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    9 views12 pages

    Creeping Flow Start

    Uploaded by

    VIVA
    good man good!

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    21 Flows at Low Reynolds Numbers Situations where the Reynolds number is very low form another class of incompressible flows having common physical events. For a domain characterized by the length L and a motion characterized by the velocity U, we can imagine that the Reynolds number Re = LUply: is small because the object is small, or the fluid is very viscous, or the velocity or density is very small. From a physical point of view we may think af Re + 0 as either the flow of a massless fluid or the flow of highly viscous fluid, These flows are frequently called creeping flows or Stokes flows. Of course, the term creeping flow is appropriate to many practical cases in which a high viscosity leads to slow motion. The chemical and material processing industries frequently deal with very viscous substances, In other cases, the fluid may be of modest viscosity but the length dimension is small. ‘A small particle of dirt or a droplet of liquid settling out of the air does so very slowly, at a low Reynolds number. The size range of engineering interest extends all the way down to aerosols, where the continuum assumption itself must be modified. As another example, the width of the gap in an oil-lubricated bearing is typically very small, 0.001 in. or less. The flow of groundwater, oil, or natural gas Uuvugh porous rock formations furnishes yet another example of a low-Reynolds-number situation. When considering the flow throngh small passages or around tiny objects, we focus our interest on a small region in space. The physical events are those of a viscous, massless fluid The flows mentioned above are either confined flows or unconfined flows. Low- Reynolds-number flows can also occur as parts of larger flow fields. Consider, for ex- ample, the leading edge of a flat plate aligned with the free stream. As the flow separates to go om either side of the plate, the velocity on the stagnation streamline must become zero, and viscous diffusion can therefore extend a slight distance in front of the edge. ‘The size of this region is »/U, very small in most instances. In a small neighborhood near the leading edge, the flow is viscous and a local Reynolds number x,U/» is less than 1. The leading edge is typical of any wall irregularity, such as a comer. ‘The term low Reynolds number commonly has several meanings. Frequently, it merely designates flows where Re is lower than typical values, Here and throughout this chapter, we use the term to mean flows where inertia is negligible. 21.1 | GENERAL RELATIONS FOR RE — 0: STOKES’S EQUATIONS Consider a flow field with characteristic length L and velocity U. The proper nondimen- sional distance x = x/L and velocities v? = v,/U contain these scales. In previous S71 572 Flows at Low Reynolds Numbers work for moderate the high Reynolds numbers, the pressure was scaled with the dynamic pressure, 4pU°, implying that inertia and pressure effects are the same size, However, this scaling is inappropriate for Re — 0 because inertia effects, including the dynamic pressure, are becoming very small. In a very viscous flow the pressure force must become large to balance the viscous stresses. The appropriate nondimensional pressure cannot contain p, It is pte P=Po_P~ Py 21.1.1 yUIL~ ipu? Re (1.1.1) With these variables, the nondimensional momentum equation becomes Re —— = —Vip*# + Vey (21.1.2) For Re — 0 this simplifies to Viptt = Wey (21.13) ‘The net forces on a fluid particle must add to zero (p** may include the body force as in Section 10.5), Flows governed by Eq, 21.1.3 are termed Stokes flows, Stokes (1851) was the first to propose this simplification, in his paper conceming the motion of a pendulum, Several other forms fur Ey. 21.1.3 are (in dimensional form) O=0-T Wp=Ver (21.1.4) Vp = pV'y Vp = -nV Xo The characterization of Stokes flows as the flow of a massless fluid, in contrast to its characterization as the flow of a very viscous fluid, is emphasized by noting that setting p = 0 in the dimensional equations produces the proper simplified forms for Re + 0. Furthermore, all results and conclusions arrived at for Stokes flows are independent of the fluid density. POTTStmee,-+-perticle-of-astrfrommavoloane-semtteratihe same velocity “at-en-aititede” OT T8000" tha it-dees-at_sea_lesel-despite-the-fact thetthe-mir density changes_by-a factor of40-— In Eq, 21.1.4 the dynamic viscosity 1 appears as a proportionality constant between the pressure field and velocity field or vorticity field. The magnitude of the pressure increases directly as the viscosity increases (this is, of course, the reason for the scaling Eq. 21.1.1). ‘Taking the divergence of Eq. 21.1.3 and using the continuity equation shows that the pressure is governed by vp = 0 Q1.15) ‘Thus, whenever boundary conditions appropriate to this equation may be prescribed in «a problem (and some lubrication problems are of this type), we may solve for the pressure 21.1 General Relations for Re ~+ 0; Stokes's Equations 573 independently of the velocity. With the pressure known, Eq. 21.1.3 furnishes a mathe- ‘matical problem for the velocity field Consider the vorticity equation where the nondimensional vorticity is @* = /(U/L). Re ee i = Re wt Vt + V#2 ot (21.1.6) For low Reynolds numbers the simplified form is 0 = Vo 11.7 ‘The velocity and vorticity fields are completely determined by viscous diffusion. The inertialike effect of convection of vorticity is absent, as is the kinematic effect of stretch- ing the vortex lines. Low-Reynolds-number flows are so slow that these effects are of a smaller magnitude than the viscous diffusion of vorticity. The unsteady motion of a boundary edGEs another independent time scale into the problem. If we use fy to charg imposed unsteadiness, then when s = f,U/Lis of order 1 or larger, 0 i is quasisteady is valid. However, if s = 4UIL is very retained in convective inertia effects. Asa general feature, all properties of a Stokes flow are governed by linear equations: Eq. 21.1.5 for p, Eq. 21.1.6 for v; or @,, and a linear equation for 7, arising from the viscous law for 7, and its linearity in v,. The linear property may be used to great advantage in adding flow fields to produce new flows. We saw in Chapters 18 and 19 how two or more ideal flows could be added because the potential ¢, the streamfunction ¥, and the velocity v, were all governed by linear equations. Pressures in ideal flows are not additive because the Bernoulli equation is quadratic in v,. On the other hand, in Stokes flows, pressures and viscous stresses are also governed by linear equations, and superposition is therefore allowed, Since forces are simply the integration of stresses and pressures, the superposition of forces is also allowed in a Stokes flow. it is possi 8 geometry and boun b TS due to Helmholtz). ‘Another theorem 1.6 for prescribed geometry and bound- Perhaps one of the most useful mathematical properties of Stokes flows is a direct, result of the linearity. Consider what happens if we reverse the velocity (v,—+ -u) of a certain flow problem. All equations and boundary conditions are still satisfied. The stresses change direction (x) > ~ 7,), and the pressure changes sign (p —> ~ p). Thus, Stokes flows are reversible in the sense that the reverse flow is also a Stokes flow. These 574 Flows at Low Reynolds Numbers facts allow one to argue that a velocity pattern about a symmetrical object or in a sym- metrical flow channel must also be symmetrical. The corresponding pressure distribution is antisymmetric. An application of this principle to symmetrical objects in an infinite fluid shows that these objects have no wakes. The downstream flow has the same stream- line pattem and velocity magnitudes as the upstream pattem. Viscous diffusion of the vorticity proceeds upstream and downstream with equal effectiveness. Figure 21.1 shows the symmetric flow over a block. a aTTHE situation is quite not uniformly valid from a mathe- logous to the one we discovered for high- Reynolds-numbe lows. Stoke€ flows on an infinite domain tum out to be singular at infinity. A perturbatidy Bx€Ory that includes Stokes flows and gives the correct behavior at infinity is t for two- or three-dimensional objects. We discuss these equa- ry Figure 21.1 Viscous flow over a block shows symmetry at Re = 0.02. From Taneda (1979). Reprinted with permission. 21.2. Global Equations for Stokes Flow 575 v= { -npas+ fnnas The facMkat there is always a local balance between pressure and vj lates into a Salgment that the pressure and viscous forces on any in balance. Let us apply EXQ].2.1 to a body moving in an infiniyeMuid. For a sketch, see Fig. 21.2. The integration rep>a consists of the fluid outside 3X6 body up to a remote boundary that we call S,.. For n, pointitg inward the drag forgéis defined as dus forces trans- frite region are also (21.2.2) [S-number flows: the influence of a body on the flow extends very In flows at any finite nonzero Reynolds number we are able to relate the drag force to events in the wake, a specific region downstream of the body. Outside the wake the velocity and pressure are essentially the free-stream values. The drag is associated with a defect in the momentum convected in the wake, or with decreased surface forces in the wake. Stokes flows, on the other hand, have no wakes, so the drag force is transmitted to remote locations in all directions as a surface force. Pressure force (PRR \ Kar) oe | vou tious / \ 7 Presiure force : Se _Prcntore Figure 21.2 Control volume for flow over an object moving in an infinite medium, 376 Flows ot Low Reynolds Numbers Next, consider a body, not necessarily symmetrical, that has a certain drag force. As discussed earlier, reversing the direction of the free stream simply reverses the direction of the velocity everywhere and changes the sign of the stress and the pressure (p — p,.)- Inserting these facts into Eq, 21.2.2 shows that if the free-stream direction is reversed, the body has exactly the same drag force but with the direction reversed. In creeping flow, the drag of a body moving forward is the same as the drag of a body moving backward. In Stokes flows the drag of an object is fairly insensitive to the exact shape. Sharp comers and sharp edges are not as important as the surface area on which the pressure and viscous forces act. A theorem due to Hill and Power (1956) states that the Stokes drag of an object must be larger than the drag of any inscribed figure but smaller than that of any circumscribed figure. A sphere circumscribed around the object hus a larger drag than the object, although it has no sharp comers, whereas a sphere inscribed within the objet most havea smaller drag tan the objet Figure 21.3 depicts this ft (21.2.4) All the work, y surface forces at the boundary g ‘oduce viscous dissipation i€ region. This work will not create kinetic energy of the gy ae xX SS —- Gann $ Fp $6mpUry ~ Ay >, — 3 rn Figure 21.3. Drag in reversed flow is quits but opposite in direction, Drag is greater than inscribed sphere and less than circumscribed sphere. 21.3 Streamfunction for Plane and Axisymmetrie Flows 877 componeats. Consider a plane two-dimga where planes of constant z pe nonzero. Velocity 0 The vorticity/And streamfunction are related by Eq. 12.2.10: 0, = Vy (21.3.5) phe vorticity sauation as simplified for a Stokes flow (Fq. 21.1.7) shows that w, is 21,8 External Flow: Sphere in a Uniform Stream 599 (OE GIGIGICIG ABIO[GIGIGIGIa Us (b) Figure 21.18 Walls with trapped vortices: (a) channel flow; (b) slip velocity for shear flow over wall with cavities hx 1 21.8 EXTERNAL FLOW: SPHERE IN A UNIFORM STREAM The streaming motion of a flow over a body when the Reynolds number becomes small has some interesting but complicated characteristics. At infinity the uniform stream has no vorticity, but as Re = U2re/v— 0, viscous diffusion is dominant and sends vorticity very far from the body. The analysis of these flows produces a singular perturbation problem where the singularity is at infinity. We will find that the consequence of the singular behavior is severe for two-dimensional flows but relatively benign in three- dimensional flows. ‘The best plan is to begin with the study of streaming flow over a sphere. The streamfunction is governed by the fourth-order equation given previously as Eq. 21.7.1 Geometry and nomenclature are depicted in Fig. 21.19. Recall that the velocity compo- nents are related to by Eq. 21.7.2: 1 ay 1 oy ye w in 0 a0 (21.8.1) sin 6 ar From these relations one sees that the no-slip condition at the surface is satisfied by 600 Flows at Low Reynolds Numbers Figure 21.19 Spherical coordinate system for flow over a sphere. The free stream comes from the right. wr=n) Ss) =0 (21.8.2) AL infinity the flow approaches a uniform stream as shown in Fig. 21.19: v,~-Ucos@, vg~Usin@ as ra (21.8.3) ‘The corresponding streamfunction for a uniform stream is rR yn — 7 U sie? o as r+ (21.8.4) ‘The mathematical problem consisting of Eq. 21.7.1, E°E*y = 0, and boundary conditions 21.8.3 and 21.8.4 can be solved by separation of variables. Let us assume that the stream- funetion is of the form x sintg w( 2 2 Fo 7 SOF. (21.85) This has the same 0 dependence as the free-stream boundary condition 21.8.4. The sin?@ term is all that is needed for sphere problems. Objects with other shapes would need additional terms. See-heai-(4992} torr-complete-separation-of sariables-wotttien. Sub- stituting into Eq. 21.7.1 yields Euler’s differential equation: a F-- F (lrg? (ln? (rire This equation has solutions of the form F ~ C,(r/7,)". Inserting this form into Eq. 21.8.6 shows that the values of m are ~1, 1, 2, and 4. The interim answer is i) (21.8.6) 21.8 Extemal Flow: Sphere in a Uniform Stream 601 (J -aGre()+e()] aun To match the free-stream boundary condition 21.8.4, C, = —4 and C, = 0. The term with coefficient C_, is the ideal flow doublet, while C; is unique t0 viscous flow and called a Stokeslet. Since the surface of the sphere is = 0, an equation relating the coefficients is oe RU sin’ [e. O=C,+Q-4 (21.8.8) ‘The other condition is the no-slip condition v, ~ a/ar|,, = 0. It yields 0=C,+G-1 21.89) Solving these relations shows that C_,~ —! and C, = 4. The final result is smo] 1 (2) 43 (2) (rh 7 sweo] t() ea if 2 \n (218.10) ‘The corresponding velocity components are : z=2assfe. (4) +6 ( afry? 3 fry" = «os o|-2(2) +3 (2) -1| 21.8.1) 2 1 Ye. r ryt go-we[-e (Ja) = aing[-2 (2) —2 (2) 41 (2.8.12) =n) -3(5) -3(E ia The velocity is symmetric and without a wake. At Re = 0, three-dimensional closed bodies do not have wakes. Viscous effects extend equally upstream and downstream. The vorticity is calculated as the simple formula %

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