DOCUMENT ID: LENDER: BORROWER: BORROWER ADDRESS: CROSS REF ID: Processed by RapidX: 695614 COF COF 129,82.31.248 olorado State University 142672 2/11/2015 3:00:22 PM This material may be protected by copyright law (Title 17 U.S. Code)Anice Journ of pee Eaton Empowerment and (©2014SAGE Peon Experiential Education: A spanner State of Knowledge Paper oo (SAGE Amy Shellman! Abstract Experiential settings hold great potential for empowering participants. Beginning with an overview of how empowerment has been defined and conceptualized in the literature, this article examines the construct of empowerment in experiential education settings as a process and an outcome. A summary of haw empowerment. has been applied and measured in experiential settings is described through a review of the research in this area. This article concludes with recommendations and Implications for researchers and practitioners in the field of experiential education who seek to understand ways in which programs can facilitate and foster the development of empowerment. Keywords empowerment, experiential education, outdoor education Meet Chris: charming, charismatic, popular, athletic, and blessed withthe kind of al “American good ooks that would catch the eve of many teenage girls. Chris (pseu onym) was a student on an Outward Bound course I raught one summer. Halfeay through the course, he took a risk. He reached out to wo boys who were subily being excluded from the rest ofthe group. He did what he recognized as right, despite the potential mockery from the other boy's on the course. He built a bridge and tried to create a more welcoming community for everyone, not just the “cool guys in the clique that had been forming. He paid a small price, ashe appeared 1 lose status, at ‘east temporariy with some ofthe other students, but in doing so, he made a signif cant difference inthe course experience of those two boys. ‘state University of New York College at Cortand, USA, Corresponding Author: ‘Ay Shelian, Assistant Profesor State University of New Yerk College at Cortland, P.O. Box 2000, CCortnd, NY 12045, USA. Ema ay sheliran@cortanded2 Journal of Experiential Education Now, this may not seem an uncommon occurrence on an Outward Bound course, but the more interesting question for me centered not on what Chris did while on the course, but rather, what he would do after the course. Would he say something when the more popular kids pushed around the shy kid at school, and would he once again reach out and build a bridge? Did Chris experience “empower” him to do what Kurt Hahn, the founder of Outward Bound, would say he “recognized to be right”? Did his experience at Outward Bound even contribute to his ability to recognize what was right? Perhaps, more importantly, do experiential education programs empower par- ticipants? This article argues that, yes, through various methods, techniques, and pro- ‘esses, experiential education ean empower people. Introduction and Salience of the To| Education to Experiential In a recently published book, How Children Succeed, Paul Tough (2012) argues that ‘what matters more for a successful future than merely possessing well-developed cog- nitive skills (ic, intelligence) is for young people to have well-developed non-cogni tive skills, orrather, character skills, suchas social acuity, self-confidence, perseverance, resilience, and stress-management, Useful in and of themselves, these kinds of skills are also critical for developing a sense of agency and empowerment, Furthermore, one could argue thatthe ultimate purpose of any form of education is to empower lamers, to think, to feel, and to act. At its best, education can develop and expand knowledge and critical thinking skills, aid in decision making, and motivate learners to act. As argued in this article, experiential education in particular can be a very effective ‘means through which these and other skills important to being effective in life can be developed. In short, experiential education is, in several ways, aptly designed 10 ‘empower. And, itis perhaps the most effective means through which learners may develop a sense of empowerment. (One of the foremost thinkers on the subject of experience and education, and con- sidered by many to be the “father” of experiential education, John Dewey (1938) pos- its that to understand the world, learners need to interact directly with it. Experience is the foundation of education. Of primary importance, according to Dewey, was that learning should be active (the body and/or mind) and relevant to the student, and fol- lowed by a petiod of reflection as knowledge becomes assimilated, and later applied to future experiences. Thus, the ultimate goal of education is for leamers fo take action and apply or test what they have learned in some future situation, These educative experiences, in turn, become the means through which learners can develop a sense of purpose and direction, which they can then utilize as active participants in a demo- cratic society (Dewey, 1938). Of course, the material must in some way be made rel- evant to the learner and this is where the role of the educator, facilitator, or instructor ‘becomes instrumental ‘The Association for Experiential Education (ABE, 2013) defines experiential edu- cation as “a philosophy that informs many methodologies in which educators purpose- fully engage with leamers in direct experience and focused reflection in order 10Shellman 3 ease knowledge, develop skills, clarify values, and develop people’s capacity t0 contribute to their communities” (para. 2). As will be discussed, integral to the last phrase of that definition, “and develop people's capacity to contribute to their com- is empowerment, and much of the literature argues that developing indi- viduals” eapacity to exert an influence is the cornerstone of empowerment; hence, experiential education plays a critical role in empowering learners. Fortunately, opportunities for exercising empowerment, as well as processes that facilitate the development of empowerment abound in experiential education settings. These settings are widely diverse and include among others, adventure-based activi- ties and settings (c.g. backcountry expeditions, challenge courses), K-12 and college programs, adventure/wildemess therapy, environmental education programs, service- Teaming, and experience-based training and development. Because the fields of expe- riential education are expansive, much of the focus of this article will be on empowerment as it directly relates to outdoor experiential education, although the author concedes that empowerment can be a process and/or product of many types of experiential programs, The outcome is viewed as being primarily depend educational techniques and methods used, rather than the uniqueness of a particular experiential seting, Experiential education programs typically provide participants with multiple ‘opportunities fo set, work toward, and achieve goals, identify and utilize resources, demonstrate initiative, extend and receive support from others, assume leadership roles, make decisions, persist at challenges, solve problems, and go beyond perceived Timits. In shor, these opportunities allow participants to develop the skills needed to become their own agents of change (Hyde-Hills, 1998). Typically viewed as positive, ‘empowerment is intuitively appealing because it often implies an enhanced ability and effort to shape one’s life and/or community/environment—a goal consistent with ‘many experiential education programs. The essence of empowerment lies in building one’s capacity (e.g., motivation to approach a task) and enhancing one’s attributes (e.g, problem-solving skills) na way that facilitates positive development of the individual as well as collective soi These aims are consistent with the goals of experiential edueation as well as with ‘much of the research in tis area (Sibthorp & Arthur-Banning, 2004; Sibthorp. Paisley, & Gookin, 2007), An examination of outcomes of experiential programs reveals there is a litany of positive developmental constructs (e.g. self-confidence, decision-mak- ng and problem-solving skills, leadership, self-efficacy, self-determination, life-effec~ tiveness) associated with experiential education research that are directly relevant to ‘empowerment (e.g, Neill, Marsh, & Richards, 2003; Sibthorp ct al, 2007). So, What Is Empowerment? Conceptualizations of Empowerment and Related Terms Within the past decade, empowerment has become a popula tem: a “buzzword” com= monly used, but seldom with great clarity. Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines “to a means “to enable; to promote the influence or self-actualization of4 Journal of Experiential Education Table I. Components of Psychological Empowerment (Zimmerman, 1995) Incrapersonal component ___Interactional component Behavioral component Perceived control Critical awareness ‘Community involvement Perceived self-efficacy Understanding causal agents (Organizational participation Motivational control Skill development Coping behaviors Perceived competence Skil ransfer across life domains Resource mobilization and enable is defined as “to provide with the means, knowledge, or opportunity.” ‘Chamberlin (1997) defines empowerment as a process having 15 qualities. Although not all are necessary for one to be considered empowered, examples of these qualities include having decision-making power, access to information and resources, learning. skills important to the individual, having options from which to make choices, and cffecting change in one’s life and community (for a full ist of empowerment qualities and elements, see Chamberlin, 1997). In the most basic terms, empowerment entails & sense of personal control, or agency, including the belief that one’s actions will result in a desired outcome. However, while necessary, contro is insufficient to fully charac terize empowerment, Other elements, such as motivational disposition (e.g., just because one can, doesn’t mean one witl), must also be present. The focus of this article is on individual (or psychological) empowerment, although it is important to point out that as a multi-level construct, empowerment has been examined at the individual, organizational, and community level (Kieffer, 1984; Koberg, Boss, Senjem, & Goodman, 1999; Zimmerman, Israel, Schulz, & Checkoway, 1992). Traditionally concerned with empowerment in the context of poverty reduetion around the world, the World Bank (n.d.) defines empowerment as “the process of ng the assets and capabilities of individuals or groups to make purposive choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes” (para. 1) The conceptual basis described here is similar to Zimmerman’ (1995) description of psychological empowerment in that the focus is on one’s capacity to identify options and opportunities in one’s environment, influence decisions, and exercise effort to achieve desired goals. Hence, empowerment refers to the linkage between “a sense of personal competence and 2 desire for and willingness to take action’ (Zimmerman & Rappaport, 1988, p. 746). Inaddition, it encompasses a belief that goals can be attained, awareness about factors that hinder (or enhance) efforts to achieve those goals, and action toward fulfilling goals (Zimmerman & Warschausky, 1998). Thus, psychologi- ceal empowerment is composed of three components: (a) inerapersonal—how people think of themselves, (b) interactional—the understanding people have about their community, and (¢) behavioral—actions taken to influence outcomes (see Table 1, adapted from Zimmerman, 1995, p. 588). Although conceptual definitions of empowerment vary, there are some commonali- ties and shared characteristics. Generally, the term empowerment is used fo denote feelings of control and involvement in areas of importance to individuals. EmpoweredShellman 5 individuals might be characterized as having the ability and willingness to participate n decisions that affect their own and others’ life situations, and perhaps more impor- tantly to act on those decisions. Empowerment is typically viewed as dynamic. Unlike some static personality trait, itis malleable and can be enhanced or diminished through nternal (ie., beliefs about one’s self, knowledge, and skill) and extemal (e.g., social group. parents, teachers) influences (Zimmerman, 1995), Finally, it is generally agreed fon that empowerment exists along a continuum and can be measured by degree oF level; in other words, some individuals may feel more or less empowered than others (Spreitzer, 2007), Many researchers suggest that empowerment is related to self-efficacy, a concept that has been the focus of much research in experiential education. Self-efficacy is ‘one’s beliefs about his or her ability to successfully perform a given task/behavior to achieve a certain outcome (Bandura, 1977). Such beliefs influence how people think, feel, motivate themselves, and behave. Efficacy literature suggests that when individu- als believe they can cause an effect, they often do, However, although believing that ‘one ean do something is a necessary prerequisite for action, it does not guarantee one will act on his or her belief. Thus, using self-efficacy as a proxy for empowerment oversimplifies the concept. Although self-efficacy is certainly an important, and per- hhaps even necessary, component of empowerment, itis not sufficient, Psychological empowerment moves “beyond the belief that one can overcome barriers/complete tasks, and includes the individual’s capacity and willingness to make such an effort” (Zimmerman & Warschausky, 1998, p. 13, italics added). Pyychologists Cattaneo and Chapman (2010) argued “that the many ways empow= terment has been defined [has] allowed researchers and practitioners to pick from a ‘menu of related, and at times vague, concepts [c.g self-confidence} rather than rely ‘on a cohesive picture” (p, 646), However, broader in scope, empowerment ean be dif- fetentiated from such concepts in that it (a) focuses on personally meaningful goals 1nd () aims to enhance one’s social influence to exert power in social interaction (Cattaneo & Chapman, 2010), Hence, the importance of the social context and setting specific goals is emphasized. Experiential education often utilizes a social/group pro- cess to achieve desired outeomes, again highlighting the role ofthis form of education in developing empowerment. Furthermore, Cattaneo and Chapman (2010) present empowerment as an iterative process—one in which an individual may eyele through components repeatedly with respect to particular goals and associated ‘objectives, reevaluating as experience promotes reflection. The successful outcome of the process of empowerment ia personally meaningful increase in power that a pers ‘obtains through his or her own effos. (p. 647) ‘The parallels to the experiential learning eycle are clea, Inthe experiential learning eyele (Kolb, 1984), also an iterative process in which th reflection phase is integral to learning and development, learners assess the outcome of an experience, formulate a theory regarding the result of their experience, and actively experiment with new ways of being in future experiences.6 Journal of Experiential Education Although perhaps not referred to specifically as “empowerment,” many docu- ‘mented outcomes (e.g. self-efficacy, self-determination, locus of control, and compe- tence) attributed to experiential program models are related to empowerment. Deci and Ryan (1985), in describing self-determination theory, posit that there are three key universal aspects necessary for optimal development: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. The concept of relatedness supposes the presence of a social dynamic that cean influence perceptions of self-determination. This social situation can either be autonomy supporting or controlling. The experiential education setting is typically designed to support and encourage autonomy. For example, “challenge-by-choice” is a common practice in many experiential education settings whereby participants choose their level of involvement or engagement. In addition, learners are commonly involved in making decisions and directly experience the consequences of those deci- sions. Opportunities such as these provide leamers with a sense of ownership of the experience, as they participate in decisions regarding the course of action taken and directly experience the consequences—positive or otherwise. This sense of ownership and investment in the outcome has been found to be an important predictor of the degree to which other outcomes are attained in the experiential setting (e.,, Sibthorp ‘& Arthur-Banning, 2004; Sibthorp et a., 2007) In reviewing the empowerment literature, characteristics of empowering environ ‘ments include small, supportive group settings that encourage cooperation and reci procity, opportunities (© develop skills and make decisions, and opportunities to achieve success (Rappaport, 1987; Spreitzer, 1995). In addition, activities that seek to empower people are expected to increase positive developmental outcomes (e.g. ife- effectiveness; Neill etal, 2003) and improve quality of life and subjective well-being (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2005; Narayan, 2005). These outcomes, again, are consis- tent with outcomes found in a variety of experiential education programs (e.g, Hattie, Marsh, Neill, & Richards, 1997; Sklar, Anderson, & Autry, 2007), Furthermore, while ‘empowerment is seen as a desirable outcome, to achieve this, people need opportuni- ties and resources to develop their capacities. In other words, one cannot simply bestow or give empowerment fo another, but rather, one can provide a facilitative environment that includes empowering processes. Experiential education programs, ‘which by definition provide opportunites for participants to develop and master skills, participate in decision making, receive feedback on behavior, solve problems and negotiate challenges with supportive others, and view effort as an important contribu- tor to outcomes (c.g, goal attainment), ate ideally suited for empowering participants. Fostering Empowerment Through Experiential Education—What the Research Says Appearing in the literature most prominently over the past 20 years, empowerment as construct has received attention ina variety of contexts and disciplines. Among them are organizational management (Spreitzer, 1995), poverty reduction (Alsop & Heinsohn, 2005; Narayan, 2005), nursing and related medical fields (Simoni, Larrabee,Shellman 7 Birkhimer, Mott, & Gladden, 2004), mental health and rehabilitation (Zimmerman, 1990; Zimmerman & Warschausky, 1998), health promotion (Rissel, Perry. & Finnegan, 1996), community psychology (Peterson, Lowe, Aquilino, & Schneider, 2005), and fo some extent, experiential and outdoor education programs (Angell, ; Autry, 2001; Howell, 1992; Hyde-Hills, 1998; Sibthorp & Arthur-Banning, ibthorp etal, 2007; Shellman, 2009; Sklar & Gibson, 2004). Given this diver- Sity of contexts, it is not surprising that empowerment has been conceived and mea- sured ina myriad of ways, and there is continued debate as to its definition and ‘measurement. ‘To stay relevant, outdoor experiential edueation programs must demonstrate the impact they can have on a broader social level, If experiential education programs can empower individuals to take actions that not only improve their personal life but also reach beyond and positively affect communities—and the research suggests that they ‘ean—experiential education has an important role in not only individual but also com- ‘munity development. Given the increasingly complex world in which we live, and the future challenges we face, our need for a citizenry that feels they possess the resources to respond fo current and future challenges, and are willing to do so, is of utmost importance. Having already explored definitions and conceptualizations of empowerment, attention is now tuned to exploring questions such as the following: What impact do experiential education program experiences have on empowerment? What program ‘characteristies are important in facilitating empowerment? How does an empowering, experience in one setting translate into one’s everyday experience? Are there instances here participants feel less empowered by their participation im experiential pro- grams? Are changes in empowerment durable over time? Empowerment outcomes are a consequence of empowering provesses. Experiential education experiences not only afford opportunities (processes) for participants to develop empowerment but also facilitate the development of a more empowered state (outcomes). For example, by successfully meeting challenges (theoretically, an ‘empowering process), participants may exhibit higher levels of empowerment (an out- come) after the experience. Argyris (1998) posits that empowerment can be fostered by encouraging individuals to examine their personal beliefs and behaviors and by helping them understand how the choices they make influence their ability to effect change and achieve goals, Common features of outdoor experiential programs include self-reflection, self-evaluation, and ongoing opportunities to give and receive feed- back (McKenzie, 2000), Understanding the methods and means by which empowerment may be enhanced ‘through experiential education methods and programs is 2 useful endeavor, Kimball (1991), in examining and describing components of wildemess therapy for adoles~ ‘cents, recognized that by providing opportunities for youth to experience mastery per= formance as a result of their own effort, self-defeating attitudes and behaviors could be replaced with feelings of confidence and capability. In an article on the power of ‘wilderness sola for women, Angell (1994) argues that through complete reliance on the self in a challenging setting (ic., a solo experience), women come to know whata Journal of Experiential Education they are capable of. By being given opportunities and encouraged to exercise their power, women felt empowered. Andrews (1999) provides evidence that expeditions create a space for questioning existing patterns and structures of societal and personal bohaviors as well as experimenting with now pattems. This critical awareness (ie. the ability to perceive and understand the socio-political sphere in which one lives) i an important aspect of the interactional component of empowerment and facilitates understanding of the causal agents in one's community. AS Zimmerman and ‘Warschausky (1998) expressed, empowered individuals would be expected to “under- stand their sociopolitical environment, and become active in efforts to exert control” (op. 67). Consistent with cali findings, Sibshorp (2003) and Sibthorp etal (2007) found that National Outdoor Leadership Schoo! (NOLS) participants. who experienced areater personal empowerment during their course also perceived greater gains i other course outcomes (e-., leadership, communication, and technical skills). In addi tion, they Found that perceptions of personal empowerment were fostered by actively involving program partivipants in leadership roles, including decision making, and by siving students meaningful responsibliy/ownership over some aspects ofthe experi ence (Sibthorp & Arthur-Banning, 2004; Sibthorp etal, 2007). Students who demon strated greater levels of perceived empowerment during the program also experienced higher gains in leadership. Whereas this study was conducted on participants in a [NOLS program, arguably many, if not most experiential programs, commonly involve participants in atleast some of the decision making, create opportunities for learners, to assume leadership or demonstrate initiative, and encourage experimentation with new ideas Examining empowerment as an outcome, Ross (2003) conducted a study of women survivors of sexual trauma who participated in an intentionally designed 3