Development of the Tea Industry and the Tea

Research Institute and Foundation

Introduction
Tea was first planted in Kenya in
Limuru in 1904 and in Kericho in 1912
(235726). However, commercial tea
growing did not start until the 1920s
when extensive clearing of agricultural
land in the former white highlands
started. Tea was planted on the cleared
lands, but the expansion of the industry
was interrupted during the second world
war. After the war the expansion
continued both in Limuru, and Kericho
and also in new areas in Nandi Hills and
Sotik. This expansion has occurred
despite the fact that the tea germplasm
has been shown to be not be very large1.

Kenya tea industry

The data on the tea trade in general
can be obtained from the International
Committee Annual Bulletin of Statistics
which also provides data on world tea
trade2. Kenya tea production has greatly
increased from 1826 metric tons in 1934
to 211168 metric tons in 1993. By 1991,
Kenya was producing 16% of the world
export black tea3.
From time to time notes on the Kenya
tea production have been published in the
Annual Reports of the ministry of
Agriculture (15857). Reviews of the
Kenya tea industry have also been
published4 and discussed in a global
context5.
The tea crop has been recognised as
an excellent agroforestry system for soil
and water conservation (227919,

227920, 228746, 241167, 244210). The

demand and on production for export has
continued to rise (237446, 231198,
236967, 237137, 238581, 238890,
239884, 240932, 243821, 241428)
despite increased politicisation (241557),
diminishing farm sizes (242251, 240384)
and imposed export taxes (237429,
237342). The early tea planters who
were mainly white settlers thought that
in-dependence from Britain in 1963 was
too early for the Africans6 and it was
speculated that this would have a
deleterious effect on tea production. This
did not prove to be the case and there
has been an increase in production during
the post independence years.
There
have
been
many
environmentally friendly modernisations
in the tea industry e.g. reduction in the
use of tea chests which deplete the
forests (243593) to the use of recyclable
paper sacks. This has made containerised
transportation possible and has in effect
reduced the time tea takes before being
auctioned (244166).

Recent expansion
Tea trade is booming. This creates a
constant pressure to produce more
Kenya tea (240932, 229061) and Kenya
has come up with a development
programme
and
tea
production
projection target up to the year 2001 AD
(242217, 237176). To achieve this, some
forest areas have been turned into tea
farms (243479, 246037) while at the
same time the industry is being

2
restructured (236947) to increase
privatisation of more factories (236958)
and improve productivity.
This process has been ongoing since
the tea growing areas in Kenya were
surveyed in 19667 and the continued
demand for expansion has promoted the
Tea Research Foundation of Kenya to
continuously survey new areas such as
Elgeuyo Marakwet8, South Nyanza9 and
Narok10.

Smallholders
The tea industry was dominated by
foreign interests in particular large
commercial Organizations such as
Brooke Bond and African Highlands until
the introduction of the Special Crops
Development Authority in 1960/61 which
was given responsibility for smallholder
tea planting programmes. The authority's
name was changed to the Kenya Tea
Development Authority (KTDA) in 1964.
Details of production figures for the
smallholder sector are contained in
various KTDA Annual Reports11. A
modest 1500 ha was planted at the end of
1960, accounting for a mere 8% of the
total tea producing area (235726) which
had expanded to 70,505 ha tea by the
end of 1993, thus accounting for 69% of
area under tea in Kenya12.
The progress of crop production and
developments in the smallholder sector of
the Kenya Tea Industry is summarised in
the KTDA Annual Reports 13 and other
occasional reports 14 which give data for
tea production by districts and factories
in the smallholder tea sector. The
industry has under-gone tremendous
development and by 1993 there was a
total of 39 factories producing
99,811,409 kg 15. The number of factories
is on the increase.
Tea development in the smallholder
sector has been widely reported 16 and the
success that the sector has enjoyed has
2

made it a model17 industry for several

studies. Contract farming practised in the
smallholder sector has been shown to be
very successful but it must be noted that
the process is slightly biased against
women who have no say in the decision
making (201344, 21352, 228980,
229393, 238079, 240347, 240853,
240854, 240862, 240863, 240958,
241416). The economics of smallholder
tea production has been the subject of
several studies18. Other studies have
reviewed the work, development and
organisation of KTDA (245297, 245298,
244778, 236114). The development of
the sector has occasionally suffered
constraints including mechanisation
(236111), some lack of incentives,
control and accountability (237329),
bureaucracy (240839), export constraints
(238035), over production (243822),
under production due to drought
(237239, 244357), and cash flow
(244478).

Estates
Reports
have
been
produced
regarding tea development on the large
estates19,
especially
the
Sambret
Catchment area20, and the development of
Sambret Forest into a tea farm21 was the
subject of a conference.
One of the major tea producers in
Kenya is Brooke Bond (237144) with
other companies such as the African
Highlands Ltd, Eastern Produce Africa
Ltd, George Williamsons Kenya Ltd,
Sotik Tea Co., Kipkebe Ltd, Kaisugu
Ltd, Mau Forest Ltd., etc. also
processing tea.

Smallholders versus Estates

The total production statistics of the
Kenya tea industry can be found in the
Annual Reports of the Tea Board of

3
Kenya 1927-199422. Between 1970 and
1992, the estates tea production
increased by 167% while that of the
smallholders increased by 1151% with
their areas under cultivation increasing by
41 and 292% respectively. These
increases demonstrate the improvement
in productivity due to improved
agronomic practices mostly developed by
the Tea Research Institute of East Africa,
Tea Research Foundation of Kenya and
the Kenya Tea Industry in general. Over
the period there was a general increase in
productivity per unit area. Thus the yields
per hectare improved by 90% for large
estates and 219% for the smallholder
sectors.
Although the improvement of both
sectors have been enormous, the
improvements seen on the large estates
are lower than that for the smallholder.
This is due to the large estate production
being almost at maximum technical
efficiency. Up to 1.1t/ha of made tea per
year has been recorded on a large estate
field23. The challenge to research is to
improve the productivity of the large
estates further and to narrow the gap in
productivity between the large estates
and smallholder.

Kenya production in comparison

to other producers
The productivity of tea in Kenya has
continuously been compared with that of
major competitors24. For example, India,
itself a major tea producer, has
considered importing Kenya tea (244240,
244244). Kenya tea gets a booming trade
when India puts an embargo on exports
of her tea (237964).
Several reports here have compared
tea production in Kenya to other
enterprises especially other plantation
crops (02244, 235771, 241499, 241551,
300650, 244895, 236949, 243810) as
well as tea production in Kenya

compared to other countries (200857,

236949, 230292, 235276).

Tea Prices
Despite the increased production, the
price of Kenya tea in the world market
has fortunately remained more or less
stagnant but it does seem that current
prices are lower than the 1977-1986
prices25. It is a further challenge to the
researchers and tea industry to operate
within the free market and to maintain
and even improve the price that they can
obtain for their produce.

Tea Marketing
To ensure fair trade, most Kenya tea
is sold through tea brooking firms in
open auctions (244005). Most of the tea
is sold at the Mombasa Tea Auction
under the auspices of The East Africa Tea
Trade Association comprising tea buyers,
auctioneers (brokers), and producers.
This association organises regular
seminars for its members to discuss
matters of common interest. In one such
seminar26 several matters affecting the
trade such as Mombasa Port operations27,
the tea auction system28, tea warehousing
and the role clearing agents29, tea buying
at the auctions30, tea promotion31,
financing tea exports32, the role of
Customs Department33, the problems of
smallholders/ outgrowers 34 the world tea
market situation35, containerisation and
overland transport of tea36, tea
packaging37, tea research with emphasis
on clonal selection, pests and diseases38
and international tea trade39 were
discussed.
Following packaging, Kenyan tea is
promoted in the United Kingdom
through generic promotion40. Attempts to
have a tea quota system introduced in
international trade failed (237350) and
3

4
Kenya tea continues to be promoted
through
generic
promotion
by
International
Tea
Promotion
Association41.

Tea Research
The Kenya tea industry expanded very
rapidly after the second world war, and in
1949 Brooke Bond realised that there
was a need to create a research
department within their local company
African Tea Holding Ltd. In creating the
department, the company already
foresaw that the department would grow
to serve the whole East African tea
industry, and from its inception the
research department advice was open to
all growers in East Africa. In May 1951,
the African Tea Holdings Research
Department became the Tea Research
Institute of East Africa and was formally
incorporated in Kenya as a Limited
Company by guarantee without share
capital. It was registered in Uganda in
February 1957 and in Tanzania (then
Tanganyika) in September 1959.
The institute was set up with the
objectives as laid down in the Articles of
Association "To promote research into
and investigate all problems relating to
tea and such other crops and systems of
husbandry as one associated with tea
throughout East Africa including the
productivity, quality and suitability of
land in relation to tea planting and on
matters ancillary thereto". The Tea
Research Institute of East Africa was
financially supported, in proportion to
the percentage production of made teas
in each country from the whole of the
East Africa crop, by the statutory Tea
Board of Kenya, and the Uganda and
Tanzania Tea Authorities.
In 1957, 160 hectares of land taken
from forest reserve, were leased from the
Kenya Government at Timbilil Estate
Kericho, where the present Tea Research
4

Foundation of Kenya is, based, and was

opened on March 195942. The institute
functioned with stations in both Uganda
and Tanzania and headquarters at
Kericho, until 1977, when the prevailing
political situation made it impossible to
continue to function as a three country
institution. The institute was formally
closed down on 25th March 198043.
The Kenya government through its
Tea Board took over the function of the
Kericho set-up and established the Tea
Research Foundation of Kenya. The
Foundation was incorporated on 25th
January 1980, taking over the Central
Research Unit and all the Kenya based
research activities of the former Tea
Research Institute of East Africa44.
Both the institutions have served the
Kenya tea Industry well and have done
extensive research for the benefit of the
Kenya tea industry with the research
contributions being published regularly45,
as research problems have also addressed
46
. The work and organisation of the Tea
Research Institute of East Africa was
reviewed by Russell47. The research
undertakings of the Tea Research
Foundation of Kenya is reviewed
annually48.

Dissemination of research
results: publications
From its inception, the research on tea
in Kenya has been well executed and
widely documented49. Thus all the
research has been summarised in the
annual reports from 1950-1979 for Tea
Research Institute of East Africa50
(16784, 236543, 05342, 454) and from
1980 onwards for the Tea Research
Foundation of Kenya51. These reports
cover in detail the research undertakings
for each year. Details of the experiments
undertaken will be discussed in this
review. Pamphlets were also produced

5
from time to time to up-date the tea
growers about the recommended
practices.52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71
,72,73,74,75,76,77,78
.
Although the researchers of the Tea
Research Institute of East Africa and Tea
Research Foundation of Kenya have
always been encouraged to publish
scientific papers in the international
journals, it was also recognised that
useful data could be passed on to the
growers through other Tea Research
Institute of East Africa or Tea Research
Foundation of Kenya publications. Thus
from 1957-1959 Tea Research Institute
of East Africa initiated the issue of
Quarterly Circulars79. In 1959 the journal
Tea was launched and this was published
up to 197280. In 1973 the journals name
was changed to Tea in East Africa81
(235739). When the Tea Research
Institute of East Africa became Tea
Research Foundation of Kenya, the
journal reverted to its original name Tea
and has been published regularly since
then82 (227887, 227707, 202695,
202280, 201987). These journals contain
manuscripts on all aspects of tea ranging
from land selection to black tea
processing. Several books have also been
issued from time to time to guide farmers
on correct crop husbandry83,84, 85,86,87,88 and
to address problems that they have in
understanding the technical literature 89.

Reviews of topical issues

Much information has been made
available on Kenyan tea production
techniques and quality in different
books90. Additionally individual topics
from which data has been generated have
been reviewed. These include weed
control91, tea nutrition92, Zinc deficiency93,
pesticides94, fertilisers95, pruning96, plant
physiology97,
plucking98,
research
contribution to tea industry99, theaflavins
and quality100, moribund tea101, fertiliser

nitrogen102, plant protection103, polyphenol

oxidase104, biotechnology (200038), tea
breeding105, mole rat106, shoot growth107,
Armillaria108, flavour of black tea 109,
Caffeine110, thrips111, quality and field
variables112, general recommendations113,
quality
and
factory
variables114,
Hypoxylon
serpens115,
withering116,
termites and hut sites (bomas)117, shelter
belts118, water use by tea plant (244626),
soils119, soil acidity120, pruning121, organic
matter122, modelling123, plant breeders
rights124, dissemination of research
information125, yields and agronomic
practices126 and field operations127.
Generally, the abstracts on all tea
research both horticultural and breeding
published on Kenya tea can be obtained
from the Commonwealth Agricultural
Bureau (00109).

Advisory section
When the Tea Research Institute of
East Africa was established, it was
recognised that advisory work would
form the core of its activities. The regular
advisory work undertaken128 included
testing soils for suitability for growing
tea 129 and factory visits130.
The Advisory Service acts as a bridge
between the scientists and the farmers131
and over the course of time helps in
disseminating research results from Tea
Research Institute of East Africa and Tea
Research Foundation of Kenya to the
farmers and at the same time brings to
the notice of the scientists the problems
of the tea farmers which need research
attention. The service also organises
courses and training for the tea farmers132
and helps in organising tea-show stands
and field days133. The advisory services
also survey suitability and adaptability of
recommended agronomic practices on
the farms134. Reports on the field advisory
service both by The Tea Research
Institute of East Africa135 and Tea
5

6
Research Foundation of Kenya136 are
available.

Leaf and soil analysis

In addition to the field advisory
service, tea nutrition advisory service
was also initiated in 1968137. This system
bases its recommendation on the results
of soil analysis138 and leaf analysis139. Leaf
analysis was found to be more precise in
predicting the nutritional requirement of
the tea bush140 and the results could be
used to recommend remedial fertiliser
application141, but it was noted that the
results could be affected by season and
irrigation142. Leaf sampling instructions
were provided to ensure that uniform
materials were analysed143. The leaf
analysis system was again appraised in
1972 (244476) and subsequently
recommended as a guide to fertiliser
programmes144.
Leaf analysis formed a more reliable
basis for the advisory service which was
initiated in 1961145. From that time leaf
samples were received for advisory
analytical work146. Calibration was also
carried out on an apparatus for
determining moisture content of tea147
and variation in humidity was
demonstrated to cause varying moisture
uptake by made black tea148.

Other services
The production of tea requires good
weather. Generally the weather reports
and Kenya tea production are given for
the information of farmers regularly by
the Tea Research Institute of East
Africa149 and the Tea Research
Foundation of Kenya150. Notes on upkeep
of meteorological sites and instruments
are available151 together with notes on
record-keeping for the estates152.

Clonal release
As methods of vegetative selection
was perfected, it became necessary that
cuttings be released to farmers regularly
for their own propagation. Millions of
cuttings have been released to the
industry for vegetative propagation153.

Industrial relations
The essence of industrial relations154
and personal appraisal155 for the tea
industry are well documented, for
example by Newson (1972).

Merit award scheme

The Tea Research Foundation of
Kenya has established a Merit Award
Scheme for outstanding scientific and
engineering research contribution to the
development of the Kenya tea industry156.
The objective of the scheme is to
recognise achievement by individuals or
group of scientists whose research work
has contributed scientific and practical
solutions to problems of the tea industry,
to act as motivator and create
competitiveness among the scientists of
the Foundation and/or any scientists
working on tea whose work and
achievement will be made available for
use by the Kenya tea industry.

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36

37

38

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Ondego BM. 1992. Containerization and overland transport. Proceedings of the Fourth East Africa Tea Trade
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Rimberia AK. 1992. Tea packaging. Proceedings of the Fourth East Africa Tea Trade Association Seminar,
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Othieno CO. 1992. An overview of Tea Research activities for yields with particular reference to clonal selection pests
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Wurdack G. 1992. International co-operation in tea trade: The case for an international tea agreement. Proceedings of
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Davies AC. 1984. Generic tea promotion in the United Kingdom. Tea, 5(1), 48-57.

41

237378, Davies AC. 1984. Generic tea promotion in the United Kingdom. Tea 5(1), 48-57.

42

Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1979.

43

Tea Research Foundation of Kenya Annual Report 1980.

44

See Tea Research Foundation of Kenya Annual Reports 1981 & 1980.

45

235726; Child R. 1959. A history of the Tea Research Institute of East Africa. Tea 1(1), 18-19.; Eden T. 1954. The
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Kurgat MC, Onsando JM, Odhiambo HO. 1988. Proceedings of Tea Research Foundation of Kenya Senior Staff
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234646, 237596, 238206, 245714, 16787, 238778, 245715, 228778, 239038, 245716, 202696, 239982, 245740,
202245, 239491, 245779, 201574, 240509, 241072, 24877, 241668, 245885, 243606; Tea Research Foundation of
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Anon. 1951. The packing and dispatch of specimen for examination. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no
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Eden T. 1952. The use and abuse of shade trees. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 2.

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53
54

Eden T. 1952. The control of armillaria root disease in tea. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 3

55

Eden T. 1953. The nursery technique. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 4.

56

Child R. 1953. The selection of soils suitable for tea.Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 5

57

Eden T. 1953. Proceedings of the first conference.Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 6

58

Eden T. 1953. Blister blight (Exobabidium vexans masee) disease of tea. Tea Research Institute of East Africa
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Eden T. 1954. Proceedings of the second conference. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 8

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Eden T. 1954. The establishment of young tea. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 9

61

Eden T. 1954. Tea research problems in East Africa.Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 10.

62

Child R. 1955. Copper: Its occurrence and role in tea leaf Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 11

63

Child R. 1955. Proceedings of the third conference.Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 12

64

Child R. 1956. Proceedings of the fourth conference.Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 13.

65

Anon. 1957. The packaging and dispatch of specimen for examination.Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet
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Child R. 1957. Manuring of the tea in East Africa. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 14.

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Goodchild NA. 1958. Methods of selection and of vegetative propagation of tea. Tea Research Institute of East Africa
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Child R. 1959. Proceedings of the sixth conference. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 17

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Child R. 1960. Elementary notes on the manufacture part I. Withering.Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet
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Child R. 1960. Proceedings of the seventh conference.Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 19

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Green MJ. 1964. Vegetative propagation of tea. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 20

73

Tolhurst JAH. 1973. Zinc deficiencies in tea. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 21/73.

74

Laycock DH, Templer JC. 1973. Pesticides for East Africa tea. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no
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Tolhurst JAH. 1974. Fertilizer discussion group 1973. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 24/74

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Tolhurst JAH, Green MJ. 1973. Fertilizers for East Africa tea. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no
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Templer JC. 1978. Tea plucking studies. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 26/78.

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Child R. 1957. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Quart.Circular, 1(1).; Child R. 1957. Tea Research Institute of
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NA. 1958. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Quart Circular 1(4).; Child R. 1958. Tea Research Institute of East
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82

See 32 issues of Tea 1980-1995.

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Anon. 1965. Mimeo

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Anon. 1965. Tea Estate Practice (Handbook) 1965

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Anon. 1966. Kupanda Chai Bora (Handbook for smallholders) 1966

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Anon. 1966. Tea Estate Practice (Handbook) 1966

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Hainsworth E. 1968. Tea Estate Practice 1968 edition (Handbook)

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Anon. 1969. Tea Growers Handbook 1969

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Sudoi V. 1983. Role of plant protection in tea production. Tea 4(1), 10.

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Bore JKA. 1993. Pruning of tea. A review. Tea, 14(2) 130-137.

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Dogo YW. 1993. Transformation of organic matter under tea bushes. A review. Tea, 14, 65-68.

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and advisory work. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1959, pp 12-13.; Child R. 1960. Estate visits
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Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1950. pp 16-10.; Eden T. 1951. Advisory work. Tea Research
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Annual Report 1951. pp 7-9.; Hainsworth E. 1969. Extension and advisory activities. Tea Research Institute of East
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Chennery EM. 1961. Soil. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1961, pp 23-24.; Child R. 1952. Soil
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advisory work. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1954, pp 40.; Child R, Todd JR. 1955. Soil
advisory work. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1955, pp 29.; Smith AN. 1957. Frequency and
distribution of soil pH. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1957, pp 29-30.; Smith AN. 1958. Soil
analysis; Its used as limitations Tea Research Institute of East Africa Pamphlet no 16 pp 46-52.; Smith AN. 1960. Soil
analysis of profile samples. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1960, pp 43.; Willson KC. 1962.
Routine analytical work. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1962, pp 7.; Willson KC. 1964. Routine
analytical work. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1964, pp 9.; Willson KC. 1967. Routine
laboratory work (1966). Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1966/67, pp 11.; Willson KC. 1967.
Routine laboratory work (1967). Tea Research Institute of east Africa Annual Report 1966/67, pp 29.
Child R, Todd JR. 1954. Factory visits. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1954, pp 40-41.
Siele DKA. 1984. Field Advisory service in Kenya Tea Research with special emphasis on smallholder sector. Tea 5(2)
5-8.
Siele DKA, Kurgat MC. 1988. Report on second Tea Research Foundation of Kenya intermediate managers/tea
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Magambo MJS, Kilavuka CI. 1982. KTDA Field day and Nairobi International Show 1982. Tea, 3(2), 10-12.; Siele
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Siele DKA. 1994. Fertilizer use by small scale tea growers analysis for 1993/94. Tea Research Foundation of Kenya
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Willson KC, Hainsworth E. 1968. The new tea nutrition advisory of service of Tea Research Institute. Tea 9(2), 11.;
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Willson KC. 1969. Tea nutrition. Tea 10 (3), 16-23.; Smith AN. 1958. Soil analysis; Its used as limitations Tea
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Anon. 1971. The advisory services of the Tea Research Institute. Tea, 12(1), 21.; Tolhurst JAH. 1969. Leaf analysis.
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Willson KC, Freeman GH. 1970. Use of principal component analysis data from chemical analysis of tea leaves. Expl
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Tolhurst JAH. 1971. Leaf analysis advisory service; A review of progress, Tea 11(4), 32-33.; Hainsworth E. 1971.
Leaf analysis Tea, 12(2), 17-18.; Anon. 1971. The advisory services of the Tea Research Institute. Tea, 12(1), 21.;
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analysis data from chemical analysis of tea leaves. Expl Agric. 6, 319-325.
Tolhurst JAH. 1971. Remedial fertilizer application leaf analysis advisory services. Tea, 12(3), 23.

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Tolhurst JAH. 1971. Leaf nutrient content in relation to season and irrigation.Water and the Tea Plant proceedings of
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Smith AN. 1961. Leaves. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1961, pp 24-25.

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Willson KC. 1962. Routine analytical work. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1962, pp 7.; Willson
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1967. Routine laboratory work (1966). Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1966/67, pp, pp 11.;
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29.; Chennery EM. 1961. Leaves. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual Report 1961, pp 24-25.
Smith AN. 1960. Apparatus for determination of moisture in made tea. Tea Research Institute of East Africa Annual
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Smith AN. 1960. Uptake of moisture by made tea in atmospheres of differing relative humidity. Tea Research Institute
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See 45 reports in Journals and/or Annual Reports of The Tea Research Institute of East Africa 1959-1974
See 54 references in by various authors in Tea Journals and/or Annual Reports of Tea