2/10/2014

KL3202 Struktur Baja

Semester II 2013/2014

Rildova / Paramashanti

Perancangan Elemen Tarik

Capaian belajar mahasiswa:

Memahami keruntuhan leleh dan
fraktur pada batang tarik dan mampu
merencanakan elemen tarik.

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Topics
Tension failure: yield and fracture.
Tensile
e s e strength.
st e gt .
Net and effective area.
Block shear failure.
Tension member design.

Typical Tension Members

Cables

Tension
chord in a
truss

Slide # 4

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Cross Section of Tension Member

In bridge, roof and floor trusses, bracing systems,

towers, and tie rods

Consist of angles, channels, tees, plates, W or S

shapes, or combinations

Round bar

Channel Double
channel

Flat bar

Latticed
channels

Angle

Double angle

W-section
(wide-flange)

Starred angle

S-section

Built-up box
sections

Fig. 3.1 Cross-section of typical tension members

Concepts

Stress: The tensile stress in the cross-section can

be calculated as:
P

f - assumed to be uniform over the entire cross-section.

P - the magnitude of load
A - the cross-sectional area normal to the load

st ess in
i a tension
te sio member
e be is uniform
niform
The stress
throughout the cross-section except:
near the point of application of load
at the cross-section with holes for bolts or other
discontinuities, etc.
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For example, consider a 200 10 mm bar

connected to a gusset plate and loaded in
tension as shown in Fig. 3.2.

Gusset plate
b

Section b-b

7/8 in. diameter hole

a
8 x in. bar

Section a-a

Fig. 3.2 Example of tension member

7

Area of bar at section a a = 200 10 = 2000

mm2. Area of bar at section b b = (200 2 20 )
10 = 1600 mm2

Therefore, the reduced area of section b b will

be subjected to higher stresses.

The unreduced area = gross area = Ag

The reduced area = net area = An

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Steel Stress-Strain Behavior

Fu

Stress, f

Fy

Strain,

Fig. 3.3 Stress-strain behavior of steel

9

From Fig. 3.3:

E - the elastic modulus = 200 GPa.
Fy - the yield stress

Fu - the ultimate stress

y- is the yield strain

u- the ultimate strain

Deformations are caused by the strain . The deformation

will be small as long as the material is elastic (f < Fy).
Deformations
D f
ti
d to
due
t the
th strain
t i will
ill be
b large
l
after
ft the
th
steel reaches its yield stress Fy.

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Tension Strength

The strength or capacity of any structural element is

usually determined based on possible scenarios of
f il
failure
(limit
(li it state).
t t )

The strength of a tension member is the lowest of the following

limit states:

T
Net
Area (An)

Gross
Area (Ag)

A) Yielding of the Gross Area (Ag)

B) Fracture on the Net Area (An)
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Yield Strength

To prevent excessive deformation, the stress

on the g
gross section is less than the y
yield stress
Fy.

P
Fy
Ag

Therefore, nominal yield strength:

Pn Ag Fy

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Fracture Strength

To prevent fracture, the stress on the net

section must be less than the ultimate stress
Fu
P

Ae

Fu

Therefore, nominal fracture strength:

Pn Ae Fu
where, Ae is the effective net area = UAn ,
which may be equal to the net area or
smaller. U = Area reduction factor

The topic of Ae will be addressed later.

13

LRFD & ASD for Tension Members

LRFD: the factored tensile load Pu is compared to

the design strength.

Pu t Pn

t = 0.9 for yielding

t = 0.75 for fracture

ASD: the total service load Pa is compared to the

allowable strength.

Pa

Pn
t

t = 1.67 for yielding

t = 2.00 for fracture
The smaller resistance factor for fracture (t = 0.75 as compared to t = 0.90
for yielding) reflects the more serious nature & consequences of reaching the
fracture limit state.

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Net Area, An

Net area is calculated by deducting the width of

the bolts + some tolerance around the
bolt
b

d hole d bolt tolerance

dbolt

An b nholes d hole t

t
dhole

15

A hole is drilled (or punched) by 1/16 inch greater

then the normal diameter of the fastener (rivet or
bolt). Hole p
punching
g causes some damage
g to the
edges of the hole to the amount of 1/32 inch from
each side.
Thus the normal hole diameter

1 1 1

16 32 32
1
bolt diameter inch
8
bolt diameter

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Example 1. Net Area, An

What is the net area An for the tension member
as shown in the figure?
1
Plate 4 (inches)
4

Standard Hole for a 3 -in. diam bolt.

4

S l ti
Solution:
Ag = 4(0.25)
(
) = 1.0 in
i 2.
Width to be deducted for hole 34 18 78 in
An = [Wg (width for hole)] (thickness of plate)

7
4 0.25 0.78 in2
8

Example 2. LRFD & ASD for Tension Member

A x 5 plate of A36 steel is used a tension member. It
is connected to a gusset plate with four-5/8-inchdiameter
the fi
figure. A
Assume th
thatt th
the
di
t bolts
b lt as shown
h
iin th
effective net area equals the actual net area.
a. What is the design strength for LRFD?
b. What is the allowable strength for ASD?

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(i) Calculation of nominal strength, Pn

For yielding of the gross section:

Ag 51/ 2 2.5 in2

Pn Fy Ag 362.5 90.0 kips

For fracture of the net section:

An Ag Aholes 2.5 12 3 4 x2 holes 1.75in2

Ae An 1.75in2
Pn Fu Ae 581.75 101.5 kips

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(ii) Calculation of design strength for LRFD

Design strength based on yielding:

t Pn 0.9090.0 81.0 kips

p
Design strength based on fracture:

t Pn 0.75101.5 76.1 kips

The design strength for LRFD is the smaller value:

t Pn 76.1 kips

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(iii)Calculation of allowable strength for ASD

Allowable strength based on yielding:

Pn
90

53.9 kips
t 1.67
Allowable strength based on fracture:

Pn 101.5

50.8 kips
t 2.00
The allowable strength for ASD is the smaller value
= 50.8 kips

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Effective Net Area, Ae

The connection has a significant influence on the

performance of a tension member. A connection
almost
weakens
the
l
t always
l
k
th member
b & a measure off
its influence is called joint efficiency.

Joint efficiency is a function of:

material ductility
fastener spacing
stress concentration at holes
fabrication procedure
shear lag.

All factors contribute to reducing the effectiveness

but shear lag is the most important.
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Shear lag occurs when the tension force is not

transferred simultaneously to all elements of the
cross-section. This will occur when some elements
of the cross-section are not connected.
connected
For example, see the figure below, where only one
leg of an angle is bolted to the gusset plate.

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The connected element becomes overloaded &

the unconnected part is not fully stressed.

Lengthening the connection region will reduce this

effect.

Research indicates that shear lag can be accounted

for by using a reduced or effective net area Ae

Shear lag affects both bolted & welded

connections Therefore
connections.
Therefore, the effective net area
concept applied to both types of connections.

For bolted connection, the effective net area is Ae = U An

For welded connection, the effective net area is Ae = U Ag

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Area Reduction Factor U

To account for this stress concentration in stress, an

area reduction factor U is used.

There are five categories in determining U:

1. A general category for any type of tension member except plates
and round HSS with l > 1.3D
2. Plates
3. Round HSS with l > 1.3D
4. Alternative values for single
4
g angles
g
5. Alternative values for W, M, S, and HP shapes

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1. A general category for any type of tension

member except plates and round HSS with l >
1.3D:
The reduction factor U is given by:

U 1
x

the distance from the centroid of the connected area to the

plane of the connection
the length of the connection in the direction of the load

If the member has two symmetrically located planes of connection,

is measured from the centroid of the nearest one half of the area.

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The distance L is defined as the length of the

connection in the direction of load.

F bolted
For
b lt d connections,
ti
L is
i measured
d from
f
the
th center
t off the
th b
bolt
lt
at one end to the center of the bolt at the other end.

For welded connections, it is measured from one end of the

connection to other.

If there are weld segments of different length in the direction of

load, L is the length of the longest segment.

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30

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2. Plates:
In general, U = 1.0 for plates (cross section has only
one element and it is connected).
Special cases:
a. Connected with longitudinal welds on each
side and no transverse weld.
L 2W U 1.0
1.5W L 2W U 0.87
W L 1.5W U 0.75

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b. For any member connected by transverse welds

alone.
U = 1.0 and An = area of the connected element of
the
h cross-section.
i

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3. Round HSS with l > 1.3D:

U = 1.0
4. Alternatives for Single Angles:
a For four or more fasteners in the direction of
a.
loading, U = 0.80.
b. For two or three fasteners in the direction of
loading, U = 0.60.

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5. Alternatives for W, M, S, HP, or Tees Cut from

These Shapes:
a. Connected through the flange with three or
more fasteners in the direction of loading, with
bf/d > 2/3, U = 0.90.
b. Connected through the flange with three or
more fasteners in the direction of loading, with
bf/d < 2/3, U = 0.85.
c. Connected through the web with four or more
fasteners in the direction of loading,
g, U = 0.70.
7
For shapes such as angles, double angles, and WT,
the value of U should not be less than 0.60.
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Example 3. Effective Net Area, Ae

Determine the net effective area Ae for the tension
member shown in the figure.

S l ti
Solution:

An Ag Aholes
1 5 1
5.77 2 5.02 in2
2 8 8
36

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Only one leg of the cross section is connected, so the

net are must be reduced.

x 1.67 in
The length of the connection is:
l 3 3 6 in
x
1.67
U 1 1
0.7217
6
l

Ae UAn 0.72175.02 3.623in2
The alternative value of U = 0.60 (this angle has three
bolts in the direction of the load).

Ae UAn 0.605.02 3.012 in2

Either U value is acceptable. The first method is more
accurate. Specification permits the larger one to be
used.

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Staggered Fasteners
c

38

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For a bolted tension member, the connecting bolts can

be staggered for several reasons:

To get more capacity by increasing the effective net area

To achieve a smaller connection length
g
To fit the geometry of the tension connection itself.

For a tension member with staggered bolt holes (see

example figure above), the relationship f = P/A does not
apply & the stresses are a combination of tensile &
shearing stresses on the inclined portion b-c.

N t section
ti
f t
l
i
Net
fracture
can occur along
any zig-zag
or
straight line. For ex., fracture can occur along the
inclined path a-b-c-d in the figure above. However, all
possibilities must be examined.

39

BB

A A
g
P

Stresses on inclined planes are a mix of tension and

shear and thus a correction is needed.

Wn Wg d

S2
4g

An Wn t

All possible failure paths passes shall be examined. The

path that yields the smallest area governs.
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Example 4. Staggered Fastener

Compute the smallest net area for the plane shown in
the following figure. The holes are for 1-in diameter
b lt
bolts.

41

Solution.
The effective hole diameter is 1 + 1/8 = 9/8
1)

Line abde :
wn 16 21.125 13.75 in

2)

Line abcde :
wn 16 31.125

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13.52 in
45
2

The second condition will give the smallest net area.

area
An twn 0.7513.52 10.1 in 2

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Angles:
When holes are staggered on two legs of an angle, the
gage length (g) for use In the (s2/4g) expression is
obtained by using length between the centers of the
holes measured along the centerline of the angle
thickness, i.e., the distance A-B in Fig: 3.4.3. Thus the
gage distance g is

t
t
g ga g b ga g b t
2
2

Gage dimension for an angle

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Usual Gages f Angles (in):

Every rolled angle has a standard value for the location

of holes (i.e. gage distance ga and gb), depending on the
length of the leg and the number of lines of holes.
Table shows usual gages for angles as listed in the
AISC Manual*.

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Staggered holes for other shapes:

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Block Shear

For some connection configurations, the tension

member can fail due to tear-out of material at the
connected end.
end This is called block shear.
shear

For example, the single angle tension member

connected as shown in the figure below is susceptible
to the phenomenon of block shear.

For the case shown above, shear failure will occur

along
a
o g tthee longitudinal
o g tud a sect
section
o a
a-b
b & te
tension
s o failure
a u e
will occur along the transverse section b-c.

AISC Specification on tension members does not

cover block shear failure explicitly. But, it directs the
engineer to the Specification on connections
46

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47

Block shear strength is determined as the sum of

the shear strength on a failure path & the tensile
strength
t
th on a perpendicular
di l segment.
t
Block shear strength = net section fracture strength on
shear path + net section fracture strength of the tension
path
OR
Block shear strength = gross yielding strength of the shear
path + net section fracture strength
p
g of the tension p
path

48

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Rn = (0.6 Fu Anv + UbsFu Ant) (0.6 FyAgv + UbsFu Ant)

= 0.75, = 2.00 (for ASD)
Ubs = 1.0 for uniform tensile stress; = 0.5 for nonuniform
tensile stress
Agv - gross area subject to shear
Agt - gross area subject to tension
Anv - net area subject to shear
Ant - net area subject to tension
Fu - ultimate strength of steel
Fy - yield strength of steel

49

Example 5. Block Shear

Compute the block shear strength of the tension
member shown in the following figure. The holes are
f 7/8-in-diameter
for
/8 i di
t b
bolts,
lt and
d A36
A 6 steel
t l iis used.
d a. U
Use
LRFD, b. Use ASD.

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Solution.
The shear areas are:
Agv

3
7.5 2.813 in 2
8

and since there are 2.5 hole diameters:

3
7 1
Anv 7.5 2.5 1.875 in 2
8
8 8

The tension area is

3
7 1
Anv 1.5 0.5 0.375 in 2
8
8 8

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Since the block shear will occur in an angle, Ubs = 1.0.

Rn 0.6 Fu Anv U bs Fu Ant
0.6581.875 1.0580.375 87.0 kips
ki

with an upper limit of:

0.6 Fy Agv U bs Fu Ant 0.6362.813 1.0580.375 82.51 kips

The nominal block shear strength is therefore:

82.51 kips

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a. The design strength for LRFD

Rn 0.7582.51 61.9 kips

b. The allowable strength for ASD

Rn 82.51

41.3 kips
2.00

53

Design of Tension Members

c

LRFD:

The design of a tension member involves finding

the lightest steel section (angle, wide-flange, or
channel section) with design strength (Pn) greater
than or equal to the maximum factored design
tension load (Pu) acting on it.
Pn Pu
Pu is determined by structural analysis for factored load
combinations
Pn is the design strength based on the gross section
yielding, net section fracture & block shear rupture limit
states.
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To prevent yielding
0.90 Fy Ag Pu

or

Ag

Pu
0.90 Fy

Ae

Pu
0.75Fu

To prevent fracture
0.75Fu Ae Pu

or

55

ASD:
To prevent yielding
Ag

Pa
Ft

or

Ag

Pa
0.6 Fy

Ae

Pa
0.5 Fu

To prevent fracture
Ae

Pa
Ft

or

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Slenderness Requirements
c

Although tension elements are not likely to buckle, it is

recommended to limit their slenderness ratio to 300

max
rmin

L
300
rmin
I min
A

The slenderness limitation of tension members is not for

structural integrity as for compression members.

The reason for the code limitation is to assure that the member
has enough stiffness to prevent lateral movement or vibration.

This limitation does not apply to tension rods and cables.

57

Example 6. Design of Tension Member

A tension member with a length of 5 feet 9 inches must
resist a service dead load of 18 kips and a service live
l d off 52 kips.
load
ki
Select
S l t a member
b with
ith a rectangular
t
l
cross-section. Use A36 steel and assume a connection
with one line of 7/8-in-diameter bolts.
Solution. LRFD

Pu 1.2 D 1.6 L 1.2188 1.6552 104

0 .8 kips
Required Ag

Pu
Pu
104.8

3.235 in 2
t Fy 0.90 Fy 0.9036

Required Ae

Pu
Pu
104.8

2.409 in 2
t Fu 0.75Fu 0.7558

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Try a 1 x 3 1 2 cross section

Ae An Ag Ahole
7 1
1x3.5 1 2.5 in 2 2.409 in 2
8 8
Check the slenderness ratio

ok

3.51
0.2917 in 4
12
3

I min

A 13.5 3.5 in 2
0.2917
I
rmin min
0.2887 in
A
3.5
L 5.7512

239 300
0.2887
r

(ok )
59

Solution. ASD

Pa D L 18 52 70 kips
g, Ft 0.6 Fy 0.636 21.6 ksi
For yyielding,
Required

Ag

Pa
70

3.24 in 2
Ft 21.6

For fracture, Ft 0.5Fu 0.558 29.0 ksi

Required

Ae

Pa
70

2.414 in 2
Ft 29.0

The rest of the design procedure is the same as for LRFD.

The numerical results may be different.
60

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