SERIES

ARTICLE

Mathematics in Ancient India

1. An Overview
Amartya Kumar Dutta

Amartya Kumar Dutta is

an Associate Professor of
Mathematics at the
Indian Statistical
Institute, Kolkata. His
research interest is in
commutative algebra.

In th is se r ie s o f a r tic le s, w e in te n d to h a v e a
g lim p se o f s o m e o f th e la n d m a r k s in a n c ie n t In d ia n m a th e m a tic s w ith sp e c ia l e m p h a s is o n n u m b e r th e o r y . T h is issu e fe a tu re s a b r ie f o v e r v ie w
o f so m e o f th e h ig h p e a k s o f m a th e m a tic s in a n c ie n t In d ia . In th e n e x t p a r t w e sh a ll d e sc r ib e
A r y a b h a ta 's g e n e ra l so lu tio n in in te g e r s o f th e
e q u a tio n a x by = c. In su b se q u e n t in sta lm e n ts
w e sh a ll d isc u ss in so m e d e ta il tw o o f th e m a jo r c o n tr ib u tio n s b y In d ia n s in n u m b e r th e o r y .
T h e c lim a x o f th e In d ia n a c h ie v e m e n ts in a lg e b r a a n d n u m b e r th e o r y w a s th e ir d e v e lo p m e n t
o f th e in g e n io u s chakravala m e th o d fo r so lv in g , in
in te g e r s, th e e q u a tio n x 2 D y 2 = 1 , e r r o n e o u sly
k n o w n a s th e P e ll e q u a tio n . W e s h a ll la te r d e sc r ib e th e p a rtia l so lu tio n o f B ra h m a g u p ta a n d
th e n th e c o m p le te so lu tio n d u e to J a y a d e v a a n d
B h a sk a r a c h a r y a .
V e d ic M a th e m a tic s: T h e S u lb a S u tr a s

Keywords.
Taittiriya Samhita, Sulba-sutras,
Chakravala method, MeruPrastara, Vedic altars, Yuktibhasa, Madhava series.

M a th em a tics, in its ea rly sta g es, d ev elo p ed m a in ly a lo n g

tw o b ro a d ov erla p p in g tra d itio n s: (i) th e g eo m etric a n d
(ii) th e a rith m etica l a n d a lg eb ra ic. A m o n g th e p reG reek a n cien t civ iliza tio n s, it is in In d ia th a t w e see
a stro n g em p h a sis o n b o th th ese g rea t strea m s o f m a th em a tics. O th er a n cien t civ iliza tio n s lik e th e E g y p tia n
a n d th e B a b y lo n ia n h a d p ro g ressed essen tia lly a lo n g th e
co m p u ta tio n a l tra d itio n . A S eid en b erg , a n em in en t a lg eb ra ist a n d h isto ria n o f m a th em a tics, tra ced th e o rig in
o f so p h istica ted m a th em a tics to th e o rig in a to rs o f th e
R ig V ed ic ritu a ls ([1 , 2 ]).

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T h e o ld est k n ow n m a th em a tics tex ts in ex isten ce a re th e

S u lba-su tras o f B a u d h ay a n a , A p a sta m b a a n d K a ty ay a n a
w h ich fo rm p a rt o f th e litera tu re o f th e S u tra p erio d o f
th e la ter V ed ic a g e. T h e S u lb a su tra s h a d b een estim a ted
to h av e b een co m p o sed a ro u n d 8 0 0 B C (so m e recen t resea rch ers a re su g g estin g ea rlier d a tes). B u t th e m a th em a tica l k n ow led g e reco rd ed in th ese su tras (a p h o rism s)
a re m u ch m o re a n cien t; fo r th e S u lb a a u th o rs em p h a sise
th a t th ey w ere m erely sta tin g fa cts a lrea d y k n ow n to
th e co m p o sers o f th e B ra h m a n a s a n d S a m h ita s o f th e
ea rly V ed ic a g e ([3 ], [1 ], [2 ]).
T h e S u lb a su tra s g iv e a co m p ila tio n o f th e resu lts in
m a th em a tics th a t h a d b een u sed fo r th e d esig n in g a n d
co n stru ctio n s o f th e va rio u s eleg a n t V ed ic re-a lta rs rig h t
fro m th e d aw n o f civ iliza tio n . T h e a lta rs h a d rich sy m b o lic sig n i ca n ce a n d h a d to b e co n stru cted w ith a ccu ra cy. T h e d esig n s o f sev era l o f th ese b rick -a lta rs a re
q u ite in v o lv ed { fo r in sta n ce, th ere a re co n stru ctio n s d ep ictin g a fa lco n in ig h t w ith cu rv ed w in g s, a ch a rio tw h eel co m p lete w ith sp o k es o r a to rto ise w ith ex ten d ed
h ea d a n d leg s! C o n stru ctio n s o f th e re-a lta rs a re d escrib ed in a n en o rm o u sly d ev elo p ed fo rm in th e S atapatha B rahm an a (c. 2 0 0 0 B C ; v id e [3 ]); so m e o f th em
a re m en tio n ed in th e ea rlier T aittiriya S am hita (c. 3 0 0 0
B C ; v id e [3 ]); b u t th e sa cri cia l re-a lta rs a re referred
{ w ith o u t ex p licit co n stru ctio n { in th e ev en ea rlier R ig
V ed ic S a m h ita s, th e o ld est stra ta o f th e ex ta n t V ed ic litera tu re. T h e d escrip tio n s o f th e re-a lta rs fro m th e T a ittiriy a S a m h ita o n w a rd s a re ex a ctly th e sa m e a s th o se
fo u n d in th e la ter S u lb a su tra s.

D
H

Q
C

From the KATYAYANA

sulba.

Vakrapaksa-syenacit.
First layer of construction
(after Baudhayana)

P la n e g eo m etry sta n d s o n tw o im p o rta n t p illa rs h av in g a p p lica tio n s th ro u g h o u t h isto ry : (i) th e resu lt p o p u la rly k n ow n a s th e `P y th a g o ra s th eo rem ' a n d (ii) th e
p ro p erties o f sim ila r g u res. In th e S u lb a su tra s, w e
see a n ex p licit sta tem en t o f th e P y th a g o ra s th eo rem
a n d its a p p lica tio n s in va rio u s g eo m etric co n stru ctio n s
su ch a s co n stru ctio n o f a sq u a re eq u a l (in a rea ) to th e

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SERIES

How great is the

science which
revealed itself in
the Sulba, and how
meagre is my
intellect! I have
aspired to cross
the unconquerable
ocean in a mere
raft.
B Datta alluding to
Kalidasa

But the Vedic Hindu,

in his great quest of
the Para-vidya,
Satyasya Satyam,
made progress in the
Apara-Vidya,
including the various
arts and sciences, to
a considerable
extent, and with a
completeness which
is unparallelled in
antiquity.
B Datta

ARTICLE

su m , o r d i eren ce, o f tw o g iv en sq u a res, o r to a recta n g le, o r to th e su m o f n sq u a res. T h ese co n stru ctio n s im p licitly in v o lv e a p p lica tio n o f a lg eb ra ic id en titites su ch a s (a b)2 = a 2 + b 2 2 a b, a 2 b 2 =
(a + b)(a b), a b = ((a + b)= 2 )2 ((a b)= 2 )2 a n d
n a 2 = ((n + 1 )= 2 )2 a 2 ((n 1 )= 2 )2 a 2 . T h ey re ect
a b len d in g o f g eo m etric a n d su b tle a lg eb ra ic th in k in g
a n d in sig h t w h ich w e a sso cia te w ith E u clid . In fa ct, th e
S u lb a co n stru ctio n o f a sq u a re eq u a l in a rea to a g iv en
recta n g le is ex a ctly th e sa m e a s g iv en b y E u clid sev era l
cen tu ries la ter ! T h ere a re g eo m etric so lu tio n s to w h a t
a re a lg eb ra ic a n d n u m b er-th eo retic p ro b lem s.
P y th a g o ra s th eo rem w a s k n ow n in o th er a n cien t civ iliza tio n s lik e th e B a b y lo n ia n , b u t th e em p h a sis th ere w a s
o n th e n u m erica l a n d n o t so m u ch o n th e p ro p er g eo m etric a sp ect w h ile in th e S u lb a su tra s o n e sees d ep th in
b o th a sp ects { esp ecia lly th e g eo m etric. T h is is a su b tle
p o in t a n a ly sed in d eta il b y S eid en b erg . F ro m certa in d ia g ra m s d escrib ed in th e S u lb a su tra s, sev era l h isto ria n s
a n d m a th em a ticia n s lik e B u rk , H a n k el, S ch o p en h a u er,
S eid en b erg a n d V a n d er W a erd en h av e co n clu d ed th a t
th e S u lb a a u th o rs p o ssessed p ro o fs o f g eo m etrica l resu lts
in clu d in g th e P y th a g o ra s th eo rem { so m e o f th e d eta ils
a re a n a ly sed in th e p io n eerin g w o rk o f D a tta ([2 ]). O n e
o f th e p ro o fs o f th e P y th a g o ra s th eo rem , ea sily d ed u cib le
fro m th e S u lb a v erses, is la ter d escrib ed m o re ex p licitly
b y B h a ska ra II (1 1 5 0 A D ).
A p a rt fro m th e k n ow led g e, sk ill a n d in g en u ity in g eo m etry a n d g eo m etric a lg eb ra , th e V ed ic civ iliza tio n w a s
stro n g in th e co m p u ta tio n a l a sp ects o f m a th em a tics a s
w ell { th ey h a n d led th e a rith m etic o f fra ctio n s a s w ell
a s su rd s w ith ea se, fo u n d g o o d ra tio n a l a p p ro x im a tio n s
to irra tio n a l n u m b ers lik e th e sq u a re ro o t o f 2 , a n d , o f
co u rse, u sed sev era l sig n i ca n t resu lts o n m en su ra tio n .
A n a m a zin g fea tu re o f a ll a n cien t In d ia n m a th em a tica l
litera tu re, b eg in n in g w ith th e S u lb a su tra s, is th a t th ey

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th ey a re co m p o sed en tirely in v erses { a n in cred ib le fea t!

T h is tra d itio n o f co m p o sin g terse su tras, w h ich co u ld b e
ea sily m em o rised , en su red th a t, in sp ite o f th e p a u city
a n d p erish a b ility o f w ritin g m a teria ls, so m e o f th e co re
k n ow led g e g o t o ra lly tra n sm itted to su ccessiv e g en era tio n s.
P o st-V e d ic M a th e m a tic s
D u rin g th e p erio d 6 0 0 B C -3 0 0 A D , th e G reek s m a d e
p ro fo u n d co n trib u tio n s to m a th em a tics { th ey p io n eered
th e a x io m a tic a p p ro a ch th a t is ch a ra cteristic o f m o d ern
m a th em a tics, crea ted th e m a g n i cen t ed i ce o f E u clid ea n g eo m etry, fo u n d ed trig o n o m etry, m a d e im p ressiv e
b eg in n in g s in n u m b er th eo ry, a n d b ro u g h t o u t th e in trin sic b ea u ty, eleg a n ce a n d g ra n d eu r o f p u re m a th em a tics. B a sed o n th e so lid fo u n d a tio n p rov id ed b y
E u clid , G reek g eo m etry so a red fu rth er in to th e h ig h er
g eo m etry o f co n ic sectio n s d u e to A rch im ed es a n d A p o llo n iu s. A rch im ed es in tro d u ced in teg ra tio n a n d m a d e
sev era l o th er m a jo r co n trib u tio n s in m a th em a tics a n d
p h y sics. B u t a fter th is b rillia n t p h a se o f th e G reek s, crea tiv e m a th em a tics v irtu a lly ca m e to a h a lt in th e W est
till th e m o d ern rev iva l.
O n th e o th er h a n d , th e In d ia n co n trib u tio n , w h ich b eg a n fro m th e ea rliest tim es, co n tin u ed v ig o ro u sly rig h t
u p to th e six teen th cen tu ry A D , esp ecia lly in a rith m etic,
a lg eb ra a n d trig o n o m etry. In fa ct, fo r sev era l cen tu ries
a fter th e d eclin e o f th e G reek s, it w a s o n ly in In d ia , a n d
to so m e ex ten t C h in a , th a t o n e co u ld n d a n a b u n d a n ce
o f crea tiv e a n d o rig in a l m a th em a tica l a ctiv ity. In d ia n
m a th em a tics u sed to b e h eld in h ig h esteem b y co n tem p o ra ry sch o la rs w h o w ere ex p o sed to it. F o r in sta n ce,
a m a n u scrip t fo u n d in a S p a n ish m o n a stery (9 7 6 A D )
reco rd s ([4 ],[5 ]): \T he In dian s have an extrem ely su btle
an d pen etratin g in tellect, an d w hen it com es to arithm etic, geom etry an d other su ch advan ced disciplin es,
other ideas m u st m ake w ay for theirs. T he best proof of

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nor did he [Thibaut]

formulate the
obvious conclusion,
namely, that the
Greeks were not the
inventors of plane
geometry, rather it
was the Indians.
A Seidenberg

Anyway, the
damage had been
done and the
Sulvasutras have
never taken the
position in the
history of
mathematics that
they deserve.
A Seidenberg

SERIES

The cord stretched

in the diagonal of a
rectangle produces
both (areas) which
the cords forming
the longer and
shorter sides of an
oblong produce
separately.
(translation from the
Sulbasutras)

A common source
for the Pythagorean
and Vedic mathematics is to be
sought either in the
Vedic mathematics
or in an older
mathematics very
much like it. ... What
was this older,
common source
like? I think its
mathematics was
very much like what
we see in the
Sulvasutras.
A Seidenberg

ARTICLE

this is the n in e sym bols w ith w hich they represen t each

n u m ber n o m atter how large." S im ila r trib u te w a s p a id
b y th e S y ria n sch o la r S ev eru s S eb o k h t in 6 6 2 A D ([5 ],
[6 ]).
T h e D e c im a l N o ta tio n a n d A r ith m e tic
In d ia g av e to th e w o rld a p riceless g ift { th e d ecim a l
sy stem . T h is p ro fo u n d a n o n y m o u s In d ia n in n ova tio n is
u n su rp a ssed fo r sh eer b rillia n ce o f a b stra ct th o u g h t a n d
u tility a s a p ra ctica l in v en tio n . T h e d ecim a l n o ta tio n
d eriv es its p ow er m a in ly fro m tw o k ey stro k es o f g en iu s:
th e co n cep t o f p la ce-va lu e a n d th e n o tio n o f zero a s a
d ig it. G B H a lsted ([7 ]) h ig h lig h ted th e p ow er o f th e
p la ce-va lu e o f zero w ith a b ea u tifu l im a g ery : \T he im portan ce of the creation of the zero m ark can n ever be exaggerated. T his givin g to airy n othin g, n ot m erely a local
habitation an d a n am e, a pictu re, a sym bol, bu t helpfu l
pow er, is the characteristic of the H in du race w hen ce it
spran g. It is like coin in g the N irvan a in to dyn am os. N o
sin gle m athem atical creation has been m ore poten t for
the gen eral on -go of in telligen ce an d pow er."
T h e d ecim a l sy stem h a s a d ecep tiv e sim p licity a s a resu lt o f w h ich ch ild ren a ll ov er th e w o rld lea rn it ev en a t a
ten d er a g e. It h a s a n eco n o m y in th e n u m b er o f sy m b o ls
u sed a s w ell a s th e sp a ce o ccu p ied b y a w ritten n u m b er,
a n a b ility to e o rtlessly ex p ress a rb itra rily la rg e n u m b ers a n d , a b ov e a ll, co m p u ta tio n a l fa cility. T h u s th e
tw elv e-d ig it R o m a n n u m b er (D C C C L X X X V III) is sim p ly 8 8 8 in th e d ecim a l sy stem !
M o st o f th e sta n d a rd resu lts in b a sic a rith m etic a re o f In d ia n o rig in . T h is in clu d es n ea t, sy stem a tic a n d stra ig h tfo rw a rd tech n iq u es o f th e fu n d a m en ta l a rith m etic o p era tio n s: a d d itio n , su b tra ctio n , m u ltip lica tio n , d iv isio n ,
ta k in g sq u a res a n d cu b es, a n d ex tra ctin g sq u a re a n d
cu b e ro o ts; th e ru les o f o p era tio n s w ith fra ctio n s a n d
su rd s; va rio u s ru les o n ra tio a n d p ro p o rtio n lik e th e ru le

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SERIES ARTICLE

o f th ree; a n d sev era l co m m ercia l a n d rela ted p ro b lem s

lik e in co m e a n d ex p en d itu re, p ro t a n d lo ss, sim p le a n d
co m p o u n d in terest, d isco u n t, p a rtn ersh ip , co m p u ta tio n s
o f th e av era g e im p u rities o f g o ld , sp eed s a n d d ista n ces,
a n d th e m ix tu re a n d cistern p ro b lem s sim ila r to th o se
fo u n d in m o d ern tex ts. T h e In d ia n m eth o d s o f p erfo rm in g lo n g m u ltip lica tio n s a n d d iv isio n s w ere in tro d u ced in
E u ro p e a s la te a s th e 1 4 th cen tu ry A D . W e h av e b eco m e
so u sed to th e ru les o f o p eratio n s w ith fra ctio n s th a t w e
ten d to ov erlo o k th e fa ct th a t th ey co n ta in id ea s w h ich
w ere u n fa m ilia r to th e E g y p tia n s, w h o w ere g en era lly
p ro cien t in a rith m etic, a n d th e G reek s, w h o h a d so m e
o f th e m o st b rillia n t m in d s in th e h isto ry o f m a th em a tics. T h e ru le o f th ree, b ro u g h t to E u ro p e v ia th e A ra b s,
w a s v ery h ig h ly reg a rd ed b y m erch a n ts d u rin g a n d a fter th e ren a issa n ce. It ca m e to b e k n ow n a s th e G o ld en
R u le fo r its g rea t p o p u la rity a n d u tility in co m m ercia l
co m p u ta tio n s { m u ch sp a ce u sed to b e d ev o ted to th is
ru le b y th e ea rly E u ro p ea n w riters o n a rith m etic.

... the basic point is

that the dominant
aspect of Old
Babylonian
mathematics is its
computational
character ... The
Sulvasutras know
both aspects
(geometric and
computational) and
so does the
Satapatha
Brahmana.
A Seidenberg

T h e ex cellen ce a n d sk ill a tta in ed b y th e In d ia n s in th e

fo u n d a tio n s o f a rith m etic w a s p rim a rily d u e to th e a d va n ta g e o f th e ea rly d iscov ery o f th e d ecim a l n o ta tio n {
th e k ey to a ll p rin cip a l id ea s in m o d ern a rith m etic. F o r
in sta n ce, th e m o d ern m eth o d s fo r ex tra ctin g sq u a re a n d
cu b e ro o ts, d escrib ed b y A ry a b h a ta in th e 5 th cen tu ry
A D , clev erly u se th e id ea s of p la ce va lu e a n d zero a n d
th e a lg eb ra ic ex p a n sio n s o f (a + b)2 a n d (a + b)3 . T h ese
m eth o d s w ere in tro d u ced in E u ro p e o n ly in th e 1 6 th
cen tu ry A D . A p a rt fro m th e ex a ct m eth o d s, In d ia n s a lso
in v en ted sev era l in g en io u s m eth o d s fo r d eterm in a tio n o f
a p p rox im a te sq u a re ro o ts o f n o n -sq u a re n u m b ers, so m e
o f w h ich w e sh a ll m en tio n in a su b seq u en t issu e.

The striking thing

here is that we have
a proof. One will look
in vain for such
things in OldBabylonia. The OldBabylonians, or their
predecessors, must
have had proofs of
their formulae, but
one does not find
them in OldBabylonia.

D u e to th e g a p s in o u r k n ow led g e a b o u t th e ea rly p h a se
o f p o st-V ed ic In d ia n m a th em a tics, th e p recise d eta ils
reg a rd in g th e o rig in o f d ecim a l n o ta tio n is n o t k n ow n .
T h e co n cep t o f zero ex isted b y th e tim e o f P in g a la (d a ted
2 0 0 B C ). T h e id ea o f p la ce-va lu e h a d b een im p licit in

A Seidenberg
referring to a verse
in the Apastamba
Sulbasutra on an
isoceles trapezoid)

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SERIES

The diagonal of a
rectangle produces
both (areas) which
its length and
breadth produce
separately.
(original verse from
the Sulbasutras
along with the
translation are
given in [2], p.104)

ARTICLE

a n cien t S a n sk rit term in o lo g y { a s a resu lt, In d ia n s co u ld

e o rtlessly h a n d le la rg e n u m b ers rig h t fro m th e V ed ic
A g e. T h ere is term in o lo g y fo r a ll m u ltip les o f ten u p to
1 0 1 8 in ea rly V ed ic litera tu re, th e R a m ay a n a h a s term s
a ll th e w ay u p to 1 0 5 5 , a n d th e J a in a -B u d d h ist tex ts
sh ow freq u en t u se o f la rg e n u m b ers (u p to 1 0 1 4 0 !) fo r
th eir m ea su rem en ts o f sp a ce a n d tim e. E x p ressio n s o f
su ch la rg e n u m b ers a re n o t fo u n d in th e co n tem p o ra ry
w o rk s o f o th er n a tio n s. E v en th e b rillia n t G reek s h a d n o
term in o lo g y fo r d en o m in a tio n s a b ov e th e m y ria d (1 0 4 )
w h ile th e R o m a n term in o lo g y sto p p ed w ith th e m ille
(1 0 3 ). T h e stru ctu re o f th e S a n sk rit n u m era l sy stem a n d
th e In d ia n lov e fo r la rg e n u m b ers m u st h av e trig g ered
th e crea tio n o f th e d ecim a l sy stem .
A s w e sh a ll see la ter, ev en th e sm a llest p o sitiv e in teg ra l
so lu tio n o f th e eq u a tio n x 2 D y 2 = 1 co u ld b e v ery la rg e;
in fa ct, fo r D = 6 1 , it is (1 7 6 6 3 1 9 0 4 9 ; 2 2 6 1 5 3 9 8 0 ). T h e
ea rly In d ia n so lu tio n to th is fa irly d eep p ro b lem co u ld b e
p a rtly a ttrib u ted to th e In d ia n s' tra d itio n a l fa scin a tio n
fo r la rg e n u m b ers a n d a b ility to p lay w ith th em .

The Indians have an

extremely subtle and
penetrating intellect,
and when it comes
to arithmetic,
geometry and other
such advanced
disciplines, other
ideas must make
way for theirs.

10

D u e to th e a b sen ce o f g o o d n o ta tio n s, th e G reek s w ere

n o t stro n g in th e co m p u ta tio n a l a sp ects o f m a th em a tics
{ o n e o f th e fa cto rs resp o n sib le fo r th e ev en tu a l d eclin e
o f G reek m a th em a tics. A rch im ed es (2 8 7 -2 1 2 B C ) d id
rea lise th e im p o rta n ce o f g o o d n o ta tio n , a n d m a d e n o ta b le p ro g ress to ev o lv e o n e, b u t fa iled to a n ticip a te th e
In d ia n d ecim a l sy stem . A s th e g rea t F ren ch m a th em a ticia n L a p la ce (1 7 4 9 -1 8 2 7 ) rem a rk ed : \ T he im portan ce of
this in ven tion is m ore readily appreciated w hen on e con siders that it w as beyon d the tw o greatest m en of an tiqu ity: A rchim edes an d A pollon iu s."
T h e d ecim a l sy stem w a s tra n sm itted to E u ro p e th ro u g h
th e A ra b s. T h e S a n sk rit w o rd \ su n ya" w a s tra n sla ted
in to A ra b ic a s \ sifr" w h ich w a s in tro d u ced in to G erm a n y in th e 1 3 th cen tu ry a s \ cifra" fro m w h ich w e h av e
th e w o rd \ cipher" . T h e w o rd \ zero" p ro b a b ly co m es

RESONANCE April 2002

SERIES ARTICLE

fro m th e L a tin ised fo rm \ zephiru m " o f th e A ra b ic sifr.

L eo n a rd o F ib o n a cci o f P isa (1 1 8 0 -1 2 4 0 ), th e rst m a jo r E u ro p ea n m a th em a ticia n o f th e seco n d m illen n iu m ,
p lay ed a m a jo r ro le in th e sp rea d o f th e In d ia n n u m era l
sy stem in E u ro p e. T h e In d ia n n o ta tio n a n d a rith m etic
ev en tu a lly g o t sta n d a rd ised in E u ro p e d u rin g th e 1 6 th 1 7 th cen tu ry.
T h e d ecim a l sy stem stim u la ted a n d a ccelera ted tra d e
a n d co m m erce a s w ell a s a stro n o m y a n d m a th em a tics.
It is n o co in cid en ce th a t th e m a th em a tica l a n d scien ti c
ren a issa n ce b eg a n in E u ro p e o n ly a fter th e In d ia n n o ta tio n w a s a d o p ted . In d eed th e d ecim a l n o ta tio n is th e
v ery p illa r o f a ll m o d ern civ iliza tio n .
A lg e b ra
W h ile so p h istica ted g eo m etry w a s in v en ted d u rin g th e
o rig in o f th e V ed ic ritu a ls, its a x io m a tisa tio n a n d fu rth er d ev elo p m en t w a s d o n e b y th e G reek s. T h e h eig h t
rea ch ed b y th e G reek s in g eo m etry b y th e tim e o f A p o llo n iu s (2 6 0 -1 7 0 B C ) w a s n o t m a tch ed b y a n y su b seq u en t
a n cien t o r m ed ieva l civ ilisa tio n . B u t p ro g ress in g eo m etry p ro p er so o n rea ch ed a p o in t o f sta g n a tio n . B etw een
th e tim es o f P a p p u s (3 0 0 A D ) { th e la st b ig n a m e in
G reek g eo m etry { a n d m o d ern E u ro p e, B ra h m a g u p ta 's
b rillia n t th eo rem s (6 2 8 A D ) o n cy clic q u a d rila tera ls co n stitu te th e so lita ry g em s in th e h isto ry o f g eo m etry.
F u rth er p ro g ress n eed ed n ew tech n iq u es, in fa ct a co m p letely n ew a p p ro a ch in m a th em a tics. T h is w a s p ro v id ed b y th e em erg en ce a n d d ev elo p m en t o f a n ew d iscip lin e { a lg eb ra . It is o n ly a fter th e esta b lish m en t o f
a n a lg eb ra cu ltu re in E u ro p ea n m a th em a tics d u rin g th e
1 6 th cen tu ry A D th a t a resu rg en ce b eg a n in g eo m etry
th ro u g h its a lg eb ra isa tio n b y D esca rtes a n d F erm a t in
ea rly 1 7 th cen tu ry. In fa ct, th e a ssim ila tio n a n d re n em en t o f a lg eb ra h a d a lso set th e sta g e fo r th e rem a rka b le
strid es in n u m b er th eo ry a n d ca lcu lu s in E u ro p e fro m
th e 1 7 th cen tu ry.

RESONANCE April 2002

I will omit all

discussion of the
science of the
Indians, a people not
the same as the
Syrians; of their
subtle discoveries in
astronomy,
discoveries that are
more ingenious than
those of the Greeks
and the Babylonians;
and of their valuable
methods of
calculation which
surpass description.
(Severus Sebokht in
662 AD)

Indeed, if one
understands by
algebra the
application of
arithmetical
operations to
complex magnitudes
of all sorts, whether
rational or irrational
numbers or spacemagnitudes, then the
learned Brahmins of
Hindostan are the
real inventors of
algebra.
H Hankel

11

SERIES

The intellectual
potentialities of the
Indian
nation are unlimited
and not many years
would perhaps be
needed
before India can take
a worthy place in
world Mathematics.
(Andre Weil in 1936)

The importance of
the creation of the
zero mark can never
be exaggerated.
This giving to airy
nothing, not merely a
local habitation and a
name, a picture, a
symbol, but helpful
power, is the
characteristic of the
Hindu race whence it
sprang. It is like
coining the Nirvana
into dynamos. No
single mathematical
creation has been
more potent for the
general on-go of
intelligence and
power.

12

ARTICLE

A lg eb ra w a s o n ly im p licit in th e m a th em a tics o f sev era l a n cien t civ ilisa tio n s till it ca m e o u t in th e o p en

w ith th e in tro d u ctio n o f litera l o r sy m b o lic a lg eb ra in
In d ia . B y th e tim e o f A ry a b h a ta (4 9 9 A D ) a n d B ra h m a g u p ta (6 2 8 A D ), sy m b o lic a lg eb ra h a d ev o lv ed in In d ia in to a d istin ct b ra n ch o f m a th em a tics a n d b eca m e
o n e o f its cen tra l p illa rs. A fter ev o lu tio n th ro u g h sev era l sta g es, a lg eb ra h a s n ow co m e to p lay a k ey ro le in
m o d ern m a th em a tics b o th a s a n in d ep en d en t a rea in its
ow n rig h t a s w ell a s a n in d isp en sa b le to o l in o th er eld s.
In fa ct, th e 2 0 th cen tu ry w itn essed a v ig o ro u s p h a se o f
`a lg eb ra isa tio n o f m a th em a tics'. A lg eb ra p rov id es eleg a n ce, sim p licity, p recisio n , cla rity a n d tech n ica l p ow er
in th e h a n d s o f th e m a th em a ticia n s. It is rem a rka b le
h ow ea rly th e In d ia n s h a d rea lised th e sig n i a n ce o f a lg eb ra a n d h ow stro n g ly th e lea d in g In d ia n m a th em a ticia n s lik e B ra h m a g u p ta (6 2 8 A D ) a n d B h a ska ra II (1 1 5 0
A D ) a sserted a n d esta b lish ed th e im p o rta n ce o f th eir
n ew ly -fo u n d ed d iscip lin e a s w e sh a ll see in su b seq u en t
issu es.
In d ia n s b eg a n a sy stem a tic u se o f sy m b o ls to d en o te u n k n ow n q u a n tities a n d a rith m etic o p era tio n s. T h e fo u r
a rith m etic o p era tio n s w ere d en o ted b y \ y u " , \ k sh " , \ g u "
a n d \ b h a " w h ich a re th e rst letters (o r a little m o d i ca tio n ) o f th e co rresp o n d in g S a n sk rit w o rd s yu ta (a d d itio n ), ksaya (su b tra ctio n ), gu n a (m u ltip lica tio n ) a n d
bhaga (d iv isio n ); sim ila rly \ ka " w a s u sed fo r karan i (ro o t),
w h ile th e rst letters o f th e n a m es o f d i eren t co lo u rs
w ere u sed to d en o te d i eren t u n k n ow n va ria b les. T h is
in tro d u ctio n o f sy m b o lic rep resen ta tio n w a s a n im p o rta n t step in th e ra p id a d va n cem en t o f m a th em a tics. W h ile a ru d im en ta ry u se o f sy m b o ls ca n a lso b e seen in th e
G reek tex ts o f D io p h a n tu s, it is in In d ia th a t a lg eb ra ic
fo rm a lism a ch iev ed fu ll d ev elo p m en t.
T h e In d ia n s cla ssi ed a n d m a d e a d eta iled stu d y o f
eq u a tio n s (w h ich w ere ca lled sam i-karan a), in tro d u ced
n eg a tiv e n u m b ers to g eth er w ith th e ru les fo r a rith m etic

RESONANCE April 2002

SERIES ARTICLE

o p era tio n s in v o lv in g zero an d n eg a tiv e n u m b ers, d iscov ered resu lts o n su rd s, d escrib ed so lu tio n s o f lin ea r
a n d q u a d ra tic eq u a tio n s, g av e fo rm u la e fo r a rith m etic
a n d g eo m etric p ro g ressio n as w ell a s id en titites in v o lv in g su m m a tio n o f n ite series, a n d a p p lied sev era l u sefu l
resu lts o n p erm u ta tio n a n d co m b in a tio n s in clu d in g th e
fo rm u la e fo r n P r a n d n C r . T h e en la rg em en t o f th e n u m b er sy stem to in clu d e n eg a tiv e n u m b ers w a s a m o m en to u s step in th e d ev elo p m en t o f m a th em a tics. T h a n k s
to th e ea rly reco g n itio n o f th e ex isten ce o f n eg a tiv e n u m b ers, th e In d ia n s co u ld g iv e a u n i ed trea tm en t o f th e
va rio u s fo rm s o f q u a d ra tic eq u a tio n s (w ith p o sitiv e co e cien ts), i.e., a x 2 + bx = c; a x 2 + c = bx ; bx + c = a x 2 .
T h e In d ia n s w ere th e rst to reco g n ise th a t a q u a d ra tic
eq u a tio n h a s tw o ro o ts. S rid h a ra ch a ry a (7 5 0 A D ) g av e
th e w ell-k n ow n m eth o d o f so lv in g a q u a d ra tic eq u a tio n
b y co m p letin g th e sq u a re { a n id ea w ith fa r-rea ch in g
co n seq u en ces in m a th em a tics. T h e P a sca l's tria n g le fo r
q u ick co m p u ta tio n o f n C r is d escrib ed b y H a lay u d h a in
th e 1 0 th cen tu ry A D a s M eru -P rastara 7 0 0 y ea rs b efo re
it w a s sta ted b y P a sca l; a n d H a lay u d h a 's M eru -P ra sta ra
w a s o n ly a cla ri ca tio n o f a ru le in v en ted b y P in g a la
m o re th a n 1 2 0 0 y ea rs ea rlier (a ro u n d 2 0 0 B C )!
T h u s, a s in a rith m etic, m a n y to p ics in h ig h -sch o o l a lg eb ra h a d b een sy stem a tica lly d ev elo p ed in In d ia . T h is
k n ow led g e w en t to E u ro p e th ro u g h th e A ra b s. T h e w o rd
yava in A ryabhatiyabhasya of B h a ska ra I (6 th cen tu ry
A D ) m ea n in g \ to m ix " o r \ to sep a ra te" h a s a n ity w ith
th a t o f al-jabr o f a l-K h w a rizm i (8 2 5 A D ) fro m w h ich th e
w o rd a lg eb ra is d eriv ed . In h is w id ely a ccla im ed tex t o n
h isto ry o f m a th em a tics, C a jori ([8 ]) co n clu d es th e ch a p ter o n In d ia w ith th e fo llow in g rem a rk s: \ ...it is rem arkable to w hat exten t In dian m athem atics en ters in to the
scien ce of ou r tim e. B oth the form an d the spirit of the
arithm etic an d algebra of m odern tim es are essen tially
In dian . T hin k of ou r n otation of n u m bers, brou ght to
perfection by the H in du s, thin k of the In dian arithm eti-

RESONANCE April 2002

The ingenious
method of
expressing every
possible number
using a set of ten
symbols (each
symbol having a
place value and an
absolute value)
emerged in India.
The idea seems so
simple nowadays
that its significance
is no longer
appreciated. Its
simplicity lies in the
way it facilitated
calculations and
placed arithmetic
foremost among
useful inventions.
The importance of
this invention is more
readily appreciated
when one considers
that it was beyond
the two greatest men
of antiquity,
Archimedes and
Apollonius.

13

SERIES

India has given to

antiquity the earliest
scientific physicians,
and, according to Sir
William Hunter, she
has even contributed
to modern medical
science by the
discovery of various
chemicals and by
teaching you how to
reform misshapen
ears and noses.
Even more it has
done in mathematics,
for algebra,
geometry, astronomy,
and the triumph of
modern science
mixed mathematics
were all invented in
India, just so much as
the ten numerals, the
very cornerstone of
all present civilization,
were discovered in
India, and, are in
reality, sanskrit
words.
Swami Vivekananda

14

ARTICLE

cal operation s n early as perfect as ou r ow n , thin k of their

elegan t algebraical m ethods, an d then ju dge w hether the
B rahm in s on the ban ks of the G an ges are n ot en titled to
som e credit."
B u t a n cien t In d ia n a lg eb ra w en t fa r b ey o n d th e h ig h
sch o o l lev el. T h e p in n a cle o f In d ia n a ch iev em en t w a s a tta in ed in th eir so lu tio n s o f th e h a rd a n d su b tle n u m b erth eo retic p ro b lem s o f n d in g in teg er so lu tio n s to eq u a tio n s o f rst a n d seco n d d eg ree. S u ch eq u a tio n s a re
ca lled in d eterm in a te o r D io p h a n tin e eq u a tio n s. B u t a la s,
th e In d ia n w o rk s in th is a rea w ere to o fa r a h ea d o f th e
tim es to b e n o ticed b y co n tem p o ra ry a n d su b seq u en t
civ ilisa tio n s! A s C a jo ri la m en ts, \ U n fortu n ately, som e
of the m ost brillian t resu lts in in determ in ate an alysis,
fou n d in the H in du w orks, reached E u rope too late to exert the in u en ce they w ou ld have exerted, had they com e
tw o or three cen tu ries earlier." W ith o u t so m e aw a ren ess o f th e In d ia n co n trib u tio n s in th is eld , it is n o t
p o ssib le to g et a tru e p ictu re o f th e d ep th a n d sk ill a tta in ed in p o st-V ed ic In d ia n m a th em a tics th e ch a ra cter
o f w h ich w a s p rim a rily a lg eb ra ic. W e sh a ll d iscu ss so m e
o f th ese n u m b er-th eo retic co n trib u tio n s fro m th e n ex t
in sta lm en t.
T r ig o n o m e tr y a n d C a lc u lu s
A p a rt fro m d ev elo p in g th e su b ject o f a lg eb ra p ro p er,
In d ia n s a lso b eg a n a p ro cess o f a lg eb risa tio n a n d co n seq u en t sim p li ca tio n o f o th er a rea s o f m a th em a tics. F o r
in sta n ce, th ey d ev elo p ed trig o n o m etry in a sy stem a tic
m a n n er, resem b lin g its m o d ern fo rm , a n d im p a rted to
it its m o d ern a lg eb ra ic ch a ra cter. T h e a lg eb ra isa tio n o f
th e stu d y o f in n itesim a l ch a n g es led to th e d iscov ery o f
k ey p rin cip les o f ca lcu lu s b y th e tim e o f B h a ska ra ch a ry a
(1 1 5 0 A D ) so m e o f w h ich w e sh a ll m en tio n in a su b seq u en t issu e. C a lcu lu s in In d ia lea p ed to a n a m a zin g
h eig h t in th e a n a ly tic trig o n o m etry o f th e K era la sch o o l
in th e 1 4 th cen tu ry.

RESONANCE April 2002

SERIES ARTICLE

A lth o u g h th e G reek s fo u n d ed trig o n o m etry, th eir p ro g ress w a s h a lted d u e to th e a b sen ce o f a d eq u a te a lg eb ra ic m a ch in ery a n d n o ta tio n s. In d ia n s in v en ted th e
sin e a n d co sin e fu n ctio n s, d iscov ered m o st o f th e sta n d a rd fo rm u la e a n d id en titites, in clu d in g th e b a sic fo rm u la fo r sin (A B ), a n d co n stru cted fa irly a ccu ra te
sin e ta b les. B ra h m a g u p ta (62 8 A D ) a n d G o v in d a sw a m i
(8 8 0 A D ) g av e in terp o la tio n fo rm u la e fo r ca lcu la tin g th e
sin es o f in term ed ia te a n g les fro m sin e ta b les { th ese a re
sp ecia l ca ses o f th e N ew to n { S tirlin g a n d N ew to n { G a u ss
fo rm u la e fo r seco n d -o rd er d i eren ce. R em a rka b le a p p rox im a tio n s fo r a re g iv en in In d ia n tex ts in clu d in g
3 :1 4 1 6 o f A ry a b h a ta (4 9 9 A D ), 3 :1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 5 9 o f M a d h ava (1 4 th cen tu ry A D ) a n d 3 5 5 = 1 1 3 o f N ila ka n ta (1 5 0 0
A D ). A n a n o n y m o u s w o rk K aran apaddhati (b eliev ed to
h av e b een w ritten b y P u tu m a n a S o m ay a jin in th e 1 5 th
cen tu ry A D ) g iv es th e va lu e 3 :1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 5 8 9 7 9 3 2 4 w h ich
is co rrect u p to sev en teen d ecim a l p la ces.
T h e G reek s h a d in v estig a ted th e rela tio n sh ip b etw een a
ch o rd o f a circle a n d th e a n g le it su b ten d s a t th e cen tre { b u t th eir sy stem is q u ite cu m b erso m e in p ra ctice.
T h e In d ia n s rea lised th e sign i ca n ce o f th e co n n ectio n
b etw een a h a lf-ch o rd a n d h a lf o f th e a n g le su b ten d ed
b y th e fu ll ch o rd . In th e ca se o f a u n it circle, th is is
p recisely th e sin e fu n ctio n . T h e In d ia n h a lf-ch o rd w a s
in tro d u ced in th e A ra b w orld d u rin g th e 8 th cen tu ry
A D . E u ro p e w a s in tro d u ced to th is fu n d a m en ta l n o tio n
th ro u g h th e w o rk o f th e A ra b sch o la r a l-B a tta n i (8 5 8 9 2 9 A D ). T h e A ra b s p referred th e In d ia n h a lf-ch o rd to
P to lem y 's sy stem o f ch o rd s a n d th e a lg eb ra ic a p p ro a ch
o f th e In d ia n s to th e g eo m etric a p p ro a ch o f th e G reek s.

The Hindus
solved problems in
interest, discount,
partnership,
alligation,
summation of
arithmetical and
geometric series,
and devised rules
for determining the
numbers of
combinations and
permutations. It
may here be
added that chess,
the profoundest of
all games, had its
origin in India.
F Cajori

T h e S a n sk rit w o rd fo r h a lf-ch o rd \ ardha-jya" , la ter a b b rev ia ted a s \ jya" , w a s w ritten b y th e A ra b s a s \ jyb" .

C u rio u sly, th ere is a sim ila r-so u n d in g A ra b w o rd \ jaib"
w h ich m ea n s \ h ea rt, b o so m , fo ld , b ay o r cu rv e" . W h en
th e A ra b w o rk s w ere b ein g tra n sla ted in to L a tin , th e
a p p a ren tly m ea n in g less w o rd \ jyb" w a s m ista k en fo r th e

RESONANCE April 2002

15

SERIES

... it is remarkable to
what extent Indian
mathematics enters
into the science of
our time. Both the
form and the spirit of
the arithmetic
and algebra of
modern times are
essentially Indian.
Think of our notation
of numbers, brought
to perfection by the
Hindus, think of the
Indian arithmetical
operations nearly as
perfect as our own,
think of their elegant
algebraical methods,
and then judge
whether the
Brahmins
on the banks of the
Ganges are not
entitled to some
credit.

ARTICLE

w o rd \ jaib" a n d tra n sla ted a s \ sin u s" w h ich h a s sev era l

m ea n in g s in L a tin in clu d in g \ h ea rt, b o so m , fo ld , b ay o r
cu rv e" ! T h is w o rd b eca m e \ sin e" in th e E n g lish v ersio n .
A ry a b h a ta 's \ kotijya" b eca m e cosin e.
T h e tra d itio n o f ex cellen ce a n d o rig in a lity in In d ia n trig o n o m etry rea ch ed a h ig h p ea k in th e o u tsta n d in g resu lts
o f M a d h ava ch a ry a (1 3 4 0 -1 4 2 5 ) o n th e p ow er series ex p a n sio n s o f trig o n o m etric fu n ctio n s. T h ree cen tu ries b efo re G reg o ry (1 6 6 7 ), M a d h ava h a d d escrib ed th e series
= ta n (1 = 3 )(ta n )3 + (1 = 5 )(ta n )5
(1 = 7 )(ta n )7 + (jta n j 1 ):
H is p ro o f, a s p resen ted in Y u ktibhasa, in v o lv es th e id ea
o f in teg ra tio n a s th e lim it o f a su m m a tio n a n d co rresp o n d s to th e m o d ern m eth o d o f ex p a n sio n a n d term b y -term in teg ra tio n . A cru cia l step is th e u se o f th e
resu lt
lim

n

(1 p + 2 p + + (n 1 )p )= n p + 1 = 1 = (p + 1 ):

T h e ex p licit sta tem en t th a t (jta n j 1 ) rev ea ls th e

lev el o f so p h istica tio n in th e u n d ersta n d in g o f in n ite
series in clu d in g a n aw a ren ess o f co n v erg en ce. M a d h ava
a lso d iscov ered th e b ea u tifu l fo rm u la
= 4 = 1 1 = 3 + 1 = 5 1 = 7 + ;

F Cajori

o b ta in ed b y p u ttin g = = 4 in th e M a d h ava { G reg o ry

series. T h is series w a s red iscov ered th ree cen tu ries la ter
b y L eib n iz (1 6 7 4 ). A s o n e o f th e rst a p p lica tio n s o f
h is n ew ly in v en ted ca lcu lu s, L eib n iz w a s th rilled a t th e
d iscov ery o f th is series w h ich w a s th e rst o f th e resu lts
g iv in g a co n n ectio n b etw een a n d u n it fra ctio n s. M a d h ava a lso d escrib ed th e series
p
= 1 2 = 1 1 = 3 :3 + 1 = 5 :3 2 1 = 7 :3 3 +

16

RESONANCE April 2002

SERIES ARTICLE

rst g iv en in E u ro p e b y A S h a rp (1 7 1 7 ). A g a in , th ree
h u n d ered y ea rs b efo re N ew to n (1 6 7 6 A D ), M a d h ava h a d
d escrib ed th e w ell-k n ow n p o w er series ex p a n sio n s
sin x = x x 3 = 3 ! + x 5 = 5 !
2

a n d co s x = 1 x = 2 ! + x = 4 ! :
T h ese series w ere u sed to co n stru ct a ccu ra te sin e a n d co sin e ta b les fo r ca lcu la tio n s in a stro n o m y. M a d h ava 's va lu es a re co rrect, in a lm o st a ll ca ses, to th e eig h th o r n in th
d ecim a l p la ce { su ch a n a ccu ra cy w a s n o t to b e a ch iev ed
in E u ro p e w ith in th ree cen tu ries. M a d h ava 's resu lts
sh ow th a t ca lcu lu s a n d a n a ly sis h a d rea ch ed rem a rka b le
d ep th a n d m a tu rity in In d ia cen tu ries b efo re N ew to n
(1 6 4 2 -1 7 2 7 ) a n d L eib n iz (1 6 4 6 -1 7 1 6 ). M a d h ava ch a ry a
m ig h t b e reg a rd ed a s th e rst m a th em a ticia n w h o w o rk ed
in a n a ly sis!
U n fo rtu n a tely, th e o rig in a l tex ts o f sev era l o u tsta n d in g
m a th em a ticia n s lik e S rid h a ra , P a d m a n a b h a , J ay a d eva
a n d M a d h ava h av e n o t b een fo u n d y et { it is o n ly th ro u g h
th e o cca sio n a l referen ce to so m e o f th eir resu lts in su b seq u en t co m m en ta ries th a t w e g et a g lim p se o f th eir
w o rk . M a d h ava 's co n trib u tio n s a re m en tio n ed in sev era l la ter tex ts in clu d in g th e T an tra S am graha (1 5 0 0 ) o f
th e g rea t a stro n o m er N ila ka n ta S o m ay a ji (1 4 4 5 -1 5 4 5 )
w h o g av e th e h elio cen tric m o d el b efo re C o p ern icu s, th e
Y u ktibhasa (1 5 4 0 ) o f J y esth a d eva (1 5 0 0 -1 6 1 0 ) a n d th e
a n o n y m o u s K aran apaddhati. A ll th ese tex ts th em selv es
w ere d iscov ered b y C h a rles W h ish a n d p u b lish ed o n ly
in 1 8 3 5 .

Incomparably
greater progress
than in the solution
of determinate
equations was
made by the
Hindus in the
treatment of
indeterminate
equations.
Indeterminate
analysis was a
subject to which
the Hindu
mind showed a
happy adaptation.
F Cajori

A m o n g a n cien t m a th em a ticia n s w h o se tex ts h av e b een

fo u n d , sp ecia l m en tio n m ay b e m a d e o f A ry a b h a ta , B ra h m a g u p ta a n d B h a ska ra ch a ry a . A ll o f th em w ere em in en t
a stro n o m ers a s w ell. W e sh a ll m a k e a b rief m en tio n o f
so m e o f th eir m a th em a tica l w o rk s in su b seq u en t issu es.

RESONANCE April 2002

17

SERIES

Unfortunately,
some of the most
brilliant
results in
indeterminate
analysis, found in
the Hindu works,
reached
Europe too late to
exert the influence
they would have
exerted, had they
come two or three
centuries earlier.
F Cajori

ARTICLE

L a te r D e v e lo p m e n ts
T h e In d ia n co n trib u tio n s in a rith m etic, a lg eb ra a n d trig o n o m etry w ere tra n sm itted b y th e A ra b s a n d P ersia n s
to E u ro p e. T h e A ra b s a lso p reserv ed a n d tra n sm itted
th e G reek h erita g e. A fter m o re th a n a th o u sa n d y ea rs
o f slu m b er, E u ro p e red iscov ered its rich G reek h erita g e
a n d a cq u ired so m e o f th e fru its o f th e p h en o m en a l In d ia n p ro g ress. It is o n th e fo u n d a tio n fo rm ed b y th e
b len d in g o f th e tw o g rea t m a th em a tica l cu ltu res { th e
g eo m etric a n d a x io m a tic tra d itio n o f th e G reek s a n d th e
a lg eb ra ic a n d co m p u ta tio n a l tra d itio n o f th e In d ia n s {
th a t th e m a th em a tica l ren a issa n ce to o k p la ce in E u ro p e.
In d ia n s m a d e sig n i ca n t co n trib u tio n s in sev era l fro n tlin e a rea s o f m a th em a tics d u rin g th e 2 0 th cen tu ry, esp ecia lly d u rin g th e seco n d h a lf, a lth o u g h th is fa ct is n o t so
w ell-k n ow n a m o n g stu d en ts p a rtly b eca u se th e fro n tiers
o f m a th em a tics h av e ex p a n d ed fa r b ey o n d th e sco p e o f
th e u n iv ersity cu rricu la . H ow ev er, In d ia n s v irtu a lly to o k
n o p a rt in th e ra p id d ev elo p m en t o f m a th em a tics th a t
to o k p la ce d u rin g th e 1 7 th -1 9 th cen tu ry { th is p erio d
co in cid ed w ith th e g en era l sta g n a tio n in th e n a tio n a l
life. T h u s, w h ile h ig h -sch o o l m a th em a tics, esp ecia lly in
a rith m etic a n d a lg eb ra , is m o stly o f In d ia n o rig in , o n e
ra rely co m es a cro ss In d ia n n a m es in co lleg e a n d u n iv ersity co u rses a s m o st o f th a t m a th em a tics w a s crea ted
d u rin g th e p erio d ra n g in g fro m la te 1 7 th to ea rly 2 0 th
cen tu ry. B u t sh o u ld w e fo rg et th e cu ltu re a n d g rea tn ess o f In d ia 's m illen n iu m s b eca u se o f th e ig n o ra n ce a n d
w ea k n ess o f a few cen tu ries?
Suggested Reading
[1] A Seidenberg, The Origin of Mathematics in Archive for History of Exact Sciences , 1978.
[2] A Seidenberg, The Geometry of Vedic Rituals in Agni, The Vedic Ritual
of the Fire Altar , Vol II, ed F Staal, Asian Humanities Press, Berkeley,
1983, reprinted Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi.

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RESONANCE April 2002

SERIES ARTICLE
[3] Bibhutibhusan Datta: Ancient Hindu Geometry: The Science of the
Sulbas, Calcutta Univ. Press, 1932, reprinted Cosmo Pub., New Delhi,
1993.
[4] Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers, John Wiley and Sons,
2000.
[5] G G Joseph, The Crest of The Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, Penguin, 1990.
[6] S N Sen, Mathematics Chap 3 of A Concise History of Science in India,
ed. D M Bose, S N Sen and B V Subbarayappa, INSA, New Delhi , 1971.
[7] G B Halsted, On the foundations and techniques of Arithmetic, Chicago,
1912.
[8] F Cajori, History of Mathematics, Mac Millan, 1931.
[9] Bibhutibhusan Datta, Vedic Mathematics, Chap.3 of The Cultural
Heritage of India Vol VI (Science and Technology) ed. P Ray and S N
Sen, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta.
[10] B Datta and A N Singh, History of Hindu Mathematics, Asia Publishing
House, Bombay, 1962.
[11] John F Price, Applied Geometry of the Sulba Sutras in Geometry at
Work, ed. C. Gorini, MAA, Washington DC, 2000.
[12] T A Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in Ancient and Medieval India, Motilal
Banarasidass, Delhi , 1999.
[13] S N Sen and A K Bag, Post-Vedic Mathematics, Chap. 4 of The
Cultural Heritage of India Vol. VI ed.PRay and S N Sen, The
Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta.
[14] S N Sen and A K Bag, The Sulbasutras, INSA, New Delhi , 1983.
[15] C N Srinivasiengar, The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics, The
World Press, Calcutta, 1967.

Address for Correspondence

Amartya Kumar Dutta
Indian Statistical Institute
203, BT Road
Kolkata 700 032, India.

As I look back upon the history of my country,

I do not find in the whole world another country
which has done quite so much for the improvement of the human mind. Therefore I have no
words of condemnation for my nation. I tell
them, You have done well; only try to do
better. Great things have been done in the
past in this land, and there is both time and
room for greater things to be done yet ... Our
ancestors did great things in the past, but we
have to grow into a fuller life and march beyond
even their great achievement.
Swami Vivekananda
(Complete Works Vol III p.195)

RESONANCE April 2002

19