Table of Contents 33 PA S(t) | 30 2.1. Motion La Uniform and accelerated motion .............. 34 = 0 ‘Speeds of machines... peet.35 £0 22 Forces Adding and resolving force vectors ..... Weight, Spring force ...... Lever principle, Bearing forces Torques, Centrifugal force 2.3. Work, Power, Ef Mechanical work . 38 Simple machines . 39 Power and Efficiency .. - 40 Fi 24° Friction Friction force ...... Coefficients of friction Friction in bearings ....... _4 25 Pressure in liquids and gases Pressure, definition and types ceeeee es 2 Buoyancy . ; 42 Pressure changes in gases . 42 2.6 Strength of materials Load cases, Load types ........ - 3 LE Safety factors, Mechanical strength properties 1 a4 a 2 Tension, Compression, Surface pressure .. . 45 Sand Shear, Buckling ........... 46 F Bending, Torsion.......... eeaT Zz > Shape factors in strength : - 48 sZ 7 p 9 Static moment, Section modulus, Moment of inertia . 49 Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes .. 50 2.7 Thermodynat ‘Temperatures, Linear expansion, Shrinkage ..... 51 Quantity of heat .. . . 51 Heat flux, Heat of combustion . 52 28 Electricity Ohm's Law, Conductor resistance 53 Resistor circuits . 54 Types of current aH 55 Electrical work and power . 5634 Physics: 2.1 Motion form motion and uniformly accelerated motion Linear motion v_ velocity t time 8 displacement eam: oo aa0l 1a33 1! 667 nS min =02778@ V circumferential velocity, rotational speed Circumferential cutting speed 1 radius velocity © angular velocity diameter Pp v Example: vex-d-nan no n=2-n-233381=1466 87 For a cutting speed of a circumferential vel see page 35. ‘The increase in velocity per second is called aecel- The following applies eration; and a decrease is deceleration. Free fall is to acceleration from 4 Uniformly accelerated motion on which gravitational. rest or deceleration to a acceleration gis acting rest: a ¥ terminal velocity (acceleration), = or initial velocity (deceleration) “Terinal orien $ displacement time velocity 32 acceleration gravitational Acceleration 1st example: Object, free fall from $= 3m; v=? ] a-g-9e1™ Displacement due to Displacement-time diagram 2 accsleration/ SESE fecleration, s vaVies- Roam om e772 asi ae 1 1 J Are ; ™ 2nd example: 2 va 2 S| vehicle, v= 80 keh; 1 5 7] Braking distance s = sspat? 7 "! Braking dist ? a 3 0) a er ro “v2 (2222s?Physics: 2.1 Motion 35 feed rate Feed rate rotational speed for driling, turning f feed per cutting edge number of cutting edges, or ‘number of teeth on the pinion thread pitch oe — n= 45/min; ve 2nd example: Feed rate Feed drive with threaded spindle, eect P=5mm; n= 112imin; yan-P Threaded spindle, np 1121.5 mm=s60™ with pitch P CNN min oem 3rd example: Feed of rack and pinion, | Feed rate for ‘n= 80/min; d= 75mm; y=? | rack and pinion d-n=x-75mm- 80. ab Cutting speed ¥%. cutting speed V circumferential velocity diameter ve 1 rotational speed Example: v Circumferential velocity vy average speed number of double strokes 's_stroke length Example: Power hacksaw, $= 280 mm; n = 45/min; vy =? 2-8-n=2-028m-45—" Bn36 Physics: 2.2 Forces UTC act ny Chosen forthe following FF component forces vector magnitude Vector magnitude examples M= 10 -N- Fr” resultant force length) Representing forces Mr scale of forces Fe Mel - 9 A Forces are represented by vectors. t The length / of the vector corresponds to the magnitude of the force F. ‘Adding collinear forces acting in the same direction Fi fa Si fy i, i xample: F;=80.N; F,= 160N; F,=? pa FiereaoN - 160 [Geren 3 enpcatedrestons Diterence Zak Example: F= 240 NF = 80 N F=? er nee oA Fi=2HONSON~ 1501 ‘ation and reolaton of forces Sohing afore dagram by those ine of ection intersect any on reccos tore vector Example of graphical addition: Fy = 120 N; Fr= 170N; y= 11 Shape of | Required 'M, = 10 Nimm; F, = ?; measured: the force | trigonometric Fi, =1-My= 25 mm - 10 Nimi diagram | function Example of graphical resolution: Snei 10%; B= 15%; My= 10 Nimm; tangent Fy=?; measured: y= 7 mm; I= 27 mm. | | Force diagram| Law of sines, 7mm - 10 Nimm =70N | with oblique | Law of 27 mm - 10 Nimm = 270 N rai ales ‘A force is required to accelerate or decelerate a mass. Acceleration force F acceleration force acceleration m mass = SS Cee) > fF Example: m 1 N=tkg 03 kg; a=3; Fa? GF 3-35 F=m-a=50kg-3™ | Siemee | Gravity generates a weight force on a mass. Weight Fy weight 9 gravitational = m mass fcceleration bw Sims 6 Example: =981™ 10% 9=9815 105 beam, m = 1200 kg: Fy =? 00-98-4472 Calzinson fo ne # page 31 The force and corresponding linear expansion - ‘of a spring are proportional within the elastic range. ‘Spring force, a F spring force spring displacement F=R-s mh Dy R spring constant Example: Change in spring for Compression spring, R= 8 Nimm; s= 12mm; F=? jae So epee, spring ddsplacement s = F-Rs=8 12mm-96N mm | AF=R-AsTwo-ended lever meets y % { fr - fe i Angle lever hi (sid Example of bearing forces ‘The effective lever arm is the right angle distance Moment between the fulcrum and the li arm corresponds to the radius r. Fi, aactea sees F force Lever principle (Mj sur of al counter-clockwise moments TM = SM, =M, sum of all clockwise moments = Example: Lever principle with ‘only 2 applied forces Angle lever, Fy = 30 Nj fy = 0.15 m; lp = 0.45 m; nes | = Fish 30N-0.15m Fie Feh tts | ‘A bearing point is treated as a fulcrum in calculating Lever principle bearing forces. = Fx, Fa bearing forces 1,15, offective SM aM, Fi. Fe forces lever arms Example: Bearing force at A Overhead travelling crane, Fy = 40 kN; Fp = 15 KN; /) = 6m; lp = 8 mj! = 12m; Fy=? Solution: 8 is selected as fulcrum point; the bearing force Fis assumed on a single- ended lever. 40 kN-6m + 15kN-8m ter d. Different torques result if two engaging gears do not have the same number of teeth. Driving gear Driven gear Fy tangential force ‘Fig tangential force My torque Mz torque dy reference diameter dy reference diameter 2) number of teeth —_z_ number of teeth ny rotational speed _m_ rotational speed 7 gear ratio For gear ratios for gear drives see page 259. Centrifugal force F when @ mass is made to move along a curvilinear path, e.g. acicle. Centrifugal force F. centrifugal force « angular velocity m mass Vv circumferential velocity r radius Exampl Turbine blade, m= 160 g; v= 80 mis; d= 400 mm; Fe m.v? _0.16kg «(80 mis! _ go kg-m F 512092" sy20N 02m st cm38 Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency De UM ye Work is performed when a force acts along a distance. Work F force in direction of travel _W work [ W=F-s Fy weight 5 force distance Fa friction force 's,h height of lift Lifting work Fy. normal force coefficient of friction [ W=Fw:h ‘Ist example: Frictional work a aT 5 A W-F.5=300N-4m=1200N-m = 1200J Len Aes a FeFe 1Je1N-1m 2 1Wes a1 KO j E,W, energy of position R —springconstant Energy of position F force height, spring displacement eee Energy of the spring Drop hammer, m = 30 kg; $= 2.6 mi Wp a Res? Wp= F's = 90kg- 98157 26m =7655 Wo=> Kinetic energy is energy of motion. Kinetic energy of linear motion E,W, kinetic energy or work —-v_ velocity @ angular velocity m mass | mv J mass moment of inertia Ma Example: Drop hammer, m = 30 kg; $= 2.6m; W.=? Kinetic eneray pana Pe cea of rotational motion v=\2-g-s = \2-9B1 mis? 26m =7.14 m/s ae mv? _30kg.(7.14 mis? 108 Okg-(7.14 MSF? _ aos = 2 2 “What is gained in force is lost in distance”. “Golden Rule” ‘of Mechanics W, input work Wp output work F, input force F, output force 5; displacement of displacement of force F;, force Fa Fw weight efficiency fh height of tft Example: Allowing for Lifting device, Fy = 5 KN; h = 2m; on Figch_ S00N-2m 3 om | F ~ 300N |Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency Simple machines no. of load-bearing ropes, pulleys Bangle of inclination tan incline [Fossa 39 @ angle of inclination [Foseach P thread pitch 1 lever arm For 1 full turn 2: P. [ sae! [ Wy = Fy 2-n-1 1 crank length 4 drum diameter n> number of turns of the drum Fwd Fife : 2 [ hen-d-np | er 1 crank length d drum diameter i gear ratio Wy. 1) The formulae apply to a hypothetical frictionless condition, wherein the output work Wj is equal to the input work40 Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency CUM aaa g Power is work per unit time, P power S displacement in W work the force direction v velocity 1 time 18 KN; v=25 mimin; P=? 25m = Fev =15000N. 25% a 60s aw ad 200 kg 9.81 ms? = 11772 N Ss F's N7P2N-25™ peso esx atm eee ele TW 1.95 PS For power in pumps and cylinders see page 371. P power 5 dspiacement inthe force direction Power MM torque t time F tangential force rotational speed av: v velocity © angular velocity ao PoFex-d-n Belt drive, Fe 12KN;d=200mm;n=2800%min; P=? | P=M-2-x-n PoFix-d-n aaa =o =12KN- 0.2m. 220 35.2 KN=M a5 2h m F ®s => Numerical equation: Power Emer» Mia Nm. nin Vin Result Pin kW Men) 9550 For cutting power in machine tools see pages 299 and 300. Efficiency refers to the ratio of power or work outputtothe Efficiency ower of work input. Py input power P, output power ae Wy input work Wy output work , 11 total efficiency 11% partialeficiencies W, 4 Example: Belt drive, Py= 4 KW; Pp= 3 KW: 7, = 859%: 9=7:ma~? Totalefiiency y_SkW _ 075 x 2 aKw 7 oas n= mM Me 7h ee) Efficiencies » (approximate values) Brown coal power station 0.32 | Gasoline engine 0.27 | Screw thread 0:30 Coal power station 0.41 | Automobile diesel engine (partial load) 0.24 | Pinion gear 097 Natural gas powerstation 0.50 | Automobile diesel engine (full load) 0.40 | Worm gear, i= 40 065 Gas turbine 0.38 | Large diese! engine (partial oad) 0:33 | Friction rive 0.80 Steam turbine high pressure) 046 | Large diesel engine (ull oad) 055 | Chain drive 0.90 Water turbine 085 | Three phase AC motor 085 | Wide Vibe drive 08s Cogeneration 0.75 | Machine tools 0.75 | Hydrostatic transmission 0.75Physics: 2.4 Friction 4 USA ue as CC 3 The resulting friction force is dependent on the normal Static friction, sliding friction Pe Fi + type of friction, ie. static, sliding or rolling friction Friction foros for static + frictional condition (lubrication condition): dry, mixed or viscous friction. + surface roughness + material pairing (material combination) These effects are all incorporated into the experimentally st 1 sliding friction determined coefficient of friction p. Friction force Fe Fx normal force f coefficient of rolling friction for rolling friction” Fr friction force. coefficient of fiction radius a fe ‘st exampl rt Rolling friction Fu 5 AD _. ‘Crane wheel on steel ail, Fy =45KN; d= 320mm; "caused by elastic =0.5 mm: Fe=? deformation be- ‘5mm -45000N tween roller body Das wos sarang sens ae . [Coetiiont of static friction x] Cosficiont of siding tition» Material pairing Example of application = 7s aden steelistee! Vise guide 0.20 0.10 015 | 010-005 steelcast iron machine guide 0.20 0.15 0.18 | 0.10-0.08 steel(Cu-Sn alloy shaft in solid plain bearing 0.20 0.10 0.10 | 0.06-0.03" steelPb-Sn alloy shaft in multilayer plain bearing | _ 0.15, 0.10 0.10 _| 0.05-0.03% steel/polyamide shaft in PA plain bearing 0.30 0.15 030 | 0.12-0.03" steel/PTFE low temperature bearing 0.04 0.04 0.08 | 0.042 steeliriction lining shoe brake 0.60 0.30 oss | 03-02 steelvood part on an assembly stand 0.55 0.10 035 __| 005 ‘woodhwood underlay blocks 0.50) 0.20 030 | 010 cast ironyCu-Sn alloy adjustment git 0.28, 0.16, 020 | 0.20-0.10 rubbericast iron belts on a pulley 050 - - |- rolling element/stea! antifrction bearing, guideway" ~ - 0.003-0.001 2 The significance of the material pairing decreases with increasing sliding speed and presence of mixed and viscous friction. Calculation performed in spite of rolling movement, because itis typically similar to calculations of static or sliding friction. ‘Material pairing | Example of application Coefficient of rolling friction fin mm | * Data on coefficients of rolling friction can steel/stee! ‘steel wheel on a guide rail 05 ‘vary considarally in plasticiconcrete | caster wheel on concrete floor 5 technical literature. rubberlasphalt | cartires on the street 8 M_ friction moment coefficient Ay Fy normal force of friction P riction power d_ diameter ‘notational speed Example: Stool shaft in a Cu-Sn plain bearing, » = 0.05 ] Fy=6KN;d= 160 mm; M= 7 FrauFy m A HR _005-600N- 0.16 94. 2 242 Physics: 2.5 Pressure in liquids and gases Se sd P_ pressure A area Pressure F force Example: F-aN pion = 400mm Unis ofp 2000008 yt =F O00 ses gate se 18 como be " Son dan J tier ato nas 8 For calculations on hydraulics and pneumatics see page 370.1 mbar=100 Pa 1 hPa Px gage pressure (excedens, excess) Gage pressure . Pam aie pressure (ambient, surroundings) : el The gage pressures z Bs positive, if Pabs > Pano and : Ba negative if Pans < Pam (Vacuum) pie tpiaber cba 2 Bressue Example: (standard air pressure) 3 sed Car tires, pp = 2.2 bar; Pamb= 1 BaF; Pans =? 4 toe 2.2 bar + 1 bar =3.2 bar Pe hydrostatic pressure, Fy buoyant force Hydrostatic pressure inherent pressure V. displaced volume @ density of the liquid -h_ depth of liquid Pe=g-a-h 9 gravitational acceleration Buoyant force Fa=g-o-V ™ 19™ 9-981 ~105 For donsity values, ee page 117, Compression Condition 1 Condition 2 Ideal gas law condition rndition 2 Pats absolute pressure _pypan absolute pressure ition 1 eondtion 2a! ADSON® mares Pabst "Vi _ Pabs2 V2 Ty absolute T absolute nh te temperature temperature Special cases: Example constant temperature ‘A-compressor aspirates V; = 30 m? of air at " ere Pabst “V1 = Pabsa * V2 ieee Paost= 1 bar and fy = 15°C and compresses Bovle's itto Vy = 3.5 m? and t= 150°C bar| ‘What is the pressure Paoss? constant volume t ei Calculation of absolute temperatures (page 51) Pabst _ Pabs2 2 we Th = th + 273 = (15 + 273) K = 288K T; 22 2 Tha ty 273 (180 273)K = 423K 3 = Pats -ViTe constant pressure g1 Pasa = Pe = : 0 - bar 30m? 423 K 6 ar 4% 0 1 2 3 dms are cas Ena Tt volume VPhysics: 2.6 Strength of Materials 43 OEE CMCC MCC) et Come ete Ly static loading dynamic loading cr polestng | stornatig B z asl ime s & 3 50 ine —— ° ‘ine ost Load case 1 Load case Il Load case iil Magnitude and direction of the load | The load increases to a maximum | The load alternates between a posi- remain the same, e.g, for a weight | value and then falls back to zero, | tive and a negative maximum value load on columns. 6.9. for crane cables and springs. | | of equal magnitude, e.9. for rotating axles. Material properties: ‘Standard stress limits Om Limit values for load case ‘Type of load Stress [Detormation| Strength | for plastic deformation 1 " 0 Tension tensile | tensile ‘material | pulsating [alternating stress | strength | yield strength | elongation | ductile brite | tensile | tensile a Fn Re « — |{steo!) (cast | fatigue | fatigue iron} | strength | strength 0.2%yield | elongation] A, Ry | pus oa point | atfracture | ye, F Foo A Compression compres: | compres | natural material | pulsating | alternating sion | sion | compression | compres- | ductile brittle | compres- | compres: stress | strength | yield point | sionset | steel) (cast | _ sion sion oe oe ct fe iron) | fatigue | fatigue dee ong, | strength | strength 0.2%-otfset_lcompressive| 9", cpus | oa yield strength | failure | °°? 02 8 Bending ending | bending | bending | deflection | bending | pulsating [alternating stress | strength | limit limit bending | bending A fatique | fatigue wZ ee ous a ve | strength | strangth Shear shear | shear shear stress | strength strength ts ne : 7 ne a = Torsional | torsional | torsional | angular | torsional | pulsating [alternating stress | strength | limit | deflection | limit. —_| torsional | torsional fatigue | fatigue e oa a a strength | strength Buckling buckling | buckling buckling stress | strength strength i r | om nue = - O48 - -'s:_2.6 Strength of Materials Mechanical strength properties, Allowable stresses, Safety factors Type of load Tension, Compression | Shear Bending Torsion Load case 1 ui] q 1 «i. om 1 u [om ‘Stress Fe Foo2| aos | ma | ne | oe | s ens F Hit om fer Seta eopim | Scns] CEJ] SPF 3] Thode | HAL [RR om ‘Material S235 235 | 235 ] 150 ] 290] 330] 290] 170] 140 ] 140] 120 8275 275 | 275 | 180 | 340 | 380 | 350 | 200 | 160 | 160 | 140 E295, 295 | 205 | 210 | 390 | 410 | 410 | 240 | 170 | 170 | 150 335 335 | 335 | 250 | 470 | 470 | 470 | 280 | 190 | 190 | 160 360 365 | 365 | 300 | 560 | 510 | 510 | 330 | 210 | 210 | 190 C15 ‘ao | 440 [330 | 600 | 610 | 610 | 370 | 250 | 250 | 210 1763 sto | 510 | 390 | 800 | 710 | 670 | 300 | 290 | 290 | 220 seMncrs 635 | 635 | 430 | 80 | 890 | 740 | 440 | 360 | 360 | 270 20Mncrs 735 | 735 | 480 | 940 | 1030 | 920 | 520 | 420 | 420 | 310 48CrNiMO7-6 ax5 | s36 | 550 | 960 | 1170 | toa | 610 | 470 | 470 | 350 Ca2E 3a0_| 340 [220 | 400 | 490] 410 | 240 [205 [25 | 165 ase 490 | 490 | 280 | 60 | 700 | 520] 310 | 350 | 350 | 210 C60 seo | 580 | 325 | 80 | 200 | 600 | 350 | 400 | 430 | 240 acre 650 | 630 | 370 | 720 | 910 | 670 | 390 | 455 | 455 | 270 atcra 800 | 710 | 410 | 800 | 1120 | 750 | 440 | 560 | sio | 330 50GrMoa 900 | 760 | 450 | aso | 1260 | 20 | ae0 | 630 | 560 | 330 30CrNIMo8 1050 | 870 | 510 | 1000 | 1470 | 930 | 550 | 735 | 640 | 375 GS-38 200 | 200 | 160 | 300 | 260 | 260 | 150 | 115 | 115 | 90 GS-45 230 | 230 | 188 | 360 | 300 | 300] 180 | 135 | 135 | 105 Gss2 260 | 260 | 210 | 420 | 340 | 340 | 210 | 150 | 150 | 120 GS-60 300 | 300 | 240 | 480 | 390 | 390 | 240 | 175 | 175 | 140 EN-GIS-400 250 | 240 | 140 | 400 | 350 | 345 | 220 | 200 | 195 | 115 EN-GJS-500 300 | 270 | 155 | 500 | 420 | 360 | 240 | 20 | 225 | 130 EN-GJS-600 360 | 330 | 190 | 600 | 500 | 470 | 270 | 290 | 275 | 160 EN-GJS-700 400 | 355 | 205 | 700 | 560 | 520 | 300 | 320 | 305 | 175 1 Values were determined using cylindrical samples having d = 16 mm with polished surface. They apply to struc- tural steels in normalized condition; case hardened steels for achieving core strength after case hardening and grain refinement; heat treatable steels in tempered condition ‘The compression strength of cast iron with flake graphite is Gea ~ 4» Rin. Values according to DIN 18800 are to be used for structural steelwork, For safety reasons parts may only be loaded with a portion of the stress limit aj, which will lead to permanent deformation, fracture or fatigue fracture. stow allowable stress ‘im _steess limit depending on v safety factor (table below) type of loading and load case Allowable stress Example: (preliminary design) What is the allowable tensile stress 0; siow for @ hexagonal bolt ISO 4017 ~ M12 x 50~ 108, if a safety factor of 1.5 is required with static loading? ime 210-8105 800-5 ogaye en SEN gay Ne, Formchanlsrenth proper for bo 0 p90 21 aes Tae) and roid) Tipeatmandal [auctions [preioramias | cunnaiaia, [ite mia eon pee eae ee Safety factor v 12-18 2.0-4.0 3-4") 3-6" The high margins of safety in part sizing relative to the stress limits are intended to compensate for yet unknown strength-reducing effects due to part shape (for shape-related strength factors see page 4).Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials 45 Tensile stress, Compressive stress, Surface pressure The calculation of allowable stress only applies to static Tensile stress loading (Load case I), ot [eon ess Ae yildstength o£ F tensile force Ray tensile strength s S — crommeeciona area” safety factor S.aiow allowable tensile stress _Fajow allowable tensile force Allowable tensile force Example: [ w = Fallow * S| (S205)R 18) ee Anatase see For mechanical strength properties R, and Ry, see pages 130 ay Srallow: na 10138, For caleulation of elastic elongation see page 190 The calculation of allowable stress only applies to static Compressive stress loading (Load case I), ce compression yield point F compressive force 2 compressive stress —_Fyiqwallowable comp. force 2c.atow allowable comp. stress S cross-sectional area vo safety factor Ryy_ tensile strength Example: Rack made of EN-GJL-300; S = 2800 mm?; lowable. ¥ = 2.5; Fatiow =? conn Fatow For mechanical strength properties seepage 4 and pages 160-161 F force ‘A. contact surface, surface pressure projected area Example: Surface pressure ‘Two metal sheets, each 8 mm thick, are joined with a bolt DIN 1445-10h11 x 16 x 30. How great a force may be applied given a maximum allowable surface pres sure of 280 Nimm?? Fe pA 200-%5 Bm: 1mm - mon Assembly type Press fit smooth pin Fit with notched piece Sliding fit smooth bolt Toad case T 7 T 1 TW T taj Conponen Roa Towable Sos pres nN Ea oo a wes [ 7s [aos fees | ee oe ae ee CuSn, CuZn alloy 30 15 30, 20 10 40 30, 15 i ay a—pe—pe—s ptf Bearing load of various For reference values for allowable 3 Dearing materials see page 26146 Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials Shear and buckling stress ‘The loaded cross-section must not shear. te shearstress Fotow allowable shear force a.ow allowable shear stress S cross-sectional area typ shear strength v safety factor ene Allowable "shear stress: Dowel pin 26 mm, single-sheor loaded, ] E295, v= 3; Futon =? | 728 #9 _ 380 Nim? sallow = aatoy == SS | v ge Rd_w6mmF Allowable shear force The loaded cross-section must be sheared. Maximum Tema Max. shear strength S_ shear area shear strength Fax ax.tensile strength F _ cutting force [fseoor=08- Fora] ae Example: Punching a 3 mm thick steel sheet $235JR; d= 16mm; F=? taal Pymax = 470 Nimm? (Table page 130) 5 8max = 0.8» Rmmox = 0.8 - 470 N/mm? = 376 N/mm? F=S-tsBmax S =:de gen: 16mm: 3mm = 160.8 mm? F = S-rapmax~ 1508 mm? - 376 Nim? = $6701 N For mechanical strength properties Fy maf" See pages 130 10138 Calculation for buckling of Euler columns applies only to Load case and free buckling thin (profile) parts and within the elastic range of the lengths (Euler columns) ictielacs bie buckling Load case Fou.aiow allowable buckling force Modulus of elasticity for ee enath 1 Moment of inertia 1 TV iy tree buckling length F] FL _ safety factor (in machine construction = 3-10) Example: Beam IPB200, |= 3.5 m; clamped at both ends; ¥ = 10; Fouatiow = ?; E= 210000 N/mm? = 21 - 108 Nicm? me ~ (table below); 1"! = 2000 cm* F 2.6.1 %7-21-108%) -2000em" tuatow "v5: 350emi - 10 He i fe a 135-105 N=135MN free buckling lengths "for moments of inertia ofan area 2nd moment), see pages 207 ,=05« 49 and 146-151. Special calculation methods are stipulated bye2el for structural stee! according to DIN 18800 and DIN 4114, steel | EN-GJL- | EN-GJL- ] EN-GJS- | GS-38 |EN-GJMW-| Cuzn40 | Alalloy | Tialloy 150 300 400 350-4 196-216 | 80-90 | 110-140 | 170-185 210 170 ‘0-100 | 60-80 112-130Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials 47 Bending and torsional stress Tensile and compressive stresses occur in a member during bending. The maximum stress is calculated in boundary areas of the member; they may not exceed the allowable bending stress. 04 bending stress F bending force Bending stress My bending moment f deflection W. axial section modulus Example: pass Sa Ba resa Wi esce paneer creda tes Ss raan | peemechaeg ont Saw N, ‘one end; concentrated load F = 25 kN; ng Mn _ 25000 260 em OW stem? Bending load cases in beams ‘Beam loaded with a concentrated load Beam with a uniformly distributed load xed at one end fixed atone end | My =F I FeF | Fl Mes oe a FB 8-E- Fel | Mo =e Fl My= me ala FB 3a-E- 5-F 1 384-E-T fixed at both ends FeF il | Bia 1 E Modulus of elasticity; values: page 46 1 2nd moment of inertia; formulae: page 49; values: pages 146 to 151. F Distributed load (load per unit length, e.g. Nim) Length of distributed load M, torsional moment % torsional stress W,. polar section modulus Torsional stress Example: ™M, qeot Shaft, d = 32 mm; M, = 420 Nm; Ws, ned _ x(32mmi : ae 0834 mm Allowable torsional- Str€S8 Tratow from page 420000N-mm _ eg N 44 or page 48 6434 mm? mm? For polar section moduli see pages 49 and 15148 Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials Shape factors in strength ‘Shape-related strength is the fatigue strength of the cross-section of a dynamically loa: ded member with an additional allowance for the strength reducing effects of the com- ponent's shape. Important factors include + the shape of the component (presence of stress concentration) + machining quality (surface roughness) + stock dimensions (member thickness) When compensating for the required safety factor this yields the allowable stress nee- ded to verify the strength of a member which is dynamically loaded. ‘05. shape-rolated strength b, surface condition factor stess limit of the unnotched by size factor cross-section, ©.9. 0p» OF Tinus (Page 44) stress concentration factor 1p safety factor for fatique fracture lelgiow allowable stress Example: Rotating axle, £335, transverse hole, surface roughness Rz = 25 um, rough part diameter d = 60 mm, safety factor ve = 1.7; 05 = 7; Onion =? yw = 280'Nimm? (page 44); b= 08 (Re, = 570 Nimm®, diagram below; by =08 (diagram below); 8, =1.7 (table below) yw -by-by _ 280Nimm? 08 0.8 aa aa 7 105 Ni O-atow = 5 = 105 Nin? [1.7 = 62 Nim? os Example: Stress distribution Unnotched cross-sections have an uninterrupted distribution of forces and there: Shape-related strength (dynamic loading) og = Sen Be ssn Allowable stress (dynamic loading) os alow = ve ts Tallow = > a v¢ for stool = 1.7 for tensile loading fore a uniform stress distribution. Changes in cross-sections lead to concentrations of lines of force where stresses are concentrated. The ensuing reduction of strength engineering __is primarily influenced by the notch shape, but also by the notch sensitivity of the stress in material unnatehed part we ier Materiat | Ste5s concentration factor 7 bending Shaft with semicircular notch stes-e335 | 15-22 s Shaft with retaining ring groove | 8185-£335 | 25-30 stas-e335 | 19-19 Key way in shaft casesoT | 19-21 socrMoavaT | 21-23 a ‘Woodruff key way in shaft s1e5-e335 | 20-30 sf ; Spline shaft $185-£335, : a Shaft interface to snug fit hub $185-£335 20 15 | Shaft or axle with transverse ores through hole Sree eee alae FY Concentration in atcha part Lian A stes-e335 | 13-15 10 10 16 Tension, compression 509 2s 6 Ko eS 09 ‘5 08 wae Of : 07 ae Ben SF bending/ torsion § 8 Nae PT Nove Son : 5 os 20 be be | 7 oie | $04 Be 06 Sean 00 “aan T000 a0 00 | 0 25 S50 95 100 125 150 mm 200 a tensile stength Rin N/a? a stock diameter ¢ —=Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials 49 DSP Me Eras rat ‘Bending and Buckling Torsion ba adehen roment of, Axial section Polar section inertia! ‘modulus W modulus 7, @ | ae Hie cs \ 6 32 sal , wmlot=a8) wy, mi0*at 2D 1=0.05. D*- 0.083. 4-09 | W=0.1- D3-0.17 d- 02 1= 0.003 - (D+ ai* W=0.012.(D+d)? 10.003 - (D+ ay W=0.012. (D+)? 024.(D+ a"? Wp = 0.208 - 8 W, = 0.1885? W, =0.123- a? Wy=n-¥? sh Values for» see table below BH wh R H-B—hwa 2 1 2nd moments of inertia and axial section modull for profiles see pages 146 to 151 ‘Auxiliary value 1 for polar section moduli of rectangular cross-sections hiw 1 15 2 3 4 6 8 10 © 7 o20s | 0231 | o2as | 0267 | o2az | o299 | o307 | 033 | 033350 Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes Cross-section Linear ‘Section moduli or static moments for type of loading ‘mass density Bending Buckling Torsion ‘Shape Standard Le Me bal a ee designation | kg/m |factor”| cm? |factor"| om* |factor"!| em? |factor"!| em? | factor" round bar EN 10060- | 617 | 1.00 | 98 | 100 | 98 | 100 | 491 | 1.00 | 196 | 1.00 100 ‘square bar EN 10059- | 785 | 1.27 | 167 | 1:70 | 167 | 170 | 933 | 1.70 | 208 | 1.06 100 pipe EN 10220- | 168 | 0.27 | 55 | 056 | 55 | 056 | 313 | o64 | 110 | 056 1143x63 hollow structural section 183 | 030 | 678 | 069 | 678 | 069 | 339 | 069 | 110 | 056 EN 10210-2 100 x 100 x 6.3 hollow structural section 161 | 026 | 59 | 060 | sa6 | 039 | 116 | 028 | 77 | 039 EN 10210.2 120 x 60x63 tatbar a evraese- | 322 | oe: | oe | oss | az | oa | we | ox | - | - 100 x 50 ‘Tsection xP” | entooss- | 164 | 027 | 246 | 025 | 177 | 018 | aaa | ow | - | - T100 y U-Channet section EN 1026— u100 106 | 017 | 412 | 042 | 85 | 008 | 293 | 006 | - | - L-beam section DIN 1025- as | o13 | 342 | 095 | 49 | 005 | 122 | oo2 | - | - 1100 L-beam section x-fe- 2 | DIN 1025- 204 | 033 | 99 | os2 | 335 | 034 | 167 | oss | - | - TPB100 1 Factor referenced to round bar EN 10060-100 (cross-section in first row of table)Physics: 2.7 Thermodynamics 51 Effects of changes in temperature ae “Temperatures are measured in Kelvin (K), degrees Celsius Temperature in 100 ailing point (Centigrase, °C) or degrees Fahrenhelt (7). The Kevin scale Kelvin 373 i of water ‘originates at the lowest possible temperature, absolute zero; KT eC veting point %N#oFain of he Celsius scales atthe melting point fice T=t+273 2737-0 — hice T temperature in K £,8 temperature in °C (thermodynamic temperature) fe temperature in *F Eerie Temperatut degrees Fahrenheit absolute t-20%; T=? 0 273 —rer0 Ts t+ 273 = (20 + 273) K = 293 K te=1.8-t+32 «y—conffiientof____a/_Uinear expansion Linear expansion Tnecrexpention Ad changeinlemeer At.AP temperature change |; initial length Al= ay ly At Exeniles Change in diameter Plate of unalloyed steel, =120 mm: a Ad At =650°C; al=? Al =ay-h-at i oooore [ Ad=aj-dy- At For coefficients of line 0000119 1. zomm-560°C= 0.785mm ar expansion see eee pages 18 and 117 ey coefficient of AV change in volume Change in volume volumetric expansion V, initial volume At. Ad temperature change as cue eat For solids Example: ay=3-q For coefficients of volu- ‘metric expansion see page 117. For volumetric expansi- on of gases see page 42. 'S- Shrinkage allowance in% pattern length Pattern length 1 workpiece length Tq00% eee Example: *"100%-S Al casting, / = 680 mm; $= 1.2%!) =? For shrinkage allow- ances see page 163 ‘The specific heat c indicates how much heat is needed to Quantity of heat warm up 1 kg of a substance by 1°C. The same quantity of Taineusicl guessing meat 2 spec hesteapacty quantity ofheat ae anlumpsamisctanes) | “Myiates wy 1-8 Example: i Suel shot 2g: en 008, “ thw-h=36 My At = 800°C; Q=? i | Q-comar-008 H--24g-cmrc-reans Fayence52 Physics: 2.7 Thermodynamics Heat for Melting, Vaporizing, Combustion Heat energy is necessary to transform substances from Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization a solidstato to liquid state or from a liquid state to 3 Gaseous state. Thisisknown asthe heat offusion orhest | Q=q-m of vaporization @ heat of fusion 1 specific heat heat of evaperation of evaporation specific heat of fusion m mass Hest of vaporization Q=r-m Example: kK | Copper, m=65k5:q=21382; a=? a a: 4=213,2: 0 | For specific heat of evaporation see pages 116 and 117. -qem=2108 6549-10945) 14M | fusion and heat of quantity of heat @ The heat flux ® continually occurs within a substance Heat flux with with movement from higher to lower temperatures. thermal conduction The heat transmission coefficient k also compensates, -A-At along with the thermal conductivity ofa part, for the heat eae transmission resistance on the surfaces of the part. s © heat flux At, A temperature difference 2 thermal conductivity component thickness k heattransmission -A_—_areacfthe component Heat flux with coefficient heat transmission Example: [ D=k-AAt Heat protection glass k=19-;A=28m%; at 32°C; =? ty values 4 see pages 116 and 117. For heat transmission coefficients k see below. | = =19_W 2 32% @-k-A-at=19 28mm? -32°C=170W ‘The net calorific value Hye (H) of a substance refers Heat of combustion of \/ to the heat quantity released during the complete solid and iquid sub- wy Combustion of 1 kg or 11 of that substance. stances a heat of combustion — “ ‘es Qa Hye H net calorific value een ‘m- mass of solid and liquid fuels V volume of fuel gas eet’ sorasesion ot y Example: gases Natural gas, V 38m; Hag =95 ME: 2 aaa Heat transmission cooficionts k Ie ten San fe St for construction materials ond parts Sold Gna, [Liquid Que; [Gaseous] Qua | Construction = I, fuels Mulia | fuels Mulia | fuels Muim? | elements mm | mt-76 wood 15-17 | alcoho! 27 [hydrogen | 10 [outerdoor ste! | 50 | 58 biomass ay) | 14-18 [benzene | 40. | natural gas. | 34-36 | sash window 2} 13 brown coal 16-20 |gasotine | 43 | acetyiene | 57 | brick walt a | 1a coke 30 |dieset | 41-43 | propane | 93. |intermediateMoor | 125 | 32 piteoal 20-34 |uetoit__| 40-42 | butane 123_[heatinsulating board] 80 | 0.39Physics: 2.8 Electricity 53 Quantities and Units, Ohm's Law, Resistance ‘Quantity Unit Name ‘Symbol Name ‘Symbol electrical voltage E volt Vv electric current i ‘ampere A electrical resistance a ohm 2 electrical conductance @ ‘Siemens s TWe1V-1A electrical power P watt Ww 88.0; E =230V; 1=? E20) eq | For circuit symbols see ie | page 351 resistance in ' Resistance: 2 luctance in 3 & conductance in S ot ef G ¢ Example: 5, . Conductance Bo 05 1 15 2525 1 é G-2 conductance G —e R electrical resistivity in Q- mmm Electrical resistivity electrical conductivity in m2 - mm?) 7 i resistance in = wire cross section in mm? 2 _—— wire length in m rr Example: ears Copper wire, /=100m; A=15mm?;9=0.0179 2 ™™ A =7 Conductor resistance mn? eu ot 001799" «400m Rr 4 Atom 98 A For electrical resistivities, see pages 116 and 117, Material | Tivalue cin ¥/K | AR change in resistance in AR changé e 2 Change in resistance ‘aluminum | 0.0040 Rao resistance at 20°C in © (ead 0.0088 Ry resistance at the temperature t in @ [ AR=c- Roo At @ temperature coefficient (7; value) in 1K ond oer, At temperature difference in K copper | 0.0039 Resistance at Re temperature t te) ones Example: tungsten | 0.0088 ~ R= Roo + AR aa as Resistance of Cu; Azo = 150 9 t= 75°C: Ry a = arr 1 = 0.0039 1/K; At= 75°C - 20°C = 55°C = 55 K Re Roo: (14 At) Bum Roo (V4a- At) eee) 0.0019 = 150.2 (1+ 0.0039 1K - 55 K) = 1822.2 constantan | + 0.000014} p alowable current densit) SA Bop - Bu 22 $0 E125 bones Ly Riine Ea. fe 4 Ey/2 Rie I fy, . |: |: al] ie ele| |e J current density in A/mm? 7 electric currentin {A_ conductor cross section in mm? Example A=25mmi 1=8A; J=? 14a yg AL A” 25 mae~¥ samt J conductor (cross-sectional) area A cea nr 4 voltage drop in wire in V E voltage at terminal in V E. _ voltage across load in V 1 electric current in A Ring resistance for feed or return line in Q total resistance, equivalent resistance in @ 1 total current in A E total voltage in V Fy, Re individual resistances in hf partial current in A ,,E; voltage drop across Ry & Rp in V Example: Ry = 100; Ry =200; =12V;R =; I=? Ey % Eye? R= RyoR-100+200-30.0 Env Rr wa 4A Ey=Ry-1=100.04) E=Ry-1=200.04 A total resistance, equivalent resistance in @ 1 total current in A E total voltage in V Ry, Ry individual resistances in yf partial current in A E;, E voltage drop across Ry & A in V Example: Ry =180; R, =300; E =12V; R=?; hath Ry _ 180-300 210.0 +R) 160+%00 Ey £12Y yoy R wo E, £,_2Vv 1-81 1,-£2- 2) oan wR R 300 1 Use this formula if there are only two parallel resistors in the circuit. Current density Voltage drop Voltage at load ro = E- Eg ' Total resistance R=Ry+ Rpt... Total voltage E=E,+ E+. Total current Total voltage [ E=E,=E =... Partial currents a bh RPhysics: 2.8 Electricity 55 amg Direct current flows in one direction only and main- Electric current tains a constant level of current. The voltage is also constant. constant | ie 1 elec curentin A 1j-————_ E voltage in V Vottage “ a constant Cycle duration and Frequency. While the voltage is continuously changing in a sinu- Cycle duration f frequency in 1/s, Hz au pened © angular requency in Vs | ‘ 7 elecwicurentn A is E votoge in V i] imi Example: Frequency 50 Hz; T =? T-\,-0ms 30 Hertz = 1 He = His = 1 period per second ‘Maximum value and effective value of current and voltage Ina Maximum value of the electric current in A imum value of the Jey effective value of the electric current in A sleet curent Exax Maximum value of the voltage in V Exy effective value of the voltage in V (voltage. are Velen that produces the same power as an identical DC voltage across an ohmic resistor) 1 electric current in A E voltage in V ‘Maximum value of the | Emax = V2 > Eost t timeins 2-230 25 V Three-phase current is created from three AC voltages each offset by 120°. E voltage inV T period ins Lt phase 1 L2 phase 2 Ls phase 3 Exy effective voltage between phase wire and neutral wire = 230 V Ex effective voltage between two phase wires =400V56 Physics: 2.8 Electricity Electrical Work and Power, Transformers W electrical work in kWh Electrical work P electrical power in W time (power-on time) inh Example: Hot plate, P= 1.8 kW; t= 3h; W=? in KW- hand MJ 1 kW: h= 3.6 MJ W- P.t=1.8kW-3h=5.4 kW P electrical power in W Power with direct E voltage (phase-to-phase voltage) in V or alternating current 1 electric current in A aes A. resistance in 9 ‘Ist example: P=P-R é R Three-phase current bel ps Ry Power with Annealing furnace, three-phase current, hiveedessa carer fEtae E =400V;P =12kW;1=? ‘| -—c__+—+ Pa\3-E1 Ry Siren cme mT ») i.e. only with heating devices (ohmic resistors) Alternating current P electrical power output in W Electric power output E I E voltage (phase-to-phase voltage) in V with alternating current — 1 electric current in A e cosp power factor P=E-I-cosp = Example: Three:phase current Three: phase motor, E = 400 V;1=2 A; bership ian sJg]2 cosy = 0.85; P=? | . {rn eeaes - a 1é P =13-E-1-cosp=)3-400V-2A-0.85 P=/3-E-I-cosp H nf ew Sate t pom 2) i.e. in electric motors and generators ‘Output Ny, Nz number of turns hk currentlevelinA Voltages. side volt inv (secondary E,, Ez voltages coil hes : a Example M g ,