BLASTING

MOST BASIC UNIT OPERATION OF ANY MINING ACTIVITY

OBJECTIVE
ROCK IS BLASTED EITHER TO BREAK IN TO SMALLER PIECES SUCH AS IN MOST
MINING AND QUARRYING OPERATIONS OR LARGE BLOCKS FOR DIMENSIONAL STONE
MINING AND SOME CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATION, OR TO CREATE SPACE.
IN MINING AND QUARRYING OPERATION, THE MAIN OBJECTIVE IS TO EXTRACT THE
LARGEST POSSIBLE QUANTITY AT MINIMUM COST. THE MATERIAL MAY INCLUDE ORE,
COAL, AGGREGATE FOR CONSTRUCTION AND ALSO THE WASTE ROCK REQUIRED TO
REMOVE THE ABOVE USEFUL MATERIAL.
THE BLASTING OPERATION MUST BE CARRIED OUT TO PROVIDE QUALITY AND
QUANTITY REQUIREMENTS OF PRODUCTION IN SUCH A WAY THAT OVERALL PROFIT
OF MINING ARE MAXIMIZED.

TYPE OF EXPLOSION
THE EXPLOSION IS, ACCORDING TO BERTHELOT, 'THE SUDDEN EXPANSION
OF GASES IN A VOLUME MUCH LARGER THAN THE INITIAL,
ACCOMPANIED BY NOISE AND VIOLENT MECHANICAL EFFECTS'.
THE TYPES OF EXPLOSION ARE THE FOLLOWING:
MECHANICAL
ELECTRIC
NUCLEAR
CHEMICAL, FROM THE MINING POINT OF VIEW, ONLY THE LAST ARE OF
INTEREST

EXPLOSIVE
EXPLOSIVE IS A SOLID OR LIQUID SUBSTANCE OR A MIXTURE OF SUBSTANCES
WHICH ON APPLICATION OF A SUITABLE STIMULUS IS CONVERTED IN A VERY
SHORT TIME INTERVAL INTO OTHER MORE STABLE SUBSTANCES, LARGELY OR
ENTIRELY GASEOUS, WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT AND HIGH PRESSURE.
OR
COMMERCIAL EXPLOSIVES ARE THOSE THAT ARE A MIXTURE OF COMPOUNDS,
SOME COMBUSTIBLE AND SOME OXIDIZING WHICH, WHEN PROPERLY
INITIATED, HAVE AN ALMOST INSTANTANEOUS EXOTHERMIC REACTION THAT
GENERATES A SERIES OF HIGH TEMPERATURE GASEOUS PRODUCTS THAT ARE
CHEMICALLY MORE STABLE AND TAKE UP A LARGER VOLUME

DETONATION AND DEFLAGRATION

CHEMICAL EXPLOSIVES, DEPENDING UPON THE CONDITIONS TO WHICH THEY ARE
EXPOSED, CAN OFFER DIFFERENT BEHAVIOR THAN WOULD BE EXPECTED FROM THEIR
EXPLOSIVE NATURE. THE DECOMPOSITION PROCESSES OF AN EXPLOSIVE COMPOUND
ARE:
COMBUSTION: THIS CAN BE DEFINED AS ANY CHEMICAL REACTION CAPABLE OF GIVING
OFF HEAT, WHETHER IT IS ACTUALLY FELT BY OUR SENSES OR NOT.
THE DEFLAGRATION: THIS IS AN EXOTHERMIC PROCESS IN WHICH THE TRANSMISSION OF
THE DECOMPOSITION REACTION IS MAINLY BASED UPON THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY. IT IS A
SUPERFICIAL PHENOMENON IN WHICH THE DEFLAGRATION FRONT ADVANCES THROUGH
THE EXPLOSIVE IN PARALLEL LAYERS AT A LOW SPEED WHICH, USUALLY, IS NOT OVER
1.000 M/S.
THE DETONATION: IN THE DETONATING EXPLOSIVES, THE SPEED OF THE FIRST GASIFIED
MOLECULES IS SO GREAT THAT THEY DO NOT LOSE THEIR HEAT THROUGH CONDUCTIVITY
TO THE UNREACTED ZONE OF THE CHARGE BUT TRANSMIT IT BY SHOCK, DEFORMING IT
AND PROVOKING ITS HEATING AND ADIABATIC EXPLOSION, GENERATING NEW GASES

PROPERTIES OF EXPLOSIVE
THE PROPERTIES OF EACH GROUP OF EXPLOSIVES GIVE PREDICTION OF THE
PROBABLE RESULTS OF FRAGMENTATION, DIS-PLACEMENT AND VIBRATIONS. THE
MOST IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS ARE:
STRENGTH AND ENERGY DEVELOPED
DETONATION VELOCITY
DENSITY
DETONATION PRESSURE
WATER RESISTANCE
SENSITIVITY
OTHER PROPERTIES WHICH AFFECT THEIR USE AND MUST BE TAKEN INTO
ACCOUNT ARE: FUMES, RESISTANCE TO HIGH AND LOW TEMPERATURES, DESENSITIZATION BY EXTERNAL CAUSES, ETC.

EXPLOSIVE
TYPE
LOW EXPLOSIVE

HIGH EXPLOSIVE

Slow and deflagrating

Rapid and Detonating explosive ( between
explosive (under 2000 m/s)
2000-7000 m/s)
Includes Gunpowder,
propulsive compounds for
fireworks.
Practically no application in
mining and civil engg.
With exception of ornamental
Primary explosive
Secondary explosive
rocks.
Sensitive to Stimuli like weak
Capable of detonation only
mechanical shock, spark or
under the influence of shock
flame.
wave generated by PE.
Mercury fulminate, Lead Azide,
Lead Styphnate
Generally used in Detonators

INDUSTRIAL
EXPLOSIVE
BLASTING
AGENT

Mixtures, with few

exceptions, do not
contain ingredients
classified as
explosive.
Explosive needing
another high
explosive
ANFO
ALANFO
Slurries and Water
gels
Emulsions
Heavy ANFO

CONVENTIONAL
EXPLOSIVE

Essentially made up of explosive

substances.
Best known that act as a
sensitizers of the mixtures.
Gelatin dynamite
Granular dynamite

PERMISSIBLE
EXPLOSIVE

Designed for use in U/G coal

mines. where the presence of
explosive gases and dust is
dangerous for normal blasting.
Low explosion temperature.
Medium or low strength
Detonation velocity between
2000-4500 m/s.
Density between 1.0-1.5 g/cc
Generally poor water resistance

PRIMERS AND BOOSTERS

A PRIMER CHARGE IS AN EXPLOSIVE IGNITED BY AN INITIATOR, WHICH, IN TURN, INITIATES A
NON CAP-SENSITIVE EXPLOSIVE OR BLASTING AGENT.
A PRIMER CONTAINS CAP-SENSITIVE HIGH EXPLOSIVE INGREDIENTS. OFTEN HIGHLY SENSITIZED
SLURRIES, OR EMULSIONS ARE USED WITH BLASTING CAPS OR DETONATING CORD.
BOOSTERS ARE HIGHLY SENSITIZED EXPLOSIVES OR BLASTING AGENTS, USED EITHER IN BULK
FORM OR IN PACKAGES OF WEIGHTS GREATER THAN THOSE USED FOR PRIMERS.
BOOSTERS ARE PLACED WITHIN THE EXPLOSIVE COLUMN WHERE ADDITIONAL BREAKING
ENERGY IS REQUIRED.
OFTEN-TIMES, CARTRIDGE OR PLASTIC-BAGGED DYNAMITES OR SENSITIZED WET BLASTING
AGENTS ARE USED AS PRIMERS AS WELL AS BOOSTERS.
BOOSTERS ARE OFTEN USED NEAR THE BOTTOM OF THE BLASTHOLE AT THE TOE LEVEL AS AN
ADDITIONAL CHARGE FOR EXCESSIVE TOE BURDEN DISTANCES. THEY ARE ALSO PLACED WITHIN
THE EXPLOSIVE COLUMN ADJACENT TO GEOLOGICAL ZONES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO BREAK OR
INTERMITTENTLY WITHIN THE MAIN EXPLOSIVE CHARGE TO ENSURE CONTINUOUS DETONATION.

INITIATING SYSTEM
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM- TILL DETONATOR OF PRIMING, ONLY ELECTRICAL
WIRES ARE ATTACHED.
NON-ELECTRIC SYSTEM- THERE IS NO ELECTRIC WIRE IS REQUIRED IN THE
HOLE.
D-CORD OR DETONATING FUSE

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
THERE ARE MAINLY THREE TYPES OF ELECTRICAL INITIATION SYSTEM WHICH
ARE WIDELY USED IN MINES.
INSTANTANEOUS ELECTRIC DETONATORS
LONG/SHORT ELECTRIC DELAY DETONATOR
ELECTRONIC DETONATOR

ELECTRIC DETONATORS
IN ELECTRIC DETONATORS ELECTRIC ENERGY/CURRENT (AC/DC) IS SENT THROUGH
COPPER LEG WIRE TO HEAT AN INTERNAL CONNECTING BRIDGE WIRE.
THE HEAT INITIATES THE HIGH PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE PRESENT IN THE DETONATOR
WHICH, IN TURN, DETONATES THE SECONDARY EXPLOSIVE PRESENT IN THE
DETONATOR.
ELECTRIC DETONATORS ARE USED TO INITIATE OTHER EXPLOSIVE, DETONATING CORD
AND SHOCK TUBE.
FOR DELAY PURPOSE PYROTECHNICAL DELAY CHARGE IS USED.
THREE TYPES OF ELECTRIC DETONATORS
INSTANTANEOUS ELECTRIC DETONATORS
SHORT DELAY DETONATORS (MILLISECOND DELAY)
LONG DELAY DETONATORS (HALF SECOND DELAY)
TIME DELAYS WITH INTERVALS OF 25, 50, 100, 500, AND 1000 MS ARE AVAILABLE FOR
SHORT- (MS) OR LONG-PERIOD (LP) DELAYS

ELECTRIC DETONATORS
SAFE BLASTING PRACTICES DICTATE THAT PRECAUTIONS ARE USED TO AVOID
BLASTING IN THE VICINITY OF EXTRANEOUS ELECTRICITY SUCH AS STRAY
CURRENT, STATIC ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL STORMS, AND RADIO FREQUENCY
ENERGY WHEN USING ELECTRIC CAPS.

DELAY TIMING

ELECTRONIC DETONATORS
ELECTRONIC DETONATOR HAVE AN ELECTRONIC COUNTER ON A MICROCHIP
IN PLACE OF PYROTECHNIC DELAY CHARGE.
ADVANTAGES:
HIGHER TIMING PRECISION (10 MICROSECOND THAN 1-10 MS SCATTER)
INCREASE CONTROL TIME DELAY
GREATER SAFETY AGAINST ACCIDENTAL IGNITION (CODED FIRING SIGNALS)
DISADVANTAGES
HIGHER PRICE BECAUSE OF CHIP AND CAPACITOR
BACK TO ELECTRIC WIRING-RISK OF GROUND FAULTS OR POOR CONTACTS

ELECTRONIC DETONATORS

NON ELECTRIC SYSTEM

NON-ELECTRIC INITIATION SYSTEMS INCLUDE A CAP SIMILAR TO THAT OF AN ELECTRIC CAP,
BUT THEY ARE CONNECTED TO PLASTIC TUBING OR A TRANSMISSION LINE THAT CARRIES AN
INITIATION (SHOCK AND HEAT) TO INITIATE THE CAP.
THE ENERGY SOURCE IN THE TUBING IS EITHER A GAS MIXTURE OR AN INTERNAL COATING
OF SPECIAL EXPLOSIVE.
NOT USED IN UNDERGROUND COAL OR GASSY MINES
PROVIDE NEARLY INFINITE NUMBERS OF DELAYS IN BLASTING PATTERNS.
DELAYS ARE AVAILABLE IN SHORT AND LONG PERIODS AS WELL AS IN-HOLE AND SURFACE
DELAYS.
ADVANTAGE
ABILITY TO DESIGN BLASTS WITH A GREATER NUMBER OF HOLES THAN TRADITIONAL
ELECTRIC BLASTING.
DANGER OF STRAY CURRENTS ARE ELIMINATED WITH THE USE OF NON-ELECTRIC SYSTEMS.

NON ELECTRIC SYSTEM

DETONATING CORD
DETONATING CORD CONSISTS OF A CORE OF PETN ENCLOSED IN A TAPE WRAPPING
THAT IS FURTHER BOUND BY COUNTER-LACED TEXTILE YARNS. THE CORD IS EITHER
REINFORCED OR COMPLETELY ENCLOSED BY STRONG WATERPROOF PLASTIC.
THEIR ENERGY RELEASE DEPENDS ON THE AMOUNT OF PETN IN THE CORE, WHICH
GENERALLY VARIES FROM 1.5 G/M TO 70 G/M.
10 G/M IS THE PETN WEIGHT OF STANDARD DETONATING CORD WHOSE VOD IS
ABOUT 7000 M/S.
A DETONATOR IS REQUIRED TO INITIATE A LENGTH OF DETONATING CORD WHICH
CANNOT BE NORMALLY INITIATED BY FIRE.

DETONATING CORD
DETONATING CORD HAS TWO FUNCTIONS:
TO PROVIDE SIMULTANEOUS DETONATION OF SEVERAL INTERCONNECTED
BLASTHOLE CHARGES, THUS AVOIDING THE NEED FOR MULTIPLE ELECTRIC OR
PLAIN DETONATORS
TO PROVIDE CONTINUOUS INITIATION OF THE FULL LENGTH OF AN EXPLOSIVE
COLUMN IN A BLASTHOLE, AS DISTINCT FROM POINT INITIATION WITH INDIVIDUAL
DETONATORS.

BLAST DESIGN

PRELIMINARY GUIDELINES

 DRILLED BURDEN (B) - IS DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL

ROWS OF HOLES. IT IS ALSO USED TO DESCRIBE THE DISTANCE FROM THE FRONT
ROW OF HOLES TO THE FREE FACE. WHEN THE BENCH FACE IS NOT VERTICAL THE
BURDEN ON THIS FRONT ROW OF HOLES VARIES FROM CREST TO TOE.
SPACING (S) - IS THE DISTANCE BETWEEN HOLES IN ANY GIVEN ROW.
SUBGRADE (J) - GENERALLY THE HOLES ARE DRILLED BELOW THE DESIRED FINAL
GRADE. THIS DISTANCE IS REFERRED TO AS THE SUBGRADE DRILLING OR SIMPLY THE
SUB-DRILL
STEMMING (T) - A CERTAIN LENGTH OF HOLE NEAR THE COLLAR IS LEFT
UNCHARGED. THIS WILL BE REFERRED TO AS THE STEMMING LENGTH (T) WHETHER
OR NOT IT IS LEFT UNFILLED OR FILLED WITH DRILL CUTTINGS/CRUSHED ROCK.
BENCH HEIGHT (H) IS THE VERTICAL HEIGHT FROM THE TOE TO THE CREST.
DRILLED LENGTH (L) - IS EQUAL TO THE BENCH HEIGHT PLUS THE SUB-DRILL.
LENGTH OF THE EXPLOSIVE COLUMN (LE) - IS EQUAL TO THE HOLE LENGTH
MINUS THE STEMMING. THIS COLUMN MAY BE DIVIDED INTO SECTIONS (DECKS)
CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES OF VARIOUS STRENGTHS SEPARATED BY LENGTHS OF
STEMMING MATERIALS.

BENCH HEIGHT
BENCH HEIGHT IS DECIDED BY
PRODUCTION REQUIRED
TYPE OF DEPOSITE
THICKNESS
GEOLOGY
QUALITY
EQUIPMENT

DRILLING PARAMETERS
HOLE DIAMETER
BURDEN
SPACING
SUBGRADE DRILLING
DRILLING PATTERN

BURDEN
SOME IMPORTANT EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FOR BURDEN
B = 24*D+0.85 (VUTUKURI)
B = (25-30)*D (HAGAN)
B = K*D*(P*T)^0.5 (PEARSE), WHERE K = CONSTANT (0.7-1), MORE FOR WEAK ROCK
P = PEAK EXPLOSIVE PRESSURE, KG/CM^2
T = TENSILE STRENGTH OF ROCK, KG/CM^2
BURDEN IS GENERALLY 25-40% OF BENCH HEIGHT DEPENDING UPON ROCK
PROPERTIES, FRAGMENTATION, AND EXPLOSIVE USED.

SPACING
GENERALLY WE TAKE SPACING AS 1.1-1.5 TIMES OF BURDEN.

SUBGRADE DRILLING
HOLES ARE DRILLED LONGER THAN BENCH HEIGHT TO AVOID TOE
PROBLEMS. THIS EXTRA DRILLING IS CALLED AS SUBGRADE DRILL.
Sd = 0.1*H
Sd = 0.3*B

RELATIONSHIPS USED IN BLAST DESIGN

DRILLING PATTERN
THERE ARE MAINLY THREE TYPES OF DRILLING PATTERNS:
SQUARE PATTERN
STAGGERED PATTERN
RECTANGLE PATTERN

INITIATING PATTERN
PARALLEL
DIAGONAL
THROUGH OR V-PATTERN
EXTENDED THROUGH OR EXTENDED-V

OTHER PARAMETERS
POWDER FACTOR
STEMMING AND DECKING
DELAY TIMING
DECOUPLING RATIO
BASE CHARGE
COLUMN CHARGE