BOARDS OF ADVISORS, ENGINEERING AHS. ANG University of Ilinois DONALD S. BERRY Northwestern University JAMES GERE Stanford University J. STUART HUNTER Princeton Universit T. WILLIAM LAMBE RV. WHITMAN Massachusetts Institute of Technology PERRY L. McCARTY Stanford University ON T. PHILLIPS. Texas A & M DALE RUDD University of Wisconsin ROBERT F. STEIDEL, JR University of California Berkeley RON. WHITE Cornell University Civil Engineering—Systems and Probability Transportation Engineering Civil Engineering and Applied Mechasies Engineering Statistics Civil Engineering —Soit Mechanics Environmental Engineering Industrial Engineering Chemical Engineering Mechanical Engineering Civil Engineering.AERODYNAMICS, AERONAUTICS, AND FLIGHT MECHANICS BARNES W. McCORMICK ‘The Pennsylvania State University JOHN WILEY & SONS New York + Chichester « Brisbane - Toronto « SingayTo my family and to a great university, The Pennsylvania State University; they have truly shaped my life Copyright © 1979, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the 1975 United States Copyright ‘Act without the permission ofthe copyright owner is unlawful Request for permission ‘or further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Library of Congres Cataloging in Publication Data ‘McCormick, Barnes Warnock, 1926- ‘Aerodynamics, aeronautics, and fight mechanics. Includes index. 1. Aerodynamics. 2. Airplanes. I. Title. ‘TusToma 69.1323 79-11073, ISBN 0-471-03032-5 Printed in the United States of Ameri 9PREFACE ‘An airplane, whether itis a sleck, modern jet or a Piper Cub, isa thing of beauty, supported almost miraculously by the invisible medium through which it travels. Asan aeronautical engineer and a pilot, the beauty of fight isa pleasure I hope always to enjoy. One of my favourite poems is “High Flight,” by John Gillespie Magee, Jr.,a young RAF pilot killed during World War I. Although iti unusual to include a poem in a preface, I must break convention because this oem expresses my thoughts better than I can. Ob, 1 have slipped the surly bonds of earth And danced the skies on laughter-silvered ‘wings: Sunward I've climbed, and joined the tumbling rth f sun-split cloudMMand done a hundred things You have not dreamed of—wheeled and soared and swung High inthe sunt silence. Hov'ing there, I've chased the shouting wind along. and fing ‘My eager craft through foaless halls of ai. Up, up the long, delirious, burning blue Tve topped the windswept heights with easy grace Where never lark, or even eagle flew. And, while with silent, lifting mind I've trod ‘The high untrespassed sanctity of space, Put out my hand, and touched the face of God. © This book explains the many technical aspects of flight; the title reflects contents. Beginning with the fundamentals of incompressible and com- ssible flows, aerodynamic principles relating to lift, drag, and thrust aré veloped. Two-dimensional airfoils and three-dimensional wings with high low aspect ratios are treated for subsonic and supersonic flows.vill PREFACE ‘The operating characteristics of different types of aircraft power plants, including normally aspirated and supercharged-piston engines, turboprops, turbojets, and turbofans, are presented in some detail. Typical operating ‘curves are given for specific engines within these classes. A fairly complete treatment of propellers is also included, This information, which is necessary for estimating the aerodynamic characteristics of an airplane, is followed by a presentation of methods for calculating airplane performance; items such as takeoff distance, climb rates land times, range payload curves, and landing distances, are discussed. Finally, the subjects of longitudinal and lateral-directional stability and control, both static and dynamic, are introduced. Because this book is intended for use in a first course in these subjects, it covers only open-loop control. Features of this textbook include material on the prop-fan, winglets, high lift devices, cooling and trim drag, the latest NASA airfoils, criteria for providing satisfactory open-loop flying qualities, and the use of the SI and English systems of units. Practical examples are given for most developments and, in many cases, are applied to currently operating airplane-engine com- binations. Some numerical treatments of aerodynamic problems and the use of the analog computer for examining longitudinal and lateral dynamic behavior are also introduced. Considerable data are provided relating to lift, drag, and thrust predictions. Stability and control data and performance data ‘on a number of presently operating aircraft are found throughout the book. ‘Since each subject is developed from first principles, it can be used as a text for a first course in aerodynamics at the junior level. It also can be used in successive courses in compressible flow. airplane performance, and stabi ity and control as either the primary text or as a reference. At least half of the material in the book is at the senior level of most aerospace engineering programs. Obviously a book of this nature could not have been written without the help and cooperation of many individuals and organizations. I especially thank Pratt & Whitney and Pratt & Whitney of Canada for the performance curves on their engines; Avco-Lycoming for information on cooling drag and i cengines; Cessna for the data pertaining to the performance of the Citation 1; and Piper for their support of this effort in many ways. My friends and acquaintances with these fine companies who helped personally axe too numerous to mention. They know who they are, and Tam grateful to em, I am indebted tomy secretaries, Charlotte Weldon, and Sharon ‘Symanovich, who typed the manuscript, for a job well done. Their correction of mistakes and their patience with my penmanship and the other trying aspects of preparing the manuscript are sincerely appreciated.prerace Ix I prepared the manuscript on evenings, weekends and, when I could find the time, during the day at The Pennsylvania State University. This meant many lonely evenings and weekends for my wife, Emily, so I offer my appreciation for her indulgence, patience, and understanding. Bares W. McCormick, Jr.CONTENTS ONE INTRODUCTION A Brief History ‘A Brief Introduction to the Technology of Aeronautics TWO. FLUID MECHANICS Fluid Statics and the Atmosphere Fluid Dynamics Conservation of Mass ‘The Momentum Theorem Euler's Equation of Motion Bernoulli's Equation Determination of Free-Stream Velocity Determination of True Airspeed Potential Flow ‘Velocity Potential and Stream Function Elementary Flow Functions. Vortex Bio Sevart Law ‘The Calculation of Flowsll WetLDetind Body Shapes "tne Circular Cylinder ‘Tue Numer! Calculation of Potential Flow Around Arbitrary Body Shapes THREE THE GENERATION OF LIFT Wing Geometry Airfoils Airfoil Families NACA Four-Digit Series NACA Five-Digit Series NACA L-Series (Series 16) - NACA 6-Series Modern Airfoil Developments Prediction of Airfoil Behavior Maximum Lift Flaps 4736 Plain Flaps Split Flaps Slotted Flaps 6 61 63 n n 4 6 2 95 100xl conrenrs Flap Effectiveness in the Linear Range Leading Edge Devices ‘The Optimum Airfoil for High Lift Powered-Lift Systems The Lifting Characteristics of a Finite Wing ‘The Vortex System for a Wing ‘The Maximum Lift of a Finite Wing Effect of Fuselage on Cia, Effect of Trim on Cos, Estimation of C,,,, for a Complete Airplane Configuration Airfoil Characteristics at Low Reynolds Numbers FOUR DRAG Skin Friction Drag Form Drag. Drag of Streamlined Shapes Interference Drag. Induced Drag Calculation of Induced Drag Effective Aspect Ratio Drag Breakdown and Equivalent Flat-Plate Area Drag Counts Average Skin Friction Coefficients Example Estimates of Drag Breakdown ‘Trim Drag Cooling Drag Drag Reduction Winglets Reduction of Skin Friction Drag Drag Cleanup Total Airplane Drag FIVE LIFT AND DRAG AT HIGH MACH NUMBERS ‘Qualitative Behavior of Airfoils as a Function of Mach Number Subsonic Flow at High Mach Numbers Fundamentals of Gas Dynamics One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Normal Shock Waves Oblique Shock Waves. Expansion Waves ‘Transonic Airfoils ‘Supersonic Airfoils Linearized Compressible Potential Flow ‘Subsonic Flow Supersonic Flow (Ackeret Theory) ‘Three-Dimensional Wings Characteristics of Sweptback Wings Delta Wings é 237‘CONTENTS Supersonic Wings ‘Subsonic Leading Edges ‘Supersonic Leading Edges Effect of Mach Number on the Zero Lift Drag of Two- and Three- ‘Dimensional Shapes ‘Area Rule for Transonic Flow SIX. THE PRODUCTION OF THRUST A Briet History of the Piston Engine Piston Engine Characteristics Supercharged Engines Propeller Analysis, ‘Momentum Theory Blade Elemept Theories Momentum-Blade Element Theory Vortex Theory Practical Use of Propeller Charts ‘Approximate Useful Relationships for Propellers Propeller Selection Design of a New Propeller A Brief History of the Turbojet Description of the Gas Turbine Engine Engine Ratings Flat Rating ‘Some Considerations Relating to Gas Turbine Performance Qualitative Comparison of the Performance of Turbojet, Turbofan, Turboprop Engines Specific Engine Characteristics and Performance Turbojet Turbofan ‘Turboprop Installation Losses ‘Trends in Aircraft Propulsion SEVEN AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE Takeoff Ground Roll Effect of Wind Airborne Distance Balanced Field Length Rate of Climb, Time to Climb, and Ceili Generalized Power-Required Curve ‘Time to Climb Range Maximum Endurance Descent Landingxiv CONTENTS Airborne Distance Ground Roll Range Payload Operating Limitations Flight Envelope Maneuvering Envelope (V-n Diagram) Gust Load Factors Energy Methods for Optimal Trajectories ‘The Art of Estimating and Sealing EIGHT STATIC STABILITY AND CONTROL Introduction Coordinate System—Forces, Moments, and Velocities Longitudinal Static Stability lck-Fixed Stability Stick-Fixed Neutral Point and Static Margin Cu. and Aerodynamic Center Location for a Finite Wing Downwash Angle Longitudinal Control Control Position as a Function of Lift Coefficient All-Movable Tail Stabilizer-Elevator ‘Stabilator Control Forces Gearing Stick Force for A Stabilator Stick Force for a Horizontal Stabilizer-Elevator Combination timation of Aerodynamic Hinge Moments Example Calculation of Stick Force Stick-Free Longitudinal Static Stability Elevator-Stabilizer Configuration ‘Stabilator Configuration Stick-Free Static Margin Steady Maneuvering Horizontal Stabilizer-Elevator Configuration ‘Stabilator Angle per g Stick Force per g Stabilizer-Elevator Configuration Stabilator Effect of Fuselage and Nacelles Effects of Propulsion System Propellers Jets Ground Effect Lateral and Directional Static Stability and Control 450 451 452 460 460 463 66 am an 477 478 479 79 481 484 486 489 491 41 492 495 494 495 soz 505 sos 506 508 508 509 siz 512 siz 3B 313 sis sis 321 323 504CONTENTS xv Directional Static Stability soa Directional Control 526 Lateral Controt 528 ‘Adverse Yaw 334 Roll Control by the Use of Spoilers su Aileron Reversal 337 Steady Rolling Motion 538 Coupling Effects sat Rolling Moment with Rudder sal Rolling Moment with Yaw Rate saz Yawing Moment with Roll Rate sas Rolling Moment with Sideslip Angle—Dihedral Effect sa NINE LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC STABILITY AND CONTROL 332 Equations of Motion 582 Linearization of the Equations 556 [A Summary Look at the Stability Derivatives and Other Parameters ‘Affecting Longitudinal Dynamic Motion sot X Derivatives and Parameters S6 Z Derivatives and Parameters 563 M Derivatives and Parameters S64 Examination and Reduction of Equations of Longitudinal Motion S65 olution of nth-Order Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coeficients S65 Mode Shapes 569 Phugoid (Long-Period Mode) sm Short-Period Mode 576 Solution of the Longitudinal Equations of Motion Using an Analog Computer 576 Longitudinal Flying Qualities 585 Phugoid Mode 586 Fright Path Stability 587 ‘Short Period Mode 587 TEN LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL DYNAMIC STABILITY AND CONTROL. 591 Equations of Motion 301 Euler Angles 594 Reduction of the Lateral-Directional Equations of Motion 395 ‘A Summary Look at the Stability Derivatives and Other Parameters ‘Affecting Lateral-Directional Dynamic Motion 596 ¥ Derivatives 596 C 397 307 598 600xvi CONTENTS 1 Derivatives Cy Gy G Cu N Derivatives Cup Cx Cu C Cn Lateral-Directional Equations for the Cherokee 180 "Mode Shapes. Roll Mode Spiral Mode Oscillatory or “Dutch Roll” Mode Lateral Directional Flying Qualities Roll Mode Dutch Roll Mode Spiral Stability Spinning APPENDIX A.1 THE SI SYSTEM APPENDIX A.2. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE APPENDIX A.3. AIRPLANE DATA APPENDIX A.4 NOMENCLATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS INDEX 610 oil 612 612 613 on os 9 649AERODYNAMICS, AERONAUTICS, AND FLIGHT MECHANICS