Multiphase Flow in Wells
James P. Brill
Floyd M. Stevenson Endowed Presidential Chair in Petroleum Engineering
Executive Director, Fluid Flow Projects
U. of Tulsa
and
Hemanta Mukherjee
Manager, Production Enhancement, West and South Africa
Schlumberger Oilfield Services
First Printing
Henry L. Doherty Memorial Fund of AIME
Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
Richardson, Texas
1999I
rc
Table of Contents
Chapter 1—Introduction .....s6.06++4+
LI Scope ..
1.2. Objectives of Monograph .
1.3 Organization of Monograph
14. Historical Background
1.5. Nomenclature and Units
Chapter 2—Single-Phase-Flow Concepts .
2.1. Introduetion
2.2. Conservation of Mass .
2.3. Conservation of Momentum
24 Pressure-Gradient Equation
2.5 Flow inan Annulus ...
2.6 Conservation of Energy
Chapter3—Multiphase Flow Concepts no
Introduction
_—
33 Definition of Variables
3.4. Pressure Gradient
3.5. Flow Patterns .
3.6 Liquid Holdup
3.7 Pressure-Traverse Computing Algorithm
3.8 Dimensional Analysis
Chapter 4—Multiphase-Flow Presure-Gradient Prediction
Introduction
42 Preste Grains reicon 7. occooceco
43. Evaluation of Wellbore Pressure-Gradient-Prediction Methods 56
44. Pressure-Gradient Prediction in Annli.....2..-0.ee00e00000001 vee 58
4.5. Evaluation of Annulus Liquid-Holdup and
Pressure-Gradient-Prediction Methods... oo 66
4.6 General Observations ....... eee 6
Chapter S—Flow Through Restri
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Description of Restrictions .
53 Flow Through Chokes
54 Flow Through Piping Components
‘Chapter 6—Well Design Applications
6.1 Introduction.
62. Vertial-Flow Performance
63. Inflow Performance
6.4 Production-Systems Analysis.
65 Anificial Lift ......
66 Gas-Well Loading
627 Erosional Velocity
68. Special Problems...
Appendix A—Nomenclature and SI Metric Conversion Factors ...+.+++e++0++
Appendix B—Fluid and Rock Properties ...
Appendix C—Vapor-/Liquid-Phase Equilibrium
Appendix D—Tubing and Casing Properties .
Author Index
ions and Piping Components
Subject Index ..Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Scope
The accurate design of ol and gas well ubing strings requires the
ability to predic flow behaviorin the wells Wells normally produce
‘a mixture of gas and liquids, regardless of whether they are class:
fied as oil wells or gas Wells This multiphase flow is significantly
‘more complex than Single-phase flow. However, the technology (0
‘predict maltiphase-iow behavior has improved dramatically inthe
past decade tis now possible to select ubing sizes, predict pressure
‘drops and calculate flow rates in wells with acceptable engineering
accuracy. This chapter sets the stage forthe monograph by describ
ing the nature and occurrence of multiphase flow, andby presenting
important historical events that have impacted on the development
‘of modern multiphase-flow concepts
‘The common occurrence of multiphase flow in wells can be di
‘cussed with the simplified production system shown in Fig, 1
Fluids entering the wellbore from the reservoir can range from an
tundersaturated ol toa single-phase ges. Free wate can accompany
the Muids as a result of water coning, water looding, or production
of interstitial water. Alteratively,a free gas saturation in an oil res-
ervoir can result in a gasiquid mixture entering the well. Retro
grade condensation can result in hydrocarbon liquids condensing ia
gas condensate reservoir so that a gasliquid mixture again eners
the wellbore. Even when single-phase gas or liquid flow exists near
the bottom ofa well, multiphase low can oceur throughout most of
‘the wellbore This is a result of evolution of gas from oil or con-
sigh aie
‘Values of fare estimated. fu, and then calelated, fe, until they agree
10 within an acceptable tolerance. A direct substitution procedure
{hat uses the calculated value asthe next assumed value results in
convergence in only two or thre iterations, The inital assumption,
can be obtained from one of the explicit smooth-pipe equations, or
from explicit approximations tothe Colebrook equation
Numerous explicit approximations to the Colebrook equation
have been proposed. Zigrang and Sylvester! have given one ofthe
‘most accurate and simple to use.
ain
aa)
SINGLE-PHASE FLOW CONCEPTS
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Fig. 23-Pipe roughness?
In most cases, Ea, 2.19 can be used in lieu of Eq 217.
Fig. 22 isa graph that shows the variations of fiction factors with
Reynolds number and relative roughness asedon Eas. 2.12 and2.17,
Ttisimportant to emphasize that eis nota physically measured
propery. Rather, itis the sand-grain roughness that would result
inthe same friction factor. The only way this ean be done is to
‘compare the behavior of anormal pipe with one thats sand-rough-
‘ened, Moody” has done this and his results, given in Fig. 2.3 are
sill accepted values. However, these values should not be consid
ceredinviolate and could change significantly asa result of paraffin
‘deposition, hydrates, erosion, or corrosion. If measured pressure
eradients are available,a friction factor vs. Reynolds number rela-
tionship can be established and an effective relative roughness ob-
tained from Fig. 22. Until itis again updated, this value of e/d
should be used for future predictions
Initial values of roughness often are needed for design calcula-
tions. The recommended value for new tubing is€=0.00005 ft. A
‘common value used to generate pressure-gradient curves is
(0.00015 For tubing exposed 10 an environment that causes sig-
nificant changes in roughness, "very dirty” pipe can have rough-
ness values of 0.00075 ft! For most wells, the friction component
‘of he pressure gradients small compared withthe potential ener-
‘gy component. Consequently, approximate values for absolute
roughness normally are sufficient.
219)Example 2.1—Single-Phase Liquid Pressure Drop, Calculate the
pressure change in a water injection well. The following data
ae known.*
8,000 ft
20,000 B/D
90°
62.4 Ibm
50in
Hu = 1060
‘= 0.00006 f
‘The average velocity inthe pipe is
9.532 fusee,
om 3 210, he Retold mune
wosasoal§
hy =
ip
as
Beco Me >208, ow tube Te ae oghes for
coo
= 3.688 x 10%
0.000148,
From Eqs. 2.17,2.19, or Fig.2.2,f= 0.0155. Calculate the pressure
sradient from Eqs. 2.5 and 2.9, neglecting acceleration effects
dp. _ = (0.0155)662.4)(9:531)? _ (62.4)(32.2)fsin(- 90)
ake Ga
= = 3274 + 62.400 = 59.126 pstit
~ 00227 + 0.4333 = 0.4106 psi
‘The pressure change is then
‘Ap = (— 00227 + 0.433378, 000)
=~ 1819 + 3,466.4 = 3,2845 pai
[Note thatthe pressure change consist ofa loss owing to friction of
= 181.9 psi anda gain from an clevation change of +3.466.4 pi
2.4.3 Single-Phase Gas Flow. When a compressible uid, such as
225, flows in a wel, the density velocity, and, consequently, the
pressure gradient all vary with pressure, Cullender and Smith! de-
veloped the most widely used method to calculate flowing bottom-
hole pressure in gas wells
Neglecting kinetic energy, Bq, 2.5 can be written 3s
se _
oY sina
220)
For gases,
(P= PM/ZRT, v= 4/A, q=4nBy. and B,™ peT2/T ap.
‘Combining these expressions With Eq, 2.20 and separating vari=
ables gives
ean
arin i nosh bgt come cv = 322
oy
z
i
where
Eq. 2.21 is applicable for any consistent set of units
Substituting field units and integrating the left side of Eq. 2.21
gives
"1
teas | non
"
ee
,
ex)
5
o001(fj) ano +
and p= psia, 7=°R, auc = MMsc{7D, d=in, and.
‘The right side of Eq. 2.22 cannot be integrated analytically with-
‘out making assumptions about Z, 7 and f However, the trapezoidal
‘ule for numerical integration can be applied by determining the vi
te of [for each of any numberof increments in p between py and
‘ag. Assuming the well can be divided into two halves for integra-
tion purposes—where ony the intermediate value of pressure, that
atthe mid-depth, py is considered —Eq 2.22 may be expressed as,
(ea1~ Palle + ta)
2
18.757,L =
(loa ral
>
Eq. 2.25 can be separated into two expressions, one for each half of
the well
(228)
Upper hat
1875y41/2 = (bay ~ py) - 026)
Lower ba
lag
1B.1574L72 = (Pay ~ raj ttets) en
‘While his metho canbe used with any number of steps, Callender
and Smith! demonstrated thatthe equivalent of foursep aecuraey
an be obtained wit a two-step calculation if the Simpsen's rule!
‘umerieal-imtegraton approach s used. The resulting equation is
wars, tm (EPL + ary tH). -- (228)
Use of ine Callender and Smith method to calculate owing bot
tombe pressures in gas wells can best be explained with an exam
Ble problem
Example 22—Single-Phase Gas Pressure Drop. With he follow-
ing data, calculate the lowing botiombole pressure in a gas wel us-
ing the Cullender and Smith method with two increments.
= 075
tL
Gc 4915 MMsctD
-MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLSB= 0012 ep
o= 90°
Preliminary Calculations. Calculate f assuming a completely
turbulent love (fully rough wall). If flow is not completly tubu
lent, a Reynolds number calculated at surface conditions can be 3s
sumed to exist throughout the well. From Eqs. 2.16 and 2.24,
f=0.015 and
pe x (066730.015)4.915
es?
Calculate fy Eq, 2.23):
Atpy= 2.000 psia, T= 110°F, and.
p _ 2,000
12 ~ Grovo7H ~ 49?
and
ly 4.342 181.60.
(0014 942)" + 0.00279
Upper Half of Well Estimate p3y(First Tal)
iy = pl +25 x 10°8L/2sin8)}
= 2,000[1 + (2.5 x 107*K5,000sin90")
250 psia
Calculate I (E9. 2.23)
250 psia, T= 110-+67.5°F, and Z= 0.797,
Be 2250
72 Gayore7 ~ 45
and
ey 4.425 = 19781
(@.001¢8.425)* + 0.00279
Calculate Py (Eq, 2.26):
IB.75y_L
18251075100.000)
Teal
Po = Pet = 2,000 +" 97.81 + 181.60
2,000 + 371 + 2,371 psa (no close enough to py)
Estimate ply (Second Tria)
Select piy=2,371 psia
Calculate I (Eq. 2.23)
At pig 2,371 psia, T= (78°F, and Z=0.796,
pre eeas7
TZ ~ GBx0.796)
and
669
4.669
(0.001514.66)° + 0.00279
Calculate pay (Eg. 2.26)
{(18.75)10.759(10, 000)
189.88 + 181.60
189.88,
Poy = 2,000 +
‘= 2,000 + 379 = 2,379 psia (not close enough to pi).
Estimate py (Tied TH:
Select po 2379 psi
Calculate Ig (Eq 223)
At p= 2.39 pia, T= 178 °F, and
opie e237)
TZ * CRx0795)
4684
SINGLE-PHASE FLOW CONCEPTS
and
4.684
(C.o0iys 684)* + 0.00279
CCateulate pay (Ea. 226)
(18:75)0.75\10, 000)
Ta9.41 + 181.60
‘Therefore, the pressure atthe mid-point ofthe well is 2379 psia.
‘The value of paris now calculated
= 189.41
000 +
Pay 2,379 psa,
Lower Half of Wel Estimate py (Fest Ti)
Pod +25 x 10°9L/2sin0)
= 2,379[1 + (25 « 10-4}, 000sin90%)]
= 2.676 psa.
Calculate iy (Eq. 2.23):
At ply= 2.616 psia, T= 245°F, and Z=0.867,
Phy
p _ _2.676
72 ~ Gsnosay ~ 4378
and
in ae 19939.
(00144378) + 0.00279
Cateulate pus (Eq. 2.27)
(18.75410.759(10,000)
Pos + [99.39 + 189.41
Pay
9.379 + 362 = 2,741 psia (not close enough to pp.
Estimate pi (Second Teal):
Selet p= 2741 psa
Caleulte fy (Ea. 223)
At ply=2,781 psia, T= 245°F, and Z=0.868,
B= ht
72 ~ Goswo.s68) ~ +47?
and
ty 4879 = 19600,
* @o00n.479)' + 0.00279
Clout py (Eg, 227)
(18.75X0:754(10,000)
196,00 + 189.41
‘Thisisclose enough tothe previously calculated value of,741 pia
Therefore, the flowing bottomhole pressure is 2,744 psia,
From Bq, 22, ifthe more accurate Simpson's rule aumerical-in-
tegration approach is used, the flowing bottomhole pressure is pre-
dicted tobe
Pay = 2,319 + = 2,744 psia
“4 —(6218.750:75)110,000)
6+ TRL60 + ISAT + 196.00
Por 2,743.2 psi
2.44 Non-Newtonian Fluids. The material presented previously is,
Valid only for Newtonian fds, However, ids encountered in the
Petroleum industry often act as non-Newtonian fluids. These in-
‘lude many drilling muds; uid, such as cement sluries, fracturing,
fuids, and spacers used during well-completion activities; poly-
mers injected during EOR projects crude oils at temperatures ap-
proaching the pour point; and many oil/water mixtures.
‘The design of piping systems for non-Newtonian fluids becomes
‘complicated because the use of conventional fiction-factor corre
tions isnot directly applicable. These non-Newtonian fluids may as-
sume any type of rheological behavior, depending on such factors
as shear rate, temperature, and fluid composition. Fig. 2.4, from
°HEAR RE
seman
Fig2.4—Rheological models.
Knudsen and Katz! describes the types of rheological behavior that
‘can be encountered,
‘Twomethods commonly are used to design piping systems forthe
transport of oilwater mixtures. The first method teat the mixture
1 @ Newtonian fluid with an apparent viscosity that can vary with
water fraction, This method is covered in Chap. 3 because it can in
volve the combining of the viscosities from each phase to obtain a
‘mixture viscosity. The second method teats the mixture as a non
"Newtonian fluid and is based on the following assumptions
1. The mixture is homogeneous
2 Slippage between phasesis neglected. Thus in-situholdups are
the same as their respective input volume fractions
3. The rheological behavior ofthe oi/water dispersion system is
Suitably described by the Ostwald-de Waele power-law model!
Power-Law Model. The power-law stress strain relationship can
be expressed as
reky - ea (229)
fn" isunity, Bg. 229 will describe Newtonian behavior, and K" will
be equal the constant viscosity. , For atypical oilwater mixture,
‘usually iss than unity, and Eg 229 will describe pseudoplastic
{shear thinning) behavior. i also possible for an oil water mixture
tohaven’ greater than unity, resulting in dlatant (shear thickening)
behavior. The type of behavior that a uid system will follow nor
rally is unknown but can be determined from laboratory exper
‘ments with an appropriate viscometer.
‘These tests must be conducted fora specified set of operating
conditions: input water fraction, temperature, and droplet site dis
tribution ofthe dispersed phase (or, indtecty: mixing speed). Once
the fluid system is correctly characterized, te frictional pressure
_radients for pipe low inthis particular oil/water dispersed system
readily can be determined,
Generalized Reynolds Number. Metzner and Reed! introduced
the concept of a “generalized Reynolds number” for non Newto~
sian flow. The usual Reynolds number definition is given in Ea
2.10, which also can be written as,
ped (ay
«= eG)
™ 230)
where ty is the laminar wall shear stress, while the quantity, 8d,
isalso the true shear rate atthe pipe wall fora Newtonian fluid Thus,
‘he ratio, (4/(80/a)], corresponds 1 the Newtonian viscosity,
For non-Newionian flow, the relationship between the true shear
‘ate and the apparent shear rate can be expressed as
0
ous tye) o @3y
where n’=the slope of a logarithmic plot of ty vs. Sv, ofien
called the flow-behavior index. rom the same plot the lationship
ofthe tangential ine to the laminar-fow curve can be writen as
n= «(ey oes OR
Combining Eqs. 2.30 and 2.32 gives
(-2),
ponds
Meng RE ecccccscsesscssescses ax
aed
a «(sg (%) 34)
here Nang “tbe generalized Reynolds aumbet, sd = apparet
viscosity. Eqs. 2.53 and 2.34 clearly reduce to the normal Reynolds
‘number and the Newtonian viscosity for a Newtonian fluid. when
n= and K’
‘Non-Newtonian Friction Factor. In general, theprocedire for
calculating friction factors for non-Newtonian fui ssa
that for Newtonian ud
Laminar Flow. From Metzner and Reed,"6 the Fanning friction
factor for non-Newtonian laminar flow can be writen as
fag.
238)
Turbulent Flow—Smooth Pipes. Dodge and Metznet” proposed
this implicit riton-faio equation,
i. 49 nsonia) — 04,
[p= oan, S27] ~ 98. 236)
Turbulent Flow-Roush Pipes: Goviee and Azie suggested
this fiction factor for power iw pseidoplai Huds osing in
rough pipes:
sa) ee
where fyyq =the friction factor calculated from Eq, 2.36; f=
Newtonian flow Fanning frietion facto for rough pipe, calculated
at the same generalized Reynolds number; and j; = Newtonian
MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLSflow Fanning fietion factor For smooth pipe, calculated atthe same
generalized Reynolds number. Szilas er a. obtained a similar =
Sut for pseudoplasie Muids from the following equation,
= 400g] —_10-#2
i lee
ne ar
where
(238)
p= ssi (0292 5 212) 915-087... a0
Note that Eq 2.38 is analogous tothe Colebrook equation for New-
tonian fluids given by Eq. 2.17, and also requies a teal-and-eror
solution procedure,
Fully Rough Wall Turbulence, Govier and Azia'¥ recommended,
For Newtonian fluids, Ea. 2.40 essentially reduces othe von Kar
‘man equation,!®
3
Frictional Pressure Gradient. Once the Fanning friction factor,
{fs determined for the particular sysiem, the fetional pressure
‘gradient can be calculated from
(@) 2
2.65
4.06 ogd/2e + 60 — 240)
O6logd/2e + 3.36. seseeees QAl)
2a)
andi ar clearly the two important parameters that wll affect
the fictional pressure-gradient calculation for a dispersion system,
‘These two parameters can be determined experimentally with an ap-
propriate viscometer
Example 2.3—Non-Newtonian Oil/Water Mixture Pressure
Drop. A horizontal pipe discharges an oil/water mixture a atmo-
spheric pressure. Determine the inlet pressure required to maintain
‘constant volumetric ow rate ofthe dispersion for an input-water
fraction of 20%. The Following also are given:
30 see
2vin
O01 k
10,000 f
53.74 Ibe
62.23 bavi?
o8s89
7.1475 x 10° Tht sect?
Calculate the mixture density, using n= pafe+ Pf = 554 Ibm
{3 Forthe given flow rateand water fraction, calelate the general
ied Reynolds number,
pasta
Mees BER
9.97 x 10
‘The criterion for turbulent flow is considered to be Npa,,> 1,500,
For this example the low regime is turbulent.
‘Using Eq. 2.37, compute the friction factor for turbulent Now of
pseudoplastic fuids in rough pipes
1 = fas (F) = 00010006
00708,
where fxg is given by Eq. 2.36, is given by Ba, 2.14, and is iv
cen by Bq, 2.17. Note that if Eq. 2.38 were used, the trial-and-error
procedure would have given a value of 0.00676,
ecanticiy, 620A)
one an
Fig. 25—Annuli configurations 2°
Calculate the pipe inlet pressure, py
P= Pst Yat
105.9 psa,
2.5 Flow in an Annulus
Inthe petroleum industry, ow in wells normally occurs in tubing.
string. However, many oil wells with high production rates produce
through the casing/tubing annulus. This trend is dictated by eco-
nomics, multiple completions, and regulated production rates. Al-
though few in number when compared with all producing wells,
these “casing flow" wells account for a significant part of the
world’s oil production
‘Other easing-Nlow applications are found in wells under various
types of artificial lift. In sucker-rod pumping wells, a rod sting is
installed inside the tubing sring to connect the prime mover unit on
the surface tothe pump at the bottom of the well. The fluids are
pumped upward through the tubing-rod string annulus. Casing low
so can occur in gas wel production. To remove or “unload” unde-
sirable igus that can accumulate atthe bottom of these wells, si-
phon tube often is installed inside the wbing string. The permanency
ofthe siphon tube in the tubing string requies the Nuids to flow up
ward through the tubing-string/siphon-tube annulus.
Inthe past, annuli have been treated based onthe hydraulic diam-
eter concept. The hydraulie diameter is four times the area for flow
divided by the wetted perimeter. For annulus configurations,
d= de dy coerce @43)
However, the hydraulic diameters not always the most representa
tive characteristic dimension for flow in an annulus. To determine
appropriate characteristic dimensions, a lear understanding of flow
inn annulus must be achieved,
‘Anannulus is characterized by the existence of two ctcula pipes,
where the flow occurs through the area bounded by the outer pipe
inner wall and the inner pipe outer wal. Two geometrical parame-
ters identify these configurations: the annulus pipe-diameter rai
‘=i, anu the degree of eccentricity. The degree of eccentricity
Accounts for the displacement ofthe inner pipe center from the outet
pipe center and is expressed by
Dae
aa
where d= outer diameter ofthe inner pipe (tubing) de = inner
ameter of the outer pipe (easing), and Dgc = distance between the
pipe centers, Annul can have eccentricity values varying from zero
toone. Fig. 2. shows cross sections of annul with the same pipe-di-
ameter-ratio value, K, and for eecentricities of 0.0, 0.5, and 1.0,
(24ay
2.84 Friction Facto for Single Phase Flow. For noncircular con-
dis, single-phase-low friction factors often are determined
through the aplication of the hydraulic-diameter concep, Howe
ex, this concep is better sited for high depres of turbulence
For laminar low, rigorous eatment of te flow fields possible
forany annul configuration, Bide gave analytical olwions
forbath the veloity profile and fiction factor for aconcentic ann
lus, Combining the developments by Heyda™ and Snyder andGoldstein" analytical solutions also can be found for these low
Parameters for an eccentric annulus. These solutions are presented
ina later section,
In turbulent flow, even for circular pipes, the mechanisms of ture
bulence are by no means fully understood. However, various semi
‘empirical and analytical models have been used successfully to pre
dict the velocity distribution and pressure gradient. In noncirctlar
configurations, where the transport phenomena are intrinsically
‘mote complex than for circular pipes, the formulation ofan analy
«al model is even more complicated. Three ways have been used to
Predict the Flow behavior ofaturbulent-flow field in an annulus: em
Pirical correlations, semi-empirical corelations, and application of
‘Universal velocity distributions
Empirical corelations involve the application of curvesfiting
techniques to experimental data to predict an overall flow quantity
Such as friction factor. The resulting frition-factor correlations nor,
mally take the form ofthe Blasius-type expression, as given in Eq
2.15 where C and n are determined empirically. Examples include
the correlations of Knudsen and Katz,! and Dodge?" Winkle?
Successfully used the Dodge correlation for flow in an annulus;
‘however, he note tha this procedure didnot take into account the
annulus pipe-diameter ratio,
‘Semiempirial approaches involve the use of experimental data for
turbulent flow in combination with characteristics of laminar flow in
the same noncicular configuration. The Gunn and Darling” proce
0.3. Te relationship between tue shea rate
and apparent shear rate atthe wall is expressed as
258)
ar), = a
here, n' = flow-behavior index.
‘The generalized Reynolds number concept alsocan be applied for
‘an annular-flow geometry. The generalized Reynolds number is
Mange 259)
where K's a parameter related the consistency index and is ex
pressed by Eg. 2.60 for an annular geometry.
- 06)
Then, fiction factor ean be writen 3
fait. esr
‘Therefore, with Ba, 2.62, the fictional pressure gradient fora con-
centric annulus can be calculated as
(4) - 2% om
and;
Eccentric Annulus. Haciislamoglu and Langlinais® developed a
correlation to predict fritional pressure losses of power-law fluids
inan eccentric annulus. A correlating parameter, R, was defined as
the rato of fictional pressure losses in an centri annulus to those
Jnaconcentric annulus. The empirical correlation, whichis valid for
evcentrcities ftom 0 10 0.95, pipe diameter ratios of 0.3 100.9, and
flow-behavior indices, n’, of 0-410 1.0, is given by
one (t
‘)
R=
~ssea (fy ase 08
‘This corelation has a claimed accuracy of + 5%. To predict he fric-
tional pressure gradient in an eccentric annulus, the factional pressure
‘gradient in a concentric annulus is first calculated with Eq. 2.62. The
Corrected value for an eccentric annulus i then determined fom
(@),-(@),e-
‘Non-Newtonian Turbulent Flow. There is no documented model
to predict non-Newtonian turbulent low in an annulus. However, an
approach analogous to regula pipe flow canbe postulated. The gen
eralized Reynolds number fora concentric pipe can be used inthe
‘non-Newtonian pipe flow friction-Factor correlations. Ten, the Bla-
sius equation canbe used to calculate the fictional pressure gradient
Foran eccentric annulus, one might try to use the R correlation
(Eq, 2.63) developed for laminar flow with a specific value of
did. =0.01, as suggested by Sas-Jaworsky.*? The frictional pres-
Sure gradient then can be obiained by use ofthe modified R for tur-
bulent flow and a concentric anus in Ea, 2.64
268)
2.6 Conservation of Energy
Application of energy conservation to fluid low in pipes requires
‘that ina given pipe segment the energy in, minus the energy out, plus
the heat energy transfered to or from the surroundings must equal
the rte of energy accumulation!
afoleest) Qn 0
For steady-state flow, Eq. 2.65 reduces to
a +e Ord
slob]
sary when dealing with customary units where mechanical energy
and thermal energy have different units.
266)FLOWING FLUIDS
. &
a:
a
ey
3
WR
ee
¥
So
es
%3
Se
Ry
255
RR
ey
3
Be
Fig. 27—Cross section of typical wellbore.2 (Reproduced with
permission of the McGraw-Hil Cos.)
ct en 2
sled
mri(eoa8s) +(e+
un
In Eqs, 2.66 and 2.67, es the intrinsic specifi energy and is de-
fined by
(268)
Combining Eqs. 2.67 and 2.68 with Eg, 2.2 from conservation of
mass principles yields
wd (ehsind _ = Ona
Pra gd *2
rat Be
pel) A
ad
= 2.69)
Because specific enthalpy is defined as
neue kh
+ 00)
pst ‘
4.269 can be expressed as
£5, om ge
Bene, Om a en
Finally, solving forthe enthalpy gradient yee
dh = Oxd_y wy gsi
g-o we am
at
The eat x, Qs dened terms of over beat raat cof
ficient and temperate dference bincen the Dds and ie sor
roundings Thus,
o=ur,-1) em
a, 272 clearly shows thatthe steady-state enalpy- gradient
equations made ip of de component Ths,
@),-@),+ en
=
), as
Because of the strong dependence of enthalpy and heat transfer
fon temperature, Eq. 2.72 is used to determine temperature change
‘when fuids flow through pipes. Normally, the kinetic energy tern
is negligible. Therefore, fora horizontal pipe, an increase in uid
‘enthalpy equals the heat transferred tothe fluid from the surround:
ings. Also, if no heat transfer oceurs, an increase in elevation cases
decrease enthalpy anda corresponding decrease in temperature
2.6.1 Wellbore Heat Transfer. When hot reservoir fuids enter &
wellbore and begin to flow to the surface, they immediately begin
losing heat to the cooler surrounding rock. The surrounding rock
_radualy heats up reducing the temperature difference and the heat
‘wansfer between the fluids and the rock. Eventually fora constants
‘mass low rae, the earth surrounding the well reaches a steady-state
temperature distribution. Prediction of fluid temperatures in the
‘wellbore as a function of depth and time is necessary to determine
‘the flud’s physical properties and caleulate pressure gradients,
Because ofthe high thermal conductivity and relatively smal ra
it distance between the flowing fluids andthe borehole wal, heat
transfer inthis region normally can be considered steady state. All
heat ost by the fluids instantaneously flows through the welloore
and into the surrounding rock, An axial cross section of 2 typical
\wellbote is shown in Fig 2.7. The following description of steady.
State heat transfer in a wellbore would have to be modified for other
"pes of completions.
Heat transfer within the tubing and in a ud-flled annulusis pi
‘marily a result of convection. Heat transfer through the tubing nd
casing walls and though a cement-filled annulus between the cas-
ing and borehole wall primarily results from conduction
Heat transfer resulting from conduction ean be descibed by
Fourier’s equation in radial coordinates!
a= = 2a, @75
Where q isthe amount of heat flowing radially through a solid with
thermal conductivity k Integration of Eq, 2.76 gives
en
MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLS“Heat transfer resulting from radial convection can be described
byl
q = 2xrALhAT,
where h=local convective-film coefficient
If steady-state heat transfer occurs in the wellbore, q is constant
Expressions for temperature change through the wellbore can be de
veloped ftom Eqs. 2.77 and 2.78 as follows.
For convection in the tubing,
= 078)
-tyesfe de. 279)
Foe conduction hugh the tubing wal,
ese) 280)
= SAE he :
For convection through the casing/tubing annulus,
cee
Ta ~ Ta ™ sot he ean
For conduction tough the casing
tol
tanta shy on
aT BG pe ec teee eee
Forconduction through the cement inthe casing/borehole annul,
sles)
a Me
Ta Te = 5h 8)
Heat wransfer ino the surrounding rock is by heat conduction and
{satransient process. The transient radal-heat-conduetion equation
is identical tthe diffusivity equation encountered in transient well-
test analysis! The infinite-reservoir, line-source solution is
= a fo)
mT at Be.
84)
where Tz =the undisturbed geothermal earth temperature, f). is
aiven by
=le(st @.
:
;
‘To monitor temperatures at the wellbore, the logarithmic approxi.
imation tothe E solution is valid for times greater than 1 week >=
“Thus, for x<0,0025
and,
+ G86)
£(~ 9) ~ Ine) + 0572 es
and
$10) = 0405 + OSes sseeserseeecessrses 88)
where
ty = e239)
Hasan and Kabir showed that for typical reservoirs Eg 2.88 an
‘cause significant erorsif applied to times less than 250 hours. They
presented Eqs. 2.90 and2.91 as simplified equations that, when used
together are valid for al times.
It, < 15,
so)
1.1281 Jf ~ 03 Ji) ss 90)
Wipe > 1S,
fo
fos06s + ostnioaI(1 +98)... @9D
Hasan and Kabir} also stated that, in most cases of oil produc-
tion, the temperature difference across the annulus is usually small
‘and convective (natural) heat transfer becomes important. Unfortu
nately, the lterature reports no work on natural convection in verti
cl annular geometry, Hasan and Kabir recommended using
0.0491 aA) tae
an)
‘where the Grashof number, Ngo reflects the extent of motion ofthe
annulus fluid resulting from natural convection
292)
(a — to) abn
Nee 293
“The density ofthe ested Mid nexttothe tubing walls es than the
{id nex fo the easing, creating a buoyany fre. The peed of
B coeticient of thermal expansion) andthe temperature erence
iva measure ofthe density diferene. The viscous force working
gaint the buoyancy generates circular mation ofthe Mud inthe
tml. The Prandt mumbo, Np smear ofthe interaction b=
tween te hydrodynamic boundary layer and he thermal Boundary
layer and is defined as
are
Ny = ass
Combining Eqs. 2.79 through 2.84 determines the total tempera-
ture change between the fluids and the undisturbed geothermal tem
perature of the surrounding rock,
+ 295)
{A simple expression forthe total heat loss from the fluids in the
tubing can be estimated from Newton's law of eooling,!9
4 = der ALUAT, 2.96)
‘where Un overall hea-transfer coefficient. Comparing Eqs.2.95
and 2.96, itis evident that 7 U)~ isthe bracketed term in Eq. 2.95,
2.62 Temperature Prediction, Prediction of temperauresin wells
‘eauies application of conservation of mass momentum, and ener
£2 princiles, This canbe accomplished by coupling the pessre-
dient and entalpy-ratien equations given by Eqs. 2.5 and
72. The complet ol these equations prevents argoreus anal
cal solution, but a numerca-soluion procedure is given in Cha
$S Mowever Sagar e a2 Alves ete and Hasan and Kbit?
present appreniate analytical sohuions, The Alves ef. fr-
tmulation was for flow in pipes at any inclination angle, Tee su.
tho degenerates to equations presented by Ramey forthe ease of|
ction welsandby Coulter nd Bardon" forthe ase of orzon-
telppelioes. Because the Alves eal method involves fewer reste.
tive ssumprions, it should yield more accurate predictions, Al
though numerous other publcaons have appeared, primaily
pertaining to scam Injection or producing wells al are modifca-
tons tothe Ramey method or tothe calculation of heal-ransTer eo
effciens. A summary ofthe Alves et a slution followsBecause enthalpy isa state property, A= Hp), a change in en-
‘thalpy can be calculated by considering effects of temperature and
pressure separately. Thus,
on = (9) ar (2)
scars en
Comite nents ps
ms
tnoncare()
),- -6(@) = -en em
the Joule-Thompson coefficient and represents isentha-
Bic cooling (or heating) by expansion. Combining Eqs. 2.97 and
2.98 gives
Oh = CAT ~ Condy. eee csees 299)
Combining Eqs. 2.99 and 2.72 gives
ar,
Toy
aL” Mar
~ EE og — adn, — ny 2100)
4. 2100 canbe simpli to this fermi equation
ar, 1
% BEB oo eececcccceee 10D
whee
anSe, nm
w=
oncvi ~Pegee — a
on & (2.103),
a
1 the surounding temperature varies linearly with depth,
Te = Ty golsind, 2.108)
where 7 =surrounding temperature atthe inlet of the pipe and is
‘often taken asthe reservoic temperature. The geothermal tempera,
ture gradient, gc, typically varies from approximately 1.) to
2.0°F/100 ft of vertical depth, depending on the thickness of the
‘arth crust, presence of voleanic activity, and other such favors
‘Combining Eqs. 2.101 and 2.104 yields a generalized dtferenvial
uation that incorporates both the enthalpy and pressue-gradient
‘equations with no limiting assumptions Thus,
q_t,
ai, Tu _acbsind, _1 ap
aa RO + oe ar
a, 2.105 canbe integrated assuming constant values fr U, Gu.
0.8, ¥.dv/aL,and dp /d. The resulting solution is
2.105)
T= (Pq gobsind) + (7, ~ TyerH
* sosingalt —em¥t) 4 he Beals ~ «1
e106)
[Bg 2.106 degenerates toall the more restrictive approximate analyt-
ical expressions to predict temperatures of fluids flowing in pipes
For the ease of horizontal flow, where 8=0°, and neglecting ec,
ccleration effects, Eq, 2.103 simplifies to
= sone, 2107
and Ea, 2.106 degenerates to
Ty Cy ~ Te-UA + Bal ~ et)
2.108)
g,2.108is equivalent tothe Coulter and Bardon equation ope.
dict temperatures in horizontal pipelines
For an ideal gas, =0, and neglecting acceleration effects, Eq
2.103 sinplifies to
— eesind)
E
1
2 2.105)
a
nd Eq. 2.106 degenerates to
1, = (Tq ~ goLsind) + (7, Tye-H
1) = 850040) — un
* gesindalt eH) BEBE — ga,
2.110)
whichis equivalent tothe Ramey equation for an ideal gas,
For the case ofan incompressible liquid,
1-5 ean
and
? eur
Neglecting fiction, =0, and Bq. 2.106 degenerates to
1) (Ta ~ acksind) + (T,— Tape
+ sosindalt ~ eH) a3)
Which is equivalent tothe Ramey expression for incompressble-
liguid fle
‘Comparison of Eqs. 2.106 and 2.113 shows thatthe Alves era.
Solution is actually the Ramey equation for single-phase gud. pls
{correction term. The corection term is function of the total pres.
sure gradient andthe dimensionless parameter, . Analysis of tos
Aimensionless coefficient ean show when consideration of the
correction term becomes important
Calculation of lowing temperatures as a function of depth and
time can be very tedious because ofthe complexity ofthe oveval
beattranstercoeficien in Eq 2.96, Shiv and Beggs proposed an
empirical correlation for A that was developed from a broed set oF
Mowing temperature surveys. The resulting equation iindependent
of time
A= D014 (Ia) Py My Ay 3
ui
‘where w is in pounds pe second, dy is in inches, and py isin
pounds per cubic foot
Eq, 2.106 is recommended when calculating. temperature
changes in wells lowing multiphase mixtures. Iti ist necessary
{0 define several physical properties in terms of mixtures, These
mixture properties are discussed in Chap. 3,
-MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLSExample 2.4—Temperature Prediction Comparison. A single-
phase ol flows up a tubing string that is cemented from top to bot
tom. Using Eq. 2113 andthe Shiu-Beggs correlation for A, calew
Jatethe wellhead temperature ater the well has been flowing for 2
‘weeks. The following is given.
Keen = 082 Brahe oF
25 Bur fF
14 Blue fF
0.08 Bewhr-h.°F
0.65 Buu/lbm-°F
0.08 fe
5,000 BBD
Tay = Ty = 200°F
10 cp=6.72 x 10 bit = see
2.750 in,
2.446 in
40
os
= 0015*Fit
30°API
10,000 #
cr
1. Determine i. The Ditas and Boelter equation” gives an ac-
ceptable correlation for the Nusselt number for turbulent low
(Wiee> 10%) in the tubing when cooling is taking place
Nagy = O.O2BNBENQ?,
Reynolds Number:
000 B/DI5.615
= 2.489 fuse.
oan
isn woo)
% 0876,
Po
and
_ pnd _ (54.7)2.489)(4,892/12 .
ne = SAD = 8259 x 108
Because Mge> 2,000, flow is turbulent
From Ref. 15, the Prandt! number is
13, 60010.65) _ 19.66
0.02398.259 x 104/"19.66 = 4823
482,30.08)
‘y= "[as92/12)
946 Blume 62°F
2 Determine reservoir te function fi), fom Fg 289.
cat, (008 bee wooks(168 /wk)
“ ? 12096,
a (a0/13}
SINGLE-PHASE FLOW CONCEPTS
Because x <0,0025, Eq, 2.87 gives
)
$uwoo02) + 05772) = 2794
3, Determine heat-transer coefficient using Eq. 2.95.
HOT
0.0519 + 0.0047 + 0.8921 + 1.9957
2.9444 he F/B,
4. Determine A
From Ea, 2.102,
(6.398
an( 2282) ae mayne 0
19,488 f
From Shiu-Beggs (Eq, 2.114),
A = (0.0189(17.77) (5.892) a0)""
x 0.8)'*54.7°
= (0.01499(4.534)(0.631)(2.428)(0.373)(123, 829)
= 4,785 fe
5. Determine Tya from Eq. 2.113,
Ty = [200.0 ~ (0.0153(10,000) sin 75°] + 0
aoa)
+ (0.015)sin75°(19,488)(1 —
00 - 1449 +1133
68.47.
From Shiu-Begas (Eqs 2.113 and 2.114),
Ty = (200.0 ~ (0.01510, 000) sin75°} + 0
+ (0.015)sin 75%9, 783)[1 ~ «1900047
00 — 1449 + 60.7
IS.
References
| Knudsen, 1G. and Kat. DLL Fluid Dynamic and Heot Transfer
‘McGraw-Hill Book Co ine, New York City (1958),
2. Moody LF: “Faction Facto for Pipe Flow” Tran, ASME (1944)
(6,NO.B 674.
3. Allen Te and Ditsworth RL: Fld Mechanie, McGraw-Hill Book
(Co Inc, New York City (1975),
4. Poise. L Compie Rens (1840) 1, 961 apd 10815 (1841 12,112
5. Drew, TB., Koo, EC, and McAdams, WH: Tran, AICHE (1930)
28.55,
6. Blasi, Hs Z Math Phys (1908) $6 1
1. Nikurase, 1: Forechungehef (1933) 301.r
8. Colebrook, CF: “Turbulent Flow in Pipes With Panculr Reference
‘othe Transition Region Between the Sinooth and Roush Pip Lawes
4 dna Cv Eg. 1939) 1,13,
9. Bri JP and Beggs, HD. Two-Phase Flow in Pipes, Uf Tulsa Tl
3, Oxlanoma (199).
10. Zigrang DJ. and Syivester,ND.:“A Review of Explicit Fiction Fac
tor Equations."J. Energy Res. Tech. Ue 1988) 107,280,
1M. Theory and Practice ofthe Testing of Gas Wel thie eon, Energy
Resouces Conservation Board, Calgary (1973)
12,Cullendr, Mand Smith, RV. “Praca Solution of Gas Flow
Equations for Wells and Pipelines Wits Large Temperature Graeme
4PT (December 1956) 281; Trans, AIME. 207.
13, Buringion. RS: Handbook of Mathematica! Tables and Formulas
fit eon, McGraw-Hill Book Co ne, New York Cy (1973)
14, Marines, A.Ee al: “Prediction of Dispersion Vscony of Old Wa-
{erMixture Flow in Horizonial Pipes,” paper SPE 18221 presented a
the 1988SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston
2-5 October
15, Bind, RB. Stewart, WE, and Lightfoot, EN. Transport Phenomena,
hin Wiley & Sons, New York City (1960).
16 Metane. A.B. and Reed C."“Flow of Non-Newonian Fids--Cor:
‘elation ofthe Laminar, Tanston, aad Turbulent Flow Regions
AICHE. (1985 1, 34,
17 Dodge, DW. and Metzner, A.B: “Turbulent Flow of Nom Newtonian
Systems." AICRE J (1958) 8 Te,
18 Govier, G W.and Azz, K: The Flow of Complex istaresin Pipes, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co, New York Cty (1973).
19, Sula, AP. Bobok, E. and Navel “Determination of Turbulent
Pressure Loss of Non Newtonian Oil Flow in Rough Pipes” Rheoloy,
fe Acta (1981) 20, No.5.
20, Heya JF: "A Greens Function Solution for he Cae of Laminar In
§ = (22208) = o.o0012
From Fig. 22 oF Fg. 2.17, f=0.0135.
6, Determine pressure gradient neglecting kinetic energy eects:
rom Eq. 42,
de _ (00135)27.04)°7.837
& * BATOHGTTHOS)
2.174)
(32.178)
+ 27.08)
= 0.70 + 27.04 = 27.74 pst
0.193 psi.
17. Ifcalculations had been made with the incorectliquid-holdup
value of 0.3, the pressure gradient would have been 0.14 psift
Gray Method. Gray developed a method to determine the pres-
sure gradient ina vertical gas wel that also produces condensate
Auids or watecS A total of 108 well-est-data sets were used to de-
velop the empirical corelations. OF these data sets, 88 were ob-
tained on wels eporedly producing fee liquids. The authors eau-
tioned use ofthe method fr velocities higher than SO fuse, noni
diameters greater than 3. in., condensateliquid loadings above SO
DBOVMMscf, and waterfiqui loadings above 5 BbUMMscf
Gray proposed this equation to predict the pressure gradient for
two-phase flow in vertical ges wells,
Oe, 19 — pyr £2)
GBP + oe -omeE le
Liguid-Holdup Prediction. From a dirvensional analysis and se-
lected laboratory tests, three dimensionless groups of variables were
selected to correlate liquid holdup,
au
Div
ft a)
wib.= Pl
4.13)
ay
‘The resulting correlation developed to predic iguid holdup was
Ret
Hate (sy
31!
L
where
B
eon aossn( «Pato
Lis + 061704
Ceti ain
Gray stated that the liquid holdup in condensate wells often tends
to be smaller than in oil wells producing at comparable pas/iquid
tatios. Tis probably arises from natural ime lags inthe ashing and
‘condensing processes, and also from the lower average interfacial
surface tension in condensing systems compared with Mashing
black ol systems. The formulation of Eq, 4.15 such thatthe liquid
holdup is ordinarily very near to the no-slip holdup,
Friction-Factor Prediction, The effect of liquid holdup on fic-
tion loss can be interpreted. asa variation in wall roughness om that
‘ordinarily experienced in single-phase, dry-gas flow. Gray pro
posed that friction factors for wel-gas wells were wholly dependent
‘on «pseudo-wall-roughness factor because Flow is normally inthe
fully-developed turbulent region, Friction factors can be obtained
from the Moody diagram (Fig. 2.2) from Eq. 2.16 for completely,
turbulent flow. The pseudo-wall-oughness €, was correlated with
modified Weber number, similar to that used inthe Duns and Ros?
‘method for mist ow. Defining @ roughness variable,
2850,
oe 4.18)
Pave o
then, for 80,007,
(4.19)
and, for R<0.007,
Re’ ~ e,)
eet TE: cee sisteeeees 420)
‘With the restriction that ¢ 22.77% 10-5, ¢g is the absolute wall
roughness for single-phase gas flow. It is noteworthy thatthe cor
‘elation finally adopted includes both the effects of unusually high
apparent roughness observed in cern laboratory test conditions
And the eects of low apparent roughness in certain field systems,
Asheim Method. The Asheim® method, or MONA, is indepen-
{ent of flow patter, but does petmit the selection of thee empirical
Parameters for either the bubble- or slug-flow pattems. Once se
lected, however, these parameters must be used for all multiphase.
‘Now caleulations. The method can be usedin conjunction witha his.
tory-matching procedure to adjust the three empirical parameters
{and minimize computation errors,
‘The pressure gradient is determined from
APE psi coccccseesesne AD
Liguid-Holdup Determination, The gas and liquid velocities can
‘be determined from
wae it oO seeeeeees 422)
and
“ - 42)
Eqs. 422 and 423 canbe combined 10 give
A na e
Nama: - 424)
2
Eq, 4.25 gives the functional relationship assumed between the
{- and liquid-phase velocities,
Me + a. exo (425)
Using Es. 4.22 and 4.25 to eliminate the gas- and liquid-phase
velocities in Eg. 4.24 gives
[lv +a 0) + teara]
as
mn
~ tetova ee . 2)
Two limiting cases must be Uefined to make the holdup expres-
sion complete. When the constant -slip term, a, (buoyancy) is 2er0,
the holdup becomes
Hae, aan
‘When the liquid superficial velocity approaches zero, the flow situae
tion may correspond to gas bubbling through stagnant liquid. The
holdup for this case is found by rearanging Eq. 4.26 to obtain
Higa (428)
Frition-Factor Determination. This two-phase fretion-factor
correlation was used in Eq, $2
Pa
b exxeccom cesceeses 429)
‘where 9, is defined in Eq. 3.24. The wal friction factor. fis deter
‘mined from Fig 2.2 fora no-slip Reynolds number defined by
Pata
Nae, = Pate (430)
Parameter Values. For slug flow, the normal values of the three
parameters area) =1.2,a)=0.38 Jed, and ay 1,0. For homoge.
‘neous flow the normal values of the three parameters are ay = 1:0,
420, and a3~ 1.0. Asheim showed that, by selecting either slug
flow or homogeneous low, the tree parameters ean be adjusted for
an optimized fi of Field data,
Category “c." The methods considered inthis category differ in
how they predit flow pattern and how, foreach flow pattern, they
predict liquid holdup andthe fiction and acceleration pressure-gra-
‘dient components. For vertical flow of a homogeneous slip mixture,
Eq. 3.26 can be expressed as
$+ (8) ra e(¥). a
‘Duns and Ros Method. The Duns and Ros? method isa result of
an extensive laboratory study in which liquid holdup and pressure
gradients were measured. About 4,000 two-phase-flow tests were
Conducted in a 185-fehigh verical-flow loop. Pipe diameters
ranged from 1.26 10 5.60 in. and ineluded two sanulus configura
tions, Most ofthe tests were at near-atmospheric conditions with ait
for the gas phase and liquid hydrocarbons or water as the liquid
‘Phase. Liquid holdup was measured by use of a radioactve-tracer
fechnigve. A transparent section permitted the observation of flow
pattem For each of three flow paterns observed, correlations Were
are given in Fig. 4.7. They are functions ofthe liq-
uid velocity number, Nz. F ean be obtained from
Fy
Ny
where Fy and Fy also are obtained from Fig 4.7
‘The friction pressure-gradient component for bubble flow is
tiven by
(43
Bar
438
(8), Pitutn 39)
4
‘. ra ‘e
Fig. 4.6—Duns and Ros? bubbla/siug tranaltion parameters.
2eeteezeng
5
Fig. 4.7—Duns and Ros? bubbie-low,sip-velocity parameters.
From experimental data, Duns and Ros developed this equation for f:
=hf
FES B cece cesses (440)
‘The friction factors govemed mainly by f, whichis obtained from
‘Moody diagram (Fig. 22) as function ofa Reynolds number for
the liquid phase.
aan
corection forthe in-situ gasiguid ratio
andis given in Fig. 4.8. The factor fis considered by Duns and Ros
‘sa second-order correction factor for both liguid viscosity and in
tu gasfiquid ratio. k becomes important for kinematic viscosities
‘greater than approximately 50 cSt and is given by
aay
‘Duns and Ros considered the acceleration component ofthe pres
sure gradient to be negligible for bubble flow.
‘Slug Flow. Slug flow exists if Nevyy < Nev € Nyy For lug
flow, the dimensionless sip-velocty number is
(we + Fe
(+ FM)
where Fs, Fe, and F7are given in Fig. 49 as functions of the liquid
viscosity number, Nz. and
S= (14h) 43)
TAR OU On carreras (444)
‘The fiction pressure-gradient component for slug flow is calcu
lated exactly the same way as for bubble flow. Also, the acceleration
‘component for stug flow is considered negligible
Mist Flow. Mist flow exists if Nev > Nyrpy Duns and Ros 35-
sumed that, at high gas flow rates, the liquid transported mainly
as small droplets. The result is nearly « no-slip condition beeen
the phases. Thus. $= 0, v, = 0, and H, = 2,, The mixture
‘density for use in the elevation component of the pressure gradient
then is calculated from Eq, 3.23.
Friction in the mist-flow pattem originates from the shear stress
between the gas and the pipe wall, Thu, the friction component of
the pressure gradient is determined from
Divi,
445)
Because there is no slip, the friction factor is obtained from a
Moody diagram (Fig. 2.2) asa function ofa Reynolds number for
the gas phase
“
(446)
Duns and Ros noted thatthe wall roughness for mist flow is the
thickness of the liquid film that covers the pipe wall. Waves on the
film cause an increased shear stress between the gas and the film
that, in tum, ean cause the greatest part ofthe pressure gradient,
‘These waves result from the dag of the gas deforming the film in
‘opposition tothe surface tension, This process is affected by liquid
Viscosity and also is governed by a form of the Weber number
ewe
Mu = oe
aan)
‘This influence was accounted for by making Ne function ofa d-
‘mensionless number containing liquid viscosity,
we
= pale (448)
Fig. 4.10 shows the functional relationship, where the coordinates
ate Nye #5. Nwe Ne
‘The value of roughness may be very small, bu the relative rough-
ress never becomes smaller than the value forthe pip itself. At the
transition o slug flow, the waviness ofthe film may become large,
with the crests of opposite waves touching and forming liquid
bridges. Then eld approaches 0: Between these limits, eld can be
‘obtained from equations developed from Fig, 4,10
e _ 207480,
Nua $ 0.005; 5 = Pid (4.49)
at
Mud, > 0005; = STE ny). 4.50)
Ped
Where dis in feet, is in fet per second, pis in pounds per
cubic foot, and a, is in dynes per centimeter
‘Values off forthe mist-flow pattern can be found for eld > 0.05
from this extrapolation ofthe Moody diagram
4 asi
[+>eu(0279)]
Aste wave height of the film on the pipe wall increases, the actu
al area available for gas low decreases because the diameter open
to low of gas is now d~. Duns and Ros suggested thatthe fiction
component of the pressure gradient could be refined by replacing d
-MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLS.-
Fig. 49-Duns and Ros? slug-tiow,slip-velocity parameters.
with de and 5p with vspl'd—)? throughout the ealeulations
“Tis results in atnal-and-ror procedure to determine &
Tn mist flow, acceleration often cannot be neglected ait was in
bubble and slug flow. The acceleration component ofthe pressure
radial can be approximated by
(@),.- =" (@) ss 459)
‘Beggs and Brill! provided a derivation of Ei, 4.52. If we define a
dimensionless Kinetic energy, Ej, a8
Vag
a. 453)
‘the total pressure gradient can be calculated from
fg -@
‘The dimensionless kinetic energy term, Es elated tothe sonic
velocity of a two-phase mixture. Bis similar to the Mach number
for compressible flow. Sonic conditions are reached when the Mach
‘number becomes 1.0, When this occurs ina pipe, a “shock” is estab-
lished, across which the pressure gradients infinite. Eq. 4.54 il
predict the same result if & becomes 1.0. Unfortunately, Eq. 4.53
‘can incorrectly yield Ey values greater than 1.0.
(asa)
Transition Region. The transition region exist if Noy,
< Ng < Meryae this region is predicted, Duns and Ros Sus
gested linear itepoation between the low-pattem boundaries,
Ney aNd Neyo oblain the pressure gradient. This wl equre
a calglation of Pressure gradients with both sluglow and mist
fow comlations. The pressure gradient inthe tansiton region then
is calutated fom
dp ‘P) ay 2
(8), -4(8)_+0-0() «as
we
Nenu ~ New
ae Nein Nein 880
Increased accuracy was claimed in the transition region ifthe gas
{density used in the mist-flow pressure-gradient calculation was mo-
ified to be
sn
PO Re,
where y= gas density calculated atthe given conditions of pres-
sure and temperature, This modification accounts for some of the
liguid being entrained inthe gas.
Fig. ¢.10—Duns and Ros? mist-flow, fllm-thickness correlation.
‘Modifications. Two proprietary modifications of the Duns and Ros
‘method have been developed but are not availabe in the literature.
‘The frst, known as the Ros field method, involved modifications
based on carefully obtained daa from 17 high-GOR vertical oil wells.
Ta joint Mobil-Shell study undertaken between 1974 and 1976,
‘4 modification resulted in the Moreland-Mobil-Shell_ method
(MMSM).In this study, 40 vertical oil wells, including the 17 used
in te Ros field method, and 21 directional wells were selected as
thebasis forthe modifications. The MMSM method includes liquid-
holdup correlations derived from the data for bubble and slug flow
thatare simpler in form than those used inthe original Duns and Ros
‘method. Possible discontinuities at flow-pattern-transition bound-
aries also were removed.
Example 4,3—Using the Duns and Ros Method, Calculate the
‘Vertical, Multiphase-Flow Pressure Gradient for Example 3.2.
Given! yy =0.97 cp, a,=8.41 dynestem, 4g =0016 cp, and
€=0.00006 1
1. Determine the flow patter:
From Fig, 45, Region I (froth or bubble).
Verification
From Fig. 46,£)= 1.0; 021.1
Nay = bi + baNees
= 1.0 + G.AG187) = 14.06
and
Nye = MSA < Nery
bubble ow exists.
2. Determine liquid holdup:
From Fig. 312, F)=1.2, F;=024, Fy
From Eq, 4.38,
_ 265)
RoI Tas
From Eg. 437 for bubble flow,
3,and F4=265.
6.
sit +a2niian +0.116( 9)
T+ in
4.946,
From Bq. 435,
559.
3s3. Determine friction factor:
From Eq. 441,
810769109) _ 545 1s
eABHUTENOINOD «145 5 1
md
= Dons
§ = 200006 — pore
From Fig 22 Ea 217./;=0015
omg a8
_ 01791386043.
oo
= tare 0°!
“he i0
Fro Eq 42,
fon 0008 = 10006
From Bq, 440
0)
(00175,52 = aos
4, Determine pressure pradient neglecting kinetic energy effects
rom Eqs. 4:31, 3.22, and 4.39,
dp _ (0.01759047.6113,9710.83)
a anty03)
. . 63
(ar6110 859 + (5.88) - 0559379
= 080 + 29.21 = 30.01 pst
208 pst
Orkiszewski Method. Orkiscewski® tested several published cor-
relations with field data and concluded that none was suiicienty
accurate forall flow pattems. He then selected what he considered
to be the most accurate corelations for bubble and mist flow and
Proposed 3 new correlation for slug flow. The shug-flow corelation
‘Was developed with the Hagedorn and Brown® data, OrkiszewsKa
Selected the Griffith and Wallis!2-¥ medhod for bubble flow andthe
Duns and Ros? method for mist flow.
Flow:Pattern Prediction. Orkiszewski used the Duns and Ros
‘low-pattem transitions forthe boundaries between slug flow and
mist flow. including the transition region between them. Eqs. 4.32
1nd 4.32¢ defined these, For the boundary between bubble How and
slug flow, he chose these criteria established by Griffith and Walls,
Bubble/sug transition:
A
is (asa)
where
4, = 1071 ~ 022182, (459)
and rp = USEC, vyp = FUSE,
ically to be 20.13,
Bubble Flow. Bubble low exists if Ay = 1
liquid holdup for bubble flow is determined from
worlfiet- ) #) 460)
fi, and Lp is constrained algebra
AS days The
36
on
a3 +
C02 4
os 4
° ao ry =o
Maas:
Fig. 4.11—Gritith and walis3C, correlation,
which s equivalent to Eq 4.36 forthe Duns and Ros correlation. r-
Kiszewski adopted the Grifith'* suggestion that 0.8 fsec isa good
approximation ofan average vy. In See. 4,2.2 we will show that»
isa function ofthe gas and liquid densities and surface tension. The
liquid holdup determined from Eq. 4.60 then isused to calculate slip
density with Eq, 3.22, which in turns used ocalculate the elevation,
‘component ofthe pressure gradient
The friction pressure-gradient component for bubble flow is
aiven by
(de)
2),
‘The fiction factoris obtained froma Moody diagram (Fig.2.2) as,
‘8 function of relative roughness and Reynolds number forthe lig.
id phase,
Prubsh tty an
Mg = Palate
(462)
‘The acceleration pressure-gradiem component for bubble flow
was considered negligible,
Slug Flow. Slug Now exists if dy > Ayr 8M4 Nex < Np The
slip density is calculated from
bliss + ¥4) + Posy
eth
tet (463)
Orkiszewski developed Eq. 4.63 by performing mass and volume
balances on atypical slug unit consisting ofa Taylor bubble'® and
8 liquid slug. A similar Griffith and Wallis development neglected
the presence of aliquid film around the Taylor bubble and the possi
bility of liquid droplets being entrained in the Taylor bubble. Conse.
‘quently, Orkiszewski proposed the lst term in Eq. 4.63 to account
forthe distribution of liquid in these regions, This modification was
‘meant to extend the Griffith and Wallis work to include the high-ve-
locity-flow range.
Griffith and Wallis correlated the bubble-rse velocity, vp, by
the relationship
w= CC fed, (4.64)
where Cy and C2 are expressed in Figs. 4.11 and 4,12 as functions
Of May, 2d Ne
(465)
MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLS,