sujor ferromagnesien miner Ii & 4 Mor fone! of rocks of imermedute composiion, such at griaodiories, dines, monssaite, and some nepheline syenites. in most mafic tpacous rocks it is » late crysalliring accessory phase, which commosly forms at & rif arousd fmugeetite and ilmenite grins. Im some lamprophyric dikes (cnjoctte, Remantite, slnoite) biotite forms phenocrysss that commonly bave a rounded cone surronded by a sngly compostionulyxoned rim Highly magaesian biotite oreurs in kisberite (ce poppe) PHLOGOPITE KMeFa Jas OHN, ‘asa Monoxlnic Refractive Index Birefringence © 2V_—_—Ethction * Batnt —lnisrt Seok —Licasaiien tr — eS noes yoo o-s y LSet O18 (001) ow 2 Soha Peadad order Gator 0m) perfect cay Morphology: Tsk tabular eqatals are common in macbies Composition: Magsesiam end member of the tmoctahedes micas: ually restricted fotbose with MgFe > 2 Distingvisbing Properties: Dastiapsshed frm mnesconie by amatler 2V and from chlor by higher biefringence Occurrence: ‘The main occorrcoce is in cola mitamarphowed marbes and wmginally metamorphosed impure dolomine limesioace is thus commonly assorated with cakite and caleaileates. — Phinguprie occur: in some pocassx irumafe rocks, expecially those ‘coctmeeng Hews. 1 i ali major conihivent Of tbe proundmaus of kimbertne — 51PYROPHYLLITE A,J5,0,,(01, Dinca Monectinie [Refractne index Birefringeaee © ZV_Extinction Hist Gofor _Bongation stor _ eine Harness. x ss ons {001} ~paratiel cosortess (O01) perfect 1.2 y 9 53462 {001} tow 2 1 ed onder rect M F boiar praliet 10), sod fine eres Bowe esa to O10), maiming chasers, sprained aggregates, Composition: Varies tirtie fros the formula, Distinguishing Properties: Rewenbles macovie and ik, but basa banger 2¥. ‘Occurrence: In tow-grade metamorphosed pelites, and as a hydrothermal altemtion of feldspar, where it & commoaly sociated with quacts. MONTICELLITE cahgtsio,| Biaxin - anes % Refractive Index Birefingeece «TV Estinction 1 Leh onr.n02 parallel none SS as 80 y aL? 1st onder red ‘ Morphology: Colores cysial with the sume cage ac (ince of cli. In undenaturaed alkaline igneoes cceks tod mons an fom, Pomocyts Mert comment Yor aed ist wat come fmetns eed ooh Soe alteration products. In high tempeenureconiact metamorphosed imesion i fomms Binur fai ‘Composition: May contain seal! amount of Fe avbaiuting for Mp Distinguishing Properties: Under plane light monsiceline and olivine appear identical, Linder censsed) polars, Bemever, mociilic hat a much lower tiinngetce. Opie ans fipues of tonncelite donot “eohinu the nemeroas isochramatic ng that the of evine do Ovcurrence: fo ignecit rocks is resrcted 40 those that are exiemely understated in sia M1 det sot cecor with feldspar bot does with meliites. It i & common constituent of carhonatites and hightemperature coatact ‘metamorphosed impure doloesitic hamestoncs. NEPHELINE —(Na.ky/A'Si0,) nasal Menagooat am sen) Refrctive tndex Hhtefnngence eis ons colores none 0 ES3155, {at order pray prominent Morphology: May form eshedral sty prizmmc phenocrysts ‘hich exhib hexagonal o¢ rectangular cross section Gepending on whetber they ute tettioned perpesdiculat or parallel io the cane respectnely, ln malic. end Imemmesuse sikcwandersturated meow rocks, mephling enjtalizes late and thas lakes on ihe shape umpord. Py surroveding ysis. Composition: Mo nepheline contains spprosimately ome Ke for every dime Ne ions im the atnacture) ath increasing sempcrefure mepiclne ear asche mor of tbe K endocmber. Aaluhte Kalle vsell ere magia) ut does form ssclutste lameiee mn acphchc. and it does form scparste criss wm tome fer pOUBie Wien’ Racks snd a conc mctporpecned imetione, Katine rota very bile Na Distinguishing Properties: Low turetnmpence. low reef. and unauul sepatwe figuee ate charatensi Become of tow bireinngence. i goes into estenction easily and steam (cially flack commonly exhibits bry beretningens Reka of muscowe wich Are 8 comme aerntim proxact Of nepbatne Oxcurreoce: A common miner i wlica videraiuenied tachi A major constuent of pephchne ayenté and econ inamabieramcants ia nepchne gabbro(eentc) ond wa volcenx equrekeal punma Jee a ae 4." 4\4' wag De » PPPDAE E PEPE DEDEDE VLE P LOLOL ELEDEUGEDE OPAQUES A umber of common accessory minerals and important ore miners are opaqoe, Theit microscopic Mentification ean bbe made with cerainty only in poliched sections under reflected light, Grain morphology and wancialed nocopacee eration product sty serve 0 dilinguth some of these mineralt in teanemiied ght. Polished thin sections re ‘wef! becauoe they permit examination of both opaque and moncpaque minerals ia seflecied and trusamites light, The following. table ats the moet wieful optical properties for Weslifying the common opaque minerals Most of these Magnesite Pe?" ore™* 0, ilmesite Wotrepic =F Gamo forms octaheden. My Gray, brownish tint < >magmesce Strongly 6G) Hemagonal plates, Regia es TSiimemte Anan traeed gon tla eo. Hinerite Fe?" OTIO, Grays browm wich Porthotite — Anuotrope ‘rade under erased polars velar reining wey common. ese Oey iat yee en ee mie Shore Anuoeropi nm common 3 a -OLIVINE (4g) I904) Blasi + = Oornoee (IM S-15; MM 35,36) Reece ties Biriogsnce Vinton Me Te Me fe Nig Fe «Lea 030.05 wraliel cleavage y 1A5-187 nan ™ PLshLs 23 ones Color Greseage _Plsstunion _Gieneage Ante arin ‘elon yo 7 {010} poor 4{010}"{100) 90 765 ¥ (000) poor f_Camatonly forms phenocrysts in igneous rocks where it typically bax thé prismatic form ilstraled in te fire, "May show a Taint recinpular clemage, bul curving fractures lied wit. teation produc, ih. st Serpentine. mapnette, tsk, aed carbonate, are more common. lathe Archean eliamafic lava komatit, ole forms ttemely log dendritic ensiak. In many plutonic igneous socks and in metamorphic rocks, living anbedral Composition: Simple compositions peteten the two eedcmembers Fortcrite (Mg) and Fayalite(Fe), As shown ia the Plot below, optical properties of olivine wary nearly with substiution of Fe for Mg. The composition of olivine. cao therefore be dctermined easly under kt miroccope. Teese compesitions art onmally quaced ai the molt percent For esr variedes are more yellow. Olivise éieamoaly cowiains significant amouats of Ni Disting Properties: aly idenitied by high bitelringece, bck of marked cesrogs, curving. fractures fied wah ate eran produc; and ine 2V- tn wokan rode alts ei echo enn oe a One of the most common minerals in mafic aed ltramaic igneces weeks It is alka thought to be a ‘major comsituent of the Earth's masile. Olivine ical a prodirt of the metamorpham of dofomiic rocks, nel A 92 va % vn Jao PEROVSKITE. cari Prewdonsorropic « Momoxtins 290238 yellow-brown weak poor SS Morphology: Small cubs crystals that stand out becouse of their wery high elie Compasition: A targe number of eievenis can swbuiiete mio prromites in pamiealar tbe rare eamba for Ca, and: Shand Ta for Th Distinguishing Propertics; The very baph relief, eoiat, emptal form, snd weak beretmagence of lange enats {sith fan lamellar rennaing) ate Iypecal of perovakte Occurrence: Resincied ta feels with very jow actnice of shea feldspar Mt ik auscetated oh meine, nepheline, montuelive, and 6 metamorposs rocks Rot found im Feekk that gontan Tk ocrun an both apneens and COLO eae Un WICC eeeAA Pe Reda ke be S l Be I i Fs aE abe gril te i ‘The general Formulae and sooke important optics! propertis of Une pyrontnes are as flows: ‘Onhortombic Pyronene OMEFe) (804), Pigeosite MpFe.Ca),J5i05), Glinopyruxtne - Aupte GiMpFEISO,, ‘Aepirine (Aerie) NaBe?* (S105), dageite NAALSHO5)5 ORTHOPYROXENE (Mg.Fe),{Si0,}, a re29) Refacing Indes Birefringence 2M Ett —Beliel__Inter Color Elongation, sigan 901-042 parti cams usin soso TEs som Psei7e asonde yellow toe Serage Pexintiim Chink Ane Hanes Taoriex or Tym pak (210) good nto) 56 pale yellow te prem Morphology: Commonly forms cuhedral prismatic crysis elongated parallel to ¢, with cightsded cross sextuns Sections cul parnlicl to (O10) may Bave a sireaky appearance under erased poiaes proxduced ty then Lamicllac of eighty varying birefringence parallel to [100}, Thin crolstion lamellac of augite commonly paral (100) Composition: Vary from the pers Mg cnd-mcenber, Enstatiec, tp compositions generally no more Fe-neh than cl ibe Tesnch cod-neriber, Fenton, Under trol premorea the Fe-ngh srthopyroaenes are wniabie and quanz forms insicad = AL pressures grace than 1.15 GPa. onhofcrrosl i stable, «The octhopyroscnes ate pen Speci: names for pamcolar ranges of mote. percentage of My/Me* Fe). ensate. w from KX) 88, brome fom #0 SE nypersnene trom) to 30" fermeiypersivene from 3) to 34 cule. from MX) to #2, and ferroulie frm 12 to 0 Whee pote, homes, Hi pecferbie ope ihe compoation of an omthopyroene im enmi of is pereniagt of amare. which m epreaed. at Eng In’ maf gncoa rocks, onhopyroncees are Kyprally im the Bronne ypcmthene ange, In metamorphic rics Shey havea mace sage of smnpoationt Distinguishing Properties: Donngwated by tow brefnagesce, expecially im azrvions evt parabet (010) he setuon, may tubibn sirenky.lanellay wun white and pry tnlerference cokors Secloas et paracl 10 IN € bee peel exiachoa and ate beg hm Okcurrence: flare and pypenubent art common ie thsteite gabbrak and dhabases and caieathaly sndewes ‘Onnopyrosenes in igneous “rocks re farely more Pe-nch than byperihenc. imutead pugeonute or wweRed pageonile 8 the Chrpoor pyromene formed st these Fench compaanoas tn highgrade metamorpbi rocks. orThopyTournes ean have ‘ompoutions throuphout the enti range, being lmled #1 the Fe-nch-end hy the reaction {0 orm fayalde * quarts 38PYROXENE Bexoure OMEFe.Ca}, 1500, ‘Blasi + Monoctinie Refractive Index ircringence ZV Enction a elie Jatert sto Bleogation —— &. i eed ame ree * 3 feng tat Pious Ad order grees 3 =? Calor Geevage ne —Plenchmnim —_Ghrcose _angle Hato : x solos (210) goo (uioy tio) 87s Morphology: Rarely forms eubedral cnptals because it cstrs Inte berween eafienfomed nate; gr 4 feacioo fim around ortpprenene, oF St ie! nmed by sage.” Gras tend wo be shogaed peas Ge ase Sommonly hve a singhe twin plane paral (100). Curag Tinctares ttn filed ‘SAS'GEe ahrmtica ‘tects ttaneere fo te lth of the pring ae very common ‘Composition: A Ca-pour ctinopyroitne that contsint about 10 mole % of the welasonite component. Most pigeorite has Mg/(Mg+ Fe) «0.7. At more magnesian compositions, onhopyraacte is the common Ca-poor pyroxene, Distinguishing Properties: Characterized by small 2V, romeonly appearing almost wniniat The ely oiber pyrene wth ann 20 ie Tah angie, bot thas connaly Diovan pny ease tad han i eee olor. Pigtonite & clearer than augite, with which if i almest always anocisted, but pigeanite allers more text 1 Cait prodects along cleavages and curing fractures. Ie tirefnngence is slightly less than that of coeuating sugie, (bet the difference is. so small that serves to ditingssh the mineralt only where they ae i option continsity. Pigeonite is commonly rimmed by aupte, which grows in optical continuity With the igecmite, Gecurrence: The somman Capoor gynene in avbataline rocks that Rave Mg/(Mg+Fe) let shan =0.7, Stable oaly at high Aemperatiies, and preserved only in rapidlycocted |gncoes rocks such as lima wn, dikeh oad scmll intros Bodie, “On slow cooting it fist exsohves lamcliog of augite sear Fyrortns. | Omhopyronene conision lest Ca than pigcoaie and thus, the’ inversion’ keeles further easciution Sf supe MICAH added Jo the aleeadyforméd lamellae in the pigeonite. ” Pigeonite coauequestly iaver to. onbopyrone Sontsining Mick Aupite Umctlse neatly parliel to the cecal (O01) of papronite.” Such orbopyraiene geen are Esterred to mt inversed pgeonite (IM 32, 33. In some. inverted pigeonte aupte Limeliie are’ quite, ieteguiee or Meike. Farter cooking of the orthopyroseat suits in thin lamelac of apie eusabdng carly pamBel 16 (100) Figeonite never oncurs in alkaline or sien undersaturated wocks. I forms in aoe high-temperature mclemnorpine mke AUGITE CUM FeSIO,L, (1M 35,27) Refractive Index Berefnagence 2 Einction Relic! nest Ce Elongation 5 ety oxnacn reas ya “0 31a 36 2nd onder yetiow ator Creag —Hissenton _Oheavage _ angie _angneas Timea colores ApileBrowngrees {810} gmt (uu0}"4aTop 8? yale ben 2 pale prece Morphology: In matic aitaline igecout socks and andestcs avgte commonly forms stubby euhedeat prisms In more tulceows rocks the prams are elongated Ep tholciac oxks aupie tends 0 Re anhedril In musele, commonly fom plotolar grains ths treoussurtace Composition: Complete sot salution neteeen ihe Mg eni-member, Diopide. and the Fe endmember, Hedesherpie Tntermegiete gompoutions ia thedenic rocks fypeally conum te C4 than SO” pyroneacs onthe duopecde boven te 1018. 0d Ubey comms! with @ Ca-poo! pyrokéne. Aupie cociaing. wiih pegtontie will have exsciuion amelie of DPigconde nearly paraie! 1 {001}, whereas that coeanting with sethopyronene mill cootain. orthopyrotenttameat early pura! to (100). In ailaline ipicous rocks, auptes haw compumiiions very neat Ibe Sipause-hedcaberpae jot but may aso contain Naat Distinguishing Properties: Dutinzuished trom pegronite by lrpee 2V-sieghily more color, end being leas abered ‘Cccurrence: One of the myo comiiuenis of mafic albalise aod sutsthaline igncous racks. Inthe altaline rocts 4 uy coniain considerable amounts of Na or Ts (see meni pope) In wwhalahne Forks st easocwied with x Capeor yrousne (orthopyranene oF pxgcoese) or oliane or both. Auple formed sa metamorphosed impure doiariaa: imerionet ‘© Secally rch im the diopside component. Aupte an male neo rocks meumarphoued ihe grenvlae fener har the same pence range f componstion a that i the igrecus rocks Hel ih gly Ropher Ca contenak * tal ad Dak Daa Da De al Se Sal ol lal a dal . ‘ = oy wo ‘| |NAVUUE EEE EYEE ED EEED LDU D LDL LEDEDUL LLL LOGGULLEL TITANAUGITE, (caer? TAnSA003), (04 25,27) Refectvetndes — Dareldiapence © 2V_ tinction rh] apz003 e080 a8 240 ngs 7% ed onder yellow 3 Cenage —Peschioim __Cemvage__Angie__ Hannes ish Brow a apn {110} good gyro) eT {brown silat pure Morphology: Commonly forms tubedral stubby prisms that exhibit sector zoning (hourglass srucivee) which is made -cvidemcby sight differences i birlsiaprace between sectors, Crpals slic comewaly show fie eaillansry 208g, Composition: Ti probably enter the siewtwre as CATIAL Og AK a eau, ttanaugtes hare low ia conten. Sore Ti may eran nae the leteaharal ste and replace St Distinguishing Properties: Resembics augte, escept that its color is much darker and the 2V_ ie emoch males, Figconie ao has a sell 2V bat is woot colorless Tilannpc has siting dispersion (+> 0) Qccurrence: Restricted to silea-undersaturated racks and is therelore commonly actaciated with feldsperhois, elites, peroshite, and other vedersaturated minerale, It ever occurs with Ca poor pyroxene. AEGIRINE (Acmite} Nare™*|SiO,),, ‘Biaxial - Mosoctinie sy Refearive Index irermpence —2V—_Estintion Raut intel Bon 2 ATRL 01008 weet y 7a 20.70 lenges tas Pins Sed orien yetlow Color Ceaage wi Sen "ra pees = sak preen {10} oot (HOP [sTOVST 6 yg green 2 yellowish prec Muarphotogy: Typicatyerstaices as tong prismstat may aio Form rime on stubby aupte erst ‘Composition: Thete i complete solid solution from muple to sepinne, wiih the colof changing from ear to green with mnrcasing. svtmatutiog “of NaFe™ Tor Ca[Mghe"p Crystal are commonly aoned from auyite at me core oot heough ae gne-augyc 1 aepitie On the rim. Distinguishing Properties: Diuingushed by breh transparent grass grees calor. recA amphiboles are_ tex ramipaten! ands appentmeddy ty companion Ccarage saples Oatingubh sepnne (rom green amphitcies. The smul ‘asan angie Ghtiiguahes nipinne from other fanopyrosenes—Inienmediate. compusiuoes between ecpinne and fopte have intermediate eptcal peeperten Occurrence: Geren i Nench sgneout meld IM may Be associated wtih neplsetine and sexabite im nepecline syendés, bol # abiooeeues with quarts i alka syensten and pranitex 37PYROXENE JADETE, NaAllsO,) Dinsal + Mooeetine (MM 52) f Nips lot Riniepees —2V Bacon # ee oot eno 1851.66 7 leagih alow 3 Las.6T Intonderyetiow ator Gieavage TO}: xo {110} pos (us0yr(atopeT 6 ¥ pale : : 2 pee Morphology: Cotumaar to ficou aggregates, rerely with eubedzal form. Composition: May show sist solucon towards diopside; Ia sctogtcs this solution is extensive, forming the ‘Pyrorcec omphacite. a ‘Distinguishing Has pyrorese but differs from the other ‘in ower ref fet tad nich Were Cina pes aie imeem hg Jones tn Donets es (Occurrence: Stable only at high pressures; breaks down at how pressure @ albile pilus nephelinc. Jadeice in therefore ftncied to metmompbic rxix. formed” a high’ pcisen, tach as the lecophane ehate aed teicpecs Omphacite eoryrs in mantle-derved eclogite nodules in kimbe cline, ss SILICA QUARTZ, Woiaal + “Trgonat aM 61) Refrac tases Birefring. —Beiet inter Goior_Gemage Handocss, oor 18S pale litanier colonies one 7 ots yellow Morphology; Rarely forms exhesral erysuls except in some veins Two polymorphs, the low-temperature sigh and whe Rigntemperature beta forms, hive ifferent morphologies, All quartz at room temperature isthe hemtempe ature trigonal pubymorpk. repandiess of the lempersiure of formation, bervuse the invention, which eeu at stout STFC at one atmonphere, is spontaneous. However, quanz formed in the stability field of the Beaagoca! bein Petymomh pscally Brows a8 8 Gipyramid. aed tht worphology i preserved afier inversion 19 the lowtemperstare Feomomh the, for example, is the common form of quara phenocrysts lh shyolites Quarts growing in the lemscmperatere field & more likely © fom elongate peiime, at an typical vein quartz. Masy. quate gras in tow, metamorphic, and sedimentary mks coast of feumerous domains sath alighly different exinctoe postion. Tee rewhs from simi and known us wodulaiory xtincion. ti #0 common in quara that it prowse Gapraix optical propery. The vancty of quire knows as Chaleednay coasits of fie fibres, which exh srhervhie terture vader crasied pola. This form commonly fit eowiies and fractures ia igneous rows replaces calcareous fouls tn sedimentary racks. Chalcedony commonly eshitits alternating clear and bem bier [erale! to the werface on which 4 deponted Composition: Shows atm se compeninna! Zenation from is formula Distinguishing Properties: Easty senuihed shroveh fow rebet and complete lxck of alteration products uoder late igh. and though grey. to pale yrlkow inlerlereace colors that uaually cxhibit ‘undulatory extinction wnder grosied foam. It ueakual pomiowe whereas ocphelioe and scepolite are upakuial negithe. Mos! pepheline aio eanbus wersion, and mos seapolie has higher eeinagence The only choding low’ in quart: is duet. seal fund meivona wturn Fypially onaat of a gas bobbie weapeoded we inqued ifthe bubble Mt amall may move Around i the Pond at rent of thermal estima. Occurrence: An exiremely common mineral in sostiacntat crustal mks A major comsitvent of granites and of etruat nedamentary rocks asd theie metmocpioned equnalens. It the most common vranfarmiag mineral Pi ee ae ee ae eaeSILICA Seer other potysacphy of SiO, ext, but they are much less common than quart, At sgospherc presutt nd to icbalte is lowered. Ak a resull, the abilly feeld of trktymitc is climinated ahow = limited to pressures of lees than 04 GPa. Above £5 GPa the polymorph enesie 2 still higher-pressure polymorph, wishovsie, it sable. These’ high-prespyre wound meteorite impact ervice, and coxaite occun in some eclogies. ANROUN the ie the other twanctions are shepgsth, and asa result the ocher to low temperatuces and prescures, Cristobalite and tsidymite, however, can both form ‘metastably cumide thele stability fields, and thus their presence in a rock le aol padline evidence of formation at ‘contrast, the high-pressure polymaepbs farm only at igh pressure, | ccmrsromie racer onrerarents Stability els of the ses pobymcepe (After Turtle and Bowen, 1954; Cohen and Klement, 1967; Morse, 1980; Bohlen nnd! Boece, 1982) TRIDYMITE — Ontortombic Dinas = 2V=38 RL = 147 Binetringense extremely ow (1M 2) “Typiely Forms elongated wedge-shaped cepts wth a tin owndory long the lengh of the wedge, IN hat very tow Ee ag gre Fg fe er Na ag gy ay Nall helen prep re morphology of tridymite and it Lteky inverted tom this pohmoph ‘Tisiymite i # common constituent of refractory rts, CRISTOBALITE Tetreponal — Eseatially botrope RL 14s Birefringence exsremely tom ‘Formsmall eube-ike erytals aad cecert in cavities in sliceowe volcanie racks with triymite and sanidine. COESITE Monostine — Biamals V6 RE -1.996 [Birefringence very low (0.005) Diningsished by high reef, very tow vireffingence, and being colores Occur as extremely small grvina ie quanbeaneg rocis that hive Deca exposed. to hgh’ shock prenutes by metecnie impart; the. vanely. «corm, wieatabic only by may diffraction. Alba found ak equinl pram with frouwlarspyrope emer, crphacie, and ‘icine in maniie' nodules in KiMBErKle. AK cccwt aa. tclusnons in dhamonds Rare, metasedimentary roksan coataia corte at inclusions in pyrope-nch garnet In all rurrences. coeste mcd and veined by poled Gears thal bas formed by inversion. from the high prewure potymorp fecavae of Ine diflerece Teirecine dice berween these fwo mineral the mmeruon mms and VERS Band Gul ao snking elie foverioe from coesite to quaste sawoies considerable cxpaniion which causes radiaiing tenon fractures tO form in. the serrounding mineral especialy garnet SRUTILE To, Unda + ‘Tetragoaal Refractive Index Wrtringence Extinction Calor Tedd brows ae oo Se line « ‘Common. accessory mineral in igneous, and sedimentry In igneous and metamorphic rocks it forms very ommal tikness sectioes ttle cokor is ween under erocsed polars capccilly if macked by bbrown ‘color, | Most crystals, however, are so xusall that their thickness ix valy a friction of that of the section, and ‘eve may exhibit second or third onder interference cots, Insedimentary rocks it forme detrital grains SCAPOLITE —— Na,{AKALS)S.,0,1,(0,00,50,010 ‘Uniaxial - Tetengonal unes7) Reiger hice Birger inion «151s? oocs-o.0% parallel 8 ISS. Vei2nd onder fast // eheavags Color Ceneage —Pirochism Cleavage _" Angle Hardness. ‘olorless e- (160) goat ¢200}°4010)90 8: (110} poor Morphology: Docs not typically form eehedeal crystals. Composition: The formula can be thought of as comisting of uhrce writs of felibpar and one of a chloride, carbonate, sulphate.or hydrenide of Na, Ca, or K. ” m a Distinguishing Properties: Under plane light, resembles fektspar or quart, but under crossed pola bas bright Diet 10 green intcrfercace colon. The cleavage asd optic sign’ of scapouie’ Gutingwah from ‘quanta, asd the unasial figure istngeishes from elspa. Occurrence: | Forms insicad of fekispar in some metamorphic rocks where thete i & high concentration. of carbonate ‘or sutphate. Common in marbles and some amphiboles, and particulaly romanon in contact metamorphic shame SERPENTINE MgJs,0,V0IR), Basil - Monactiaie (ve. ase 35.38) c —<—_¥ Relractwe Indes Barefrengence. © 2V—_Eatinction i —— we Shist >) that grains commonly co not extinguish complecly: A white rezation product, leuroiene, may be wsible on the surtace of sphene when illuminated obliquely from above. Occurrence: A common accessory fe many igpeous and metamorphic rocks, and also occurs as Getrital grains in sediments Ik ean be a major constituent im metamorphuc rocks wich hogs Ca and Ti contents, euch at meta baste and Prronenites and cakewsicates 61SPINEL, OanFe? re cenian,0, ed Cubic orgmeulen Rapeptition | At Mich scmpemuures there i exten solid solution ia the apc! series, and withthe extepiion of Pine Por ealen, Nill PARE edmembers er not found in nalure. Wah fang wempersture exclutice cay i Pee nek eamRls: anche commonly contains exicution Lumeliat of hestyute. “It texy aoe cosine, lant hy ee Po inate fan be seta only wader refceted “light Onidation of! mapacticatrespiont east acne! areas tt fomation of ncliar of itmenise ta the magnet, but these. ae nol caolution Keeclse, hecaaae eee 18 80 Solid Solution between magnetic and ilmenite Distinguishing Properties | Tse occurence of spneis a8 aml igh refectie Indes octahedra print that ar Fra eee lores, sees ta ditipah chem from ether ‘miner. The orabedis pe and Gaises Sections Gamets form dodecahedrat snd trapcrohodral cryials which have 6 an asded sections Occurrence Common accesories in igneous. metamorphic. ant sedimentary rocks. Mappetite iw the most common, and ia most rocks i the phase that comtine eat of tbe fern fon. in alldine ant teicaliaias ipo oe ee conias sipiicant amounts cf Fe". magyeute tends te sary. forming eciahedral” phenocenie te alee tprcons. rocis, stich incaly oaain much smaller eencentmuses ‘ol Fe"* mapanion ene ie at imap foo ential to the eatiet mineral” Garnute, Sich er a eery Mh wey fon, ones ey Lore tholesie MAGMA Sid may serumulte by scilng to form On bodes Mlereyie’ chee, 2 ( ) | timis Lath slow < is: |e hints “i wendorsene (010) pone a 9 ae prin Felon Morphology: | Sommainy forom cubedeel pmmant enstaly wiih sivaded nme unewim The eoaialy ae mms larwer aman’ those ‘of cxhey muncrals i@ the mich {porphyrobiain) — Lbeapue ite cubedrsl haba, aleueeine none, onan many imcleons of sine eopceslly quarts roc chime te tha for AL. Smallamowsrsof fn whan Composition: Ter cempaion of for Fesand some Fe" ean subs the tormule A. Amal amount of Mg fay: subasitvie forte Distinguishing Properties: avy wentifiod ty as yeti coher and pir priv Occurrence: Sinciy« meromeephic miactt in pec rian the merit made amped lan POY ee ef a ee eo ee“= - r - a — a = r "= “= “— = “= - -— a : - = = TALC MeyfS,0g}(OM), Monechase Refractive Iadex ieeiingence «= 2V tinction ss x 1Sb1s5 ons pparaite! (001) | = 139 sa "font stow 1S Jed onder red \ Gator Gamage L —Hisoshumism __Csnrege _ Angle _ttardncas a alors 7 (001) perfect 1 y Morphology: Forms platy and frens aegrcpates Composition: Ditters ite from cs formela, Distinguishing Properties: Cusracieriscd_ by high birctringence and micaccous o¢ fibrous appearaeke. Difficult 10 distingua’ from muscovite, But tale has a smaller 28° than mou rauscovite. The association of other magnesinn, minerals isthe best tndseation thatthe phase my be tale; my or electron prabe analysis maybe necensary for coafiensisn. Qecurrence: Formed by hydrothermal alteration of liramafic rocks and by the metamorphism of impure dotomitie limestone. It commonly forms in shear tones in these rocks, i TITANITE (see Sphene) TOURMALINE Na(Mte Fea ,AL/5)0,.[(0,)(01.F), ‘Trgonal amy Refractive Index Birefringence Estnetion Reet ___Interf.Color__Fhooemston_ Parer an.n0%8 paraliel © bane Red onder ein fst Color Pie rdness Tiveciveyeow pale nme 7 © dak Morphology: Typwslly forms paumitic enatals with cured wree-sued cross sections Crystals are common zee, which 1k parmcwlarty vide in croms sections, Composition: 1ngnly vorimle i composition Crystale that donot exhibit zoeing are veumal “The main varsbon fomithe Fe ad Mg conten. The Feinch vanety. schorl, 8 tbe common Mack tourmaline which appears sanout Shades of green im thin section Faler saneies are nicher im the Mg cndkmember, draimic, Other subaiiutene inwobee Fe" AL Cra Li Distinguishing Properties: Strong. pleochrasm which, in coateast wo that in the ther common pleschrs ‘ocksorming minerals (sech as Biotite and borRDicade), shown is massmum absorpion perpendwular to the lengih of the Gra Tourmaline docs not exhtet clemrage, whereas thoide and horsbiede Go. Toutmuline ao st unigual, bet it ‘dark vaneties the interference figures may be masked by ine color of the mantral, Occurrence: The most comman boron-consaining mineral A commen accctony in grantich and te many mctamorphoned vedienttary ros. Ti occurs 4 Orel prana iy scdimeatary rocks. Tourmaline is abundast it pmatien a Nsc-‘VESUVIANITE: (Idocrase) Cays(Mp Fes), ,S),(0.01.F), nial - ‘Tetragoeal - Birefiggeoce © Estinction Color —Hiisl__nterl Color __Plonganion _Presehin Cleavage Harness. oon Priel coloriews to (110) snomalost Ie order leegth fast pale yellow poor Morphology: Colunnar apereptes and sched! grins Composition: (Considerable variation, with Na, K, and Mn substituting for Ca, and AL Ti, Zn and Ma subetiveting from acgative varieties. of metiite by itt higher refractive index. — Clinocouite resemblet wecuviaite bet ie Siasial, Unfortunately some varieties of veswvianste are ‘burial. These varieties are luo dificil to dstinguich from grospelar garnet which also’be Bitsal Occurrence: Tee principal ccrerrare it in contet metamorphosed limestones and stam depot. 1 slo occur in seplonally metamorpbodedlinetomes sod in serpents, WOLLASTONITE casio, (MM, Refractive Index Birefringence 2 LAL oon yeas, ~o ETBMIAS ——Lsconder orange Color ‘Cleavape —Eesnmsm___Crvape __Angle _ Harness ‘covorices : {200} periecr — {100)(001)8« Yr {001} good (100) (102) 70, re {902}: good Morphology: Colucsnar aod fibrocs aggregates with reining common paraiil to (100), Composition: May coaisn some inom bet m mostly near the formula in composition. Distinguishing Propertics: Rescmbler uemotis, put wottstonte tat extinction panllel io the engin of the Crvetala | Wollasionite crystals also are both lengih slow and length fast, Because the y axis of the indicatrix ‘ormsponda to the lng axis (b) of the crystal Occurrence: A metasvocphic mineral in high grade contact metamorphosed impure limestone ZIRCON 280, Uniaia « Tetmponat aM Tay F ~~ Berefringence ‘Eaiacuon = “ eistaot novos panel paiebrown mone 2 © 1m 138 4h onder pink dengan ow Morphology: Maas form ual! uvbty pramaii grant ih square rom section Where enclosed in fermomapnessa ‘mineral hey are commonly turrounded bya peach hae ‘Composition: ‘Most sreoe contains email amounts of U and Th. which oo wadergoing radioactive decay, destroy the sirvrere of the earrounding meee (meumer) The madexaine decmy sho develope plochroe haloes in yontepased ferremnapnenan miaeral. Me on aaa comtaes tome Hl ‘Distinguishing Properties: ttgn reel, igs waeinngenct, and ental shape Gecurresce Comme ts an acesory in prantar ypu mos detal print in secimestany rocks, and ad a ssresory i metmorph rocks formed frm these Dh Uy, = a ri be » » mT beZEOLITE ANALCITE NalAISi,0,)11,0 saotropie oie aM 70) Refractive Indes. Color Pirfringsese Cevere Hantness, ‘148-149 colorless anortahous none $s ‘louty Morphology: Ineguiar muses in the groundess of sliakee rorks and it thus boonded by faces of the surrounding ‘rye I anrydules nnd veins it can form octapona-owihned teepecohecral costa ‘Composition: Lite variation n competition; some K and Ca mtattete for Na, Distinguishing Properties: tstrope or oaly weakly birefingent. Fluorite has a much lower sefroce index. and ‘eas has much stronger megative relic! Leucive shows mncmalows birefringence asd commonly has sectors with mubtiple sinning: wort lence occurs mk wellforwed primary costa, whereas anuewe is secondary. In thin section walt ‘flat analcite but fa hand specie soda i commonly blue or pin, but i can be colorless ike anal ‘Occurrence: Commonly oscum as a devteric mineral in the groundenass of alkaline dyke aed wolcanic mocks Ih may ‘sles form slong with eaher seoiies and excite as vein Gigs, a7, ‘There ase many zeoliner, most of wich have similar moves of occurrence; that i ax secondary einerals ist matic rocks, specially ones with akalne affinities, They fi fractures and vesicles, or replace primary inerala. ‘They are characterieed by a framework truciure with large holes that can contain 11,0: — 10 to 20 wt "The water is eaily driven ot and may cause problems ig the preparation of thin dictions of samiex are ln general, their compositicas can be thought of as approvimating hydrated feldspar and febssparhoids, from which they are, infact, derived by low temperature alteration ot metamogphiim in the zeolite Facies, i Ip ‘Zeokies commocly grow in a vanety of welhformed crystal shapes. They are colorless in thin seccion, mave tow negative eel, and most are Blasi wih moderne to large optic angles Many seoliet arc sot cxily distingwshet Inithe muroscoge on the Mal stage without considerable efor aad expensnce, Some of the most common, however, can be daniaguished realty, These ae ited below with their formelae and most characienstic properties. Natrolite NaJAL)5,0 1 28,9 Thomsonite Maca {(Ai5),Oyo), 1,0 Laumontite —— Ca(ataij0,,14H,0 Chabuzite Ca[AL,S,/0,31.681,0 Heulandite ——(CaNayi/Aly$j0,5148,0 Suilbite (CANA, KALSi 0g HO ‘Mineral ___2¥_ Sign __Momphology _‘Clerage _Bhrefnngcnce Twinning firinciion _Etoagation Narrotae + Aomgprams ———(H10}°(110) 89 tat onder orange: paraliat toe ‘brows radioting Tromionite 4275 + fibrous {O10} perfect 2nd order Blue paratzt last and owe Lawnontite 2647 poses 1010){210} good Aatonder yellow (100) a" 20-40 sow Gute 0+ eube ke rhombohedral BS Ist onder gray thomnta Hevindine 050 = plates // (010) (010) pestecs Ist order wmice panel foi) Swmne SO shents {010} good Later whote (001), partie (000) fast and om 65REFERENCES Boblea, SR, and Bocticher, A. L, 1982, The quartz=coesite transformation: A precise determination and the effects of other components: J. Geophys. Res, ¥, 87, p. 7073-7978, Gober, L. H., and Klement, W. Jr, 1967, High-low quartz inversion: Determination to 35 kilobars: J. Geophys, Res, v.72, p. 245-4251, Holdaway, M. J., 1971, Stability of andalusite and the aluminum silicate phase diagram: Amer.J. Sci, v, 271, p. 97-131, Morse, S. An, 1980, Batalts and Phare Diagrams, Springer Verlag, New York. Tobi, A. C, and Kroll, H, 1975, Optical determination of the An-content of Plagioclases twinned by Carlsbad-law: a reviscd chart: Amer. J. Sei, ¥.275, p. T1736, Tuttle, O. F, and Bowen, N. 1.1958, Origin of granite in the tight of experimental studies in the system NaAISi,0g-KAISHOgSIOyH,O: Geol, Soc. Amer, Mem. 74, 153 p. 0 A YaN Vid 8h $d 80 Wg Dad ed Mod M8 Va Wad Sad ad ak Sal Yad Wad Sad Sad Mad eae eM MetIGNEOUS ROCK-FORMING MINERALS 1 Popes ch lr, rl. cya form, crags wd relative exysal sists ae commonly ost catty seca in imaroscope under low magaifcation wing plane polarised Ugh Visible in this section are two large expuals of hornblende (leochroie green) with characterise amphibole cleavage and fall green acgerine crystals i a grouenienas of alll feldepar and nepheline (clear). Stall crystals of apatite are incised im the hornblende. Nephetine jeade, Moust Sobatie, Quetes. top center. Small rod-like inchsions of cakite mark the loog. nis of this ental, Brome Movntzin, Quebec. Pane hg, Xi 3. Same as in IM 2'vut under cromed polars. Only the large kalsi- Ing crystal is shown here 10 emphasize that what appears to be 4 Sapie crsial under plane polarized light acteally consists ‘Of ® number of ciflerently onented (diferent shading} Gomis, fetmed when the Kalslte inverted on cooking from 8 high-tem- erature palvmorph. The domain structure is visible only under Sreased polars 4 Knowledge of what mineral assemblages are pocsibe ang whith are ‘erpouuble can be of great beneht in doing pelrcprapty. Foe crample nephelie and quarts would not eocur together wn 8 rock Fecome they would react to form alpine Consequtaily the assemblage nephele plus alive or quane plas alte are [Prnaibie, Dur not mepheline pies quasts PATO ELLE EEG GLEE [Naphetine) (vents) can NeAlsio, + 2510, —* NeAlSi,o, Compateble Arsembleger: orIGNEOUS ROCK-FORMING MINERALS OLIVINE, 5, Weathered susface of feldspathic peridotive showing black titan ugite and teown olivine. Qtidee typically weathers 10 a rusty brown color, but slit live green om the fresh suetace. Rouge ‘mont, Quebes. 6, Buhedral phencensss of onise showong the eoermon (010). (081) fang (110) faces to 9 eacllinc mephelinite from the Hobotely sees, Oahu, Mwai. a thin section, olivine it the bast fextored of the common ferromagnesias minerals: i s normally ss except for iach componitions which are yeti, ih, 2D 7 Same as IM 6, but under crosied pedam. Masimuirs interference colon. are appar azcond oeder: & The shape of olivine enyuais depends co their rate of growih winine PRenacryati were already gromng slows in a [5 ‘before Ht wa erupted of the Masks of Kutsves i The leegth to breadth ratio of theae erystais of slowly gronm clan. Cronica point 20 400000 a ad ea ea ad ed a way rhe be be he he a a » 2 PPP= a PUD EEE LULL EEULGL Le IGNEOUS ROCK-FORMING MINERALS 8 tine Wat grows apidy commonly Forms theta a deadsiic i 'These eral’ olvige crystals pew apedly im Slap on (be ocean Qoor i the Mid-Adlanbec Ridge Continued growth an iliog in of sheetl cysal commosty Jeod to the trapping. of melt inclesions in olivine SPP PP Peia ? IGNEOUS ROCK-FORMING MINERALS ‘4. Comporitional spaing in plagioclase common. If the crystal i more sodic towaed the sim, i i wid to be eormally zoned; itt more cakic, it reversely soned IT the jocdace hae ‘composition luctunter back and foeth, the plagicciase ‘ectlatory soning, ot seen by this phesoenyt in an andesite from Moen! S. Helens, Crossed polars, X30, SS When plapoclase grows rapidly, ax im the growndmass of this clvane basal from the Mid-Atlantic Rade, st foros dendritic friccoltes that wre elongated parallel to cotallogrephie ‘The composition of these microlites can be determined by reascingthe maximum ewintion age of X'againt the length (Ol the crystals (p48). Plate igh, RED. 6 Onthorlase perthise formed by exiolution of abite-nch fetsspar from potassium-rich fekpar. Crowes polars, X20 7. Same as IM.36 but under plane light, The polmsitum feldspar ont c acem 40 have beet felief than the afite lamelive or the quar 58 Gnd tisning, wah i charactenstic of most microcline, results from extremely fine alle aed penicine twins tht oom when Ibe feldspa inverts, on cooling. from the tiger temperature moacclinic onhaciase Io the bawertemperatute cline microckne. Crossed polars, X20 EEE DU LLL DCEDOLELIGNEOUS ROCK-FORMING MINERALS. SILICA MINERALS 38. Undutstony extinction tn quarez Rose of Mull granite, Scotland. Undulatory extinction s formes by domnins nthin fps that have sighily illeent cycllographic onentations af a result of mia, It paral common le quam Crossed pole, ©, Quarts phenocrysts with 9 dpyrand form indicating that they ‘onstalized as the hiiemperature beta form in this rhyelte from Salem, Massachusetts. Crossed plas 8 61. Resorted or irregularty grown phenaceyste of quarts in bioite- Dearing dacite, Wand, Cotorado, Pisae light, XS (2 Tretvaute blades antergrown with Layalse in as iron-rich snotmpe glia ‘Symtheric romponition. Crosted polar, X28 J Vaid wa i > gg TA eeeSAEED LED LDU bb IGNEQUS ROCK-FORMING MINERALS FELDSPATHOIDS (3 Lateceyeaizing scpheline surrounding plagioclase (iiaen etecis aoa saron Onted, apts ‘essmet low brtapece—tint or wy. Ce pt, + Same 1M 6} but under plan Ugh Nope sters ray, soatrast, quart, ‘which ales comanonlyerytalires Ice nd thus exhibits similar ‘eatural relations 10 thone of nephelsn, shows oo alteration. ‘GS Decauue of i low birefringence, nepbeling goes to eatintion cetily and when ia thet position shows a8 abundsace of small Drips flecks of muscovite formed fram alteration of the fepteline, Exsexite, Mount Johasoa, Quebec. Crossed polars, a0 6 Phenceryis of neptelioe im phonalite, Mount St. Hine, Guedes.” Dark phenocrysts are oxidized fayaliee, Plane light, x 67 Same as IM 86 bet under erocsed polars Those sections of epheling phenorysts with hexagonal outline have low Interference eciors, whereas tbade with squarish outline show higher white interfereece solors. 8 Pohedral phenocrysts of leucite and acperine je a leuitte, Vesuvius. Plane light, X20. ©. Same as IM-O8 but under cromied polam. Leecite, on cooking, feverts from cubic to tetraponal, 40d multiple twine Sevelope in different vectors 81