CHAPTER 1 WATER FLOW, FOILS AND WAVES. UMMARY This chapter looks at the basic physical properties of fluid flow that create the dynamic forces volved in a ship's motion, propulsion and steering. It also describes some basic properties of water waves and their propagation. We start by considering how hydrostatic pressure, acting equally in all directions for a particular depth of water, is converted into dynamic pressure when water flows. Bernoulli's principle for water flow and how it effects the pressure around an obstacle is described. The water properties of surface tension and viscosity are examined with regard to their effect upon water flow and the transition from laminar to turbulent flow is explained. The effect of a flow separating asymmetrically around a foil-shaped obstacle is examined and the generation of lift and drag forces is described. This is the basis for understanding the action of propellers and rudders. Water waves are described and relationships between wave speed, length and period are derived. The effect of water depth on wave speed, direction and behaviour are examined and the chapter ends with a brief description of how they spread out from their source. (The wave behaviour described here is directly relevant to both the resistance of driving a ship through the water and to the motion of ships in heavy seas) CONTENTS Static and dynamic pressure of water Bernoulli's prineiple ‘he Bernoulli water flow around a ship's hull The forces that act between molecules Surface Tension Viscosity, and laminar or turbulent fluid flow The flow around a foil Definitions of foil measurements The factors effecting the performance of a foil The end effect of flow around a foil Foil aspect ratio, attack angle and stall angle Water flow around a foi Compressibility and density Cavitation Water waves 18 Phase velocity of deep water waves 18 ‘The shape of the sea surface in deep water 20 ‘The energy of a deep water wave 21 Phase velocity of shallow water waves 2 ‘The effects of shallow water and currents on waves 25 The formation of and make up of real sea conditions 26 Wave prediction curves 28 Wave propagation 30 Wave group velocity 31 ‘The oblique wave velocity 33 1 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSSTATIC AND D Anyone who has played around swimming under water in a swimming pool will have felt an increase in pressure as they have swum down towards the bottom of the pool. The pressure (i.e. the weight of ‘water pressing down on each square metre) increases in direct proportion to the depth of water as shown below STATIC WATER PRESSURE AND DEPTH IN A SWIMMING POOL THE BLUE DOTTED LINES SHOW A VERTICAL COLUMN OF WATER WITH A MASS OF ‘m' kg AND A CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF 1 m* WEIGHT OF WATER COLUMN = mg N SO PRESSURE = mg N/m? WHERE ‘m' = MASS OF WATER IN kg AND '9' = 9.81 m/s? (THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY) BUT ‘m'= ph kg WHERE ‘p' = DENSITY OF WATER kg/m? AND 'h’ = WATER DEPTH, m PRESSURE = pgh Nim? ‘The pressure under a depth of water is measure of the potential energy per unit volume, or the ‘energy density’ of water at that depth. If we have water stored in a large tank, which then develops a very small hole in the bottom of it, the static pressure forces out a jet of water and the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy in the flowing water. The static pressure at the bottom of the tank acts equally in all directions but the jet will only exert pressure in the direction of its flow, which is only fully experienced by bringing the flow completely to a stop and so is called the ‘stagnation pressure’. ‘THE DYNAMIC PRESSURE OF A WATER ESCAPING FROM A TANK A MASS 'm' OF WATER ESCAPES THROUGH A SMALL HOLE IN THE TANK AS A JET OF VELOCITY 'v POTENTIAL ENERGY @ DEPTH = KINETIC ENERGY IN JET so mgh imv m im so eign sia Ve HYDROSTATIC. PRESSURE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE TANK IS EXERTED EQUALLY IN ALL DIRECTIONS. WHERE 'p' IS THE DENSITY OF WATER (kg/m?) 4 h so pgh = 5eVv THE PRESSURE OF THE JET IS ONLY FULLY EXERTED IN THE PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE FLOW AND IS KNOWN AS THE ‘STAGNATION PRESSURE’ THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 2BERNOULLI'S PRI. |CIPLE ‘The conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy in the flow of fluids was first examined by the 18" Century Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli. Ifa flow is frictionless, the energy per cubic metre within a steady flow is conserved and consequently Bernoulli stated that, in such a flow, the sum of stagnation and static pressures taken at any point along the flow is also constant. Friction in fluid flow is known as ‘viscous friction’ and cannot be ignored in either pumping fluids or driving machines through them (such as ships through water or aircraft through the atmosphere). However, Bernoulli's principle explains why there is a drop in the pressure acting perpendicular to a flow when its linear velocity is accelerated by passing the flow through a reduced sectional area. Bemoulli only considered the steady flow conditions of liquids, which are effectively incompressible and so of constant density. The leaking tank, shown on the previous page, is not a true steady flow situation, as the pressure of the jet reduces with the falling water level in the tank. If, though, the hole is very small, compared to the tank's surface area, it approximates to a steady flow over short periods of time and the very small downward velocity of the water inside the tank can be ignored. A more complete picture of Bernoulli’s principle is given by considering the way in which a flow meter works APPLYING BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE TO A LIQUID FLOW METER A CONSTRICTED LENGTH OF KNOWN GROSS SECTIONAL AREA ‘A2 IS INSERTED INTO THE PIPE, WHICH CAUSES THE FLOW VELOCITY TO ACCELERATE FROM 'Vs' TO 'V2'. THE RESULTING DROP OF STATIC HEAD ' 4h’ IS MEASURED TO CALCULATE THE VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE ALONG PIPE LIQUID DENSITY = ‘p* EEE ETT QD BY BERNOULL''S PRINCIPLE, paht + Spvi7 = pghz + Lov" ‘nt & th’ ARE THE STATIC HEADS FOR THE LIQUID PASSING THROUGH ‘A1" AND ‘Aa! RESPECTIVELY so pg(hi - hz) = Sov? - vi?) AS THE LIQUID IS INCOMPRESSIBLE, THE VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE = At V1 so v2 = AND CONSEQUENTLY, gah = so “i A constriction in a flow is known as a ‘venturi and the drop in static pressure that it causes is called the ‘venturi effect’ and is also applicable to gases provided that changes in density with changing pressure are allowed for. The venturi effect is used in a great variety of devices, often to mix two or three fluids together. Foam making fire hose nozzles have a venturi to draw the liquid foam ingredient and air into the stream of water from a normal fire hose to produce foam for fighting oil-based fires. 3 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSThe Bernoulli water flow around a ship's hull We can apply Bernoulli's principle to water flowing past a ship, whether it is moving through still water or at anchor in a current, as in either situation the ship's underwater hullform constricts the flow THE BERNOULLI PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER FLOW AROUND A HUL! —> STREAMLINES, SHOWING WATER FLOW AROUND THE HULL @ STAGNATION POINTS WHERE FLOW VELOCITY IS ZERO —— == == i— == —= — =z S=S== SS = > = 7 7 — HIGH PRESSURE = ———> LOW PRESSURE ———> HIGH PRESSURE STREAMUNES CONVERGE, i STREAMLINES DVERGE. | i i i | FLOW ACCELERATING & | | FLOW DECELERATING & | | PRESSURE DECREASING | | PRESSURE NGREASING | i t | V=FLOW VELOCITY | \ ots THE RESTRICTION STARTS AT THE BOW AND SLOWS DOWN THE WATER FLOW, DEPENDING UPON THE ANGLE AT WHICH IT STRIKES THE HULL PLATING, WHICH CAUSES THE STATIC PRESSURE TO RISE. THE STAGNATION POINTS ARE WHERE THE FLOW HAS BEEN COMPLETELY STOPPED AND ‘SO EXPERIENCE THE FULL FORCE OF THE WATER FLOW LE. __THESTAGNATION PRESSURE = $pV? WHERE'p' = WATER DENSITY THE RISE IN PRESSURE AT THE BOW IS SUFFICIENT TO SQUEEZE AND ACCELERATE THE WATER ALONG THE SHIP'S SIDE. THE PRESSURE RISES AGAIN AS THE STREAMLINES DIVERGE AGAIN TOWARDS THE STERN. IF THERE WAS NO FRICTION BETWEEN THE WATER FLOW AND THE SHIP'S HULL, THEN THE HIGH PRESSURE EXPERIENCED AT THE BOW OF THE SHIP WHERE THE FLOW ‘SEPARATES WOULD BE EQUAL TO THE HIGH PRESSURE AT THE STERN WHERE IT RECOMBINES. THE CHANGES IN STATIC PRESSURE PRODUCE CORRESPONDING CHANGES IN THE WATERLINE PROFILE AROUND THE SHIP. Bernoulli's principle is, of course, a simplification of reality because we cannot ignore the effects of friction acting against the motion of the hull through water. Although the pressure distribution predicted by Bemoullis principle is broadly true, frictional resistance to the hull's forward motion causes the high pressure recovered at the stern (which assists the motion) to be less than the high pressure at the bow (which is resisting the motion). The full effects of fluid friction are quite complex and we will be looking at them in more detail later on in this chapter and in chapter 2 The Bernoulli pressure differential along the hull will increase with the ship's speed through the water and is important in understanding some important aspects of the behaviour of the hull. When a ship is moving relatively fast in close proximity to another vessel or a seabed restriction (such as a shoal), the resulting pattern of pressure and waterline distortion will significantly affect the vessel's steering. As a ship moves into more restricted and shallow water, the venturi effect that develops between the bottom of the hull and the seabed amplifies the Bernoulli pressure distribution. Increasing acceleration of the flow under and around the midships region of the hull causes a significant depression of the waterline and so the vessel bodily ‘sinks’ closer to the seabed. ‘All these interaction phenomena can and have contributed to collisions and groundings and will be considered in more detail in chapter 6. THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 4The Bernoulli water flow around a ship's hull (con: The Bemoulli pressure differential is also important in that it causes the ship's motion to generate a pattern of water waves that moves along at the same speed as the ship. Again, this will be discussed more fully in the next chapter but suffice to say for the moment the physical properties of the water and the length of the wave determine the speed at which waves can travel across the water surface. This puts an effective limit on the maximum speed at which a displacement hull can move through the water. (A ‘displacement ull’ is one in which the vessel's weight is totally supported by the weight of displaced water as described by Archimedes' principle, There is no additional support provided by dynamic lift acting on the ship's bottom and generated by the ship's speed.) The generation of the wave pattern also takes up energy, which the ship's motion must provide so it is another form of resistance. The flow of water around the ship's hull gives rise to the vessel suffering resistance from two different physical phenomena, 1) Frictional resistance between the water and the hull 2) Wave making resistance due to creation of a wave patt. 3) Resistance due to environmental forces, such as wave nd wind generated by the weather. These different causes of resistance depend upon physical properties of the hullform and water in different ways so they are considered separately THE FORCES THAT ACT BETW Though this may seem strange that the movement of a 250,000 T deadweight tanker is impeded by the accumulated effect of minuscule forces, frictional resistance is very much dependant upon the forces that act at a molecular level. There are forces of attraction acting between water molecules themselves and between the water molecules and the molecules of any solid surface that is passing through the liquid. Both of these intermolecular forces are important to understanding frictional resistance Surface Tension We can start by considering the simple phenomenon of ‘Surface Tension’, which allows many very small animals to literally ‘walk on water’. This causes a 'skin' to form on the surface of a body of water that is strong enough to support the weight of insects, such as water boatman. In fact, it doesn't require any special talent on the part of the insects. They have such a large surface area for their body weight that they can no more fall through the surface tension skin into the underlying body of water than we can fall through the floor that we are standing on. Surface tension is measured as the force that exists across a unit length of liquid surface. (Clean water has a surface tension of 75 micro-Newtons / millimetres or 7.5 x 107 Newtons / metre.) SURFACE TENSION INSECTS THAT CAN WALK ON WATER WATER MOLECULES = AREAS OF SURFACE UNDER GREATER TENSION Recoorcrmmernenrarmen” THIS GREATES A SKIN EFECT THAT IS STRONG © rerior movecutes ENOUGH TO SUPPORT SMALL INSECTS WITH A LARGE SURFACE AREA TO BODY WEIGHT RATIO <> ATTRACTIVE FORCES 5 SHIP DYNAMI 'S FOR MARINERS,face Ten: ont. Surface tension acts towards pulling a water / air interface into a shape with the smallest po for its volume, hence water droplets and air bubbles within water are both spherical. If we can somehow ‘tear’ the water surface apart, and insert additional surface area, then we are doing work ‘against surface tension and the energy expended would increase with the additional surface area. In effect, we are spreading the body of water further out, which is what most people do when they spread out a spill of water with a mop. The following diagram shows a rather artificial example of this in which the additional surface area is rectangular in shape to make the sums easy. ‘THE WORK DONE AGAINST SURFACE TENSION SPREADING FORCE ‘Fr’ MOVING APART AT 'V m/s IS CREATING ADDITIONAL SURFACE AREA [EG] = ADDED SURFACE AREA z Fr—p/@— Fr = a te wv QS 0.5Vv SURFACE TENSION IS GIVEN 4 = N = ‘AS TENSION FORCE ‘Fr’ OF ree 7.5.x 10™ Newtons / metre B THE TOTAL FORCE ‘Fr’ DUE TO SURFACE TENSION THAT MUST OVERCOME IS Fr=Lx7.5x107 Newtons THIS FORCE HAS BEEN MOVED THROUGH THE WIDTH '8! OF THEADDITIONAL SURFACE AREA, SO THE WORK DONE IS GIVEN BY:~ WORK DONE = FT x B Joules =LxBx7.5x107 Joules THE POWER REQUIRED TO DO THIS IS EQUAL TO THE WORK DONE PER SECOND. I.E. POWER = WORK DONE x SPEED Watts =VxLx 75x10? — Watts BUT Vx L = RATE AT WHICH THE SURFACE “VIS THE RATE AT WHICH "BIS INCREASING AREA IS INCREASING ‘THE POWER REQUIRED TO CREATE ADDITIONAL WATERJAIR SURFACE AREA IS GIVEN AS;- [ Power = 7.5% 10" x RATE OF INCREASE IN SURFACE AREA(m'/s) Watts A SHIP ONLY CREATES ADDITIONAL SURFACE AREA AT A SIGNIFICANT RATE WHEN IT IS ‘SLAMMING INTO HEAVY HEAD SEAS AND PRODUCING LARGE QUANTITIES OF SPRAY. [A ship moving through still water experienees a very small opposing force on the bow due to surface tension as it ‘unzips the water's surface but this is equalled by the forward push against the stern as the ‘water surface ‘zips’ back up with the passing of the ship. However, surface tension is significant when a ship is steaming against heavy head seas and ereating spray. In these situations, the water surface is, not merely being separated, it is being smashed up into very tiny fragments and then re-constituted as millions of spray droplets. Energy is taken out of the ship’s motion both to lift the weight of spray water up into the air and also to form the greatly increased surface area of the water when it is fragmented into droplets of only about one millimetre in diameter. This increases the surface area of the water affected by about one thousand-fold and so can produce a considerable force to oppose the ship's motion. It is not surprising that a ship seems to shudder and abruptly slow down when it runs into a wave that breaks up into heavy spray. Surface tension in a liquid is due to the liquid's molecules being attracted to each other but the attraction between the liquid and solid molecules is also significant. Water usually 'wets' solid surfaces that it comes in contact with because there is a high attraction between the water and steel molecules. THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 6flow If we pull an almost totally immersed plank of wood through the water, the attraction between water molecules and those of the plank causes the innermost water molecules to attach themselves to the plank. The attached molecules exert a drag on adjacent molecules outboard of them due to the attractive forees between the water molecules themselves. This results in the formation of layers of ‘water moving past the plank at differing speeds. The innermost layer is stationary, relative to the plank and as we move outboard the layers slip astern of the plank with increasing velocity until we reach undisturbed water, which is passing astern at the plank's speed through the water. This situation is known as ‘laminar flow" and it occurs because attractive forces act between the water molecules to transfer energy from the plank's motion to the surrounding water. This, in turn, creates a resistance to solid bodies moving through water or water flowing past solid surfaces (such as pipe flows etc). The phenomenon of this fluid friction is known as ‘viscosity’, A very viscous fluid is one in which the intermolecular attractive forces are high and consequently the resistance to flow is considerable (e.g. cle or molten tar). cosity in a fluid flow is related to the velocity gradient within the fluid, the area of contact and the frictional force as shown in the following diagram. ‘THE VISCOSITY OF A FLUID IN LAMINAR FLOW FRICTIONAL FORCE 'F* TWO PARALLEL IDENTICAL PLATES OF AREA ‘A’ ARE SEPARATED BY THE DISTANCE 'S' WITH A FLUID BETWEEN THEM, THE TOP PLATE IS MOVED AT VELOCITY 'V' RELATIVE TO THE BOTTOM PLATE, SO A VELOCITY GRADIENT IS SET UP AS THE ‘LAYERS’ OF INTERVENING FLUID SLIDE OVER EACH OTHER. THE MOTION BETWEEN THE PLATES IS OPPOSED BY FRICTIONAL FORCE 7 he SHEAR STRESS agg EIA AFLUID'S DYNAMIC VISCOSITY 'n' IS DEFINED AS THE RATIO “SEE EIS== so ‘y= 7S SO, THE FRICTIONAL FORCE Strictly speaking, viscosity and the level of resistance are due to the interaction of the fluid with the solid surface as well as the forces acting between the molecules within the fluid itself. If water behaved like mercury when in contact with steel plating, the frictional resistance to moving a ship through water would be very low indeed. Certain plastic coatings, such as PTFE and Polyethylene repel water, but it is impractical to maintain such anti-wetting coatings on the underwater areas of a seagoing vessel. Roughness of the solid surface is also very important, as a rough surface will drag more water along with it than a smooth one. The change from riveted hulls to all welded construction has considerably reduced roughness but both corrosion and marine growth can significantly inerease resistance. ‘The laminar flow situation is not stable because, as the layers of water slide past each other their relative velocities continue to change as the inner layers continue to slow down the layers immediately ‘outboard of them, The mass of innermost water that is either moving along with the plank or nearly so will tend to inerease further along the plank’s length and create low pressure astern of it. If the plank is long enough or moving sufficiently fast this will eventually lead to the outer layers tumbling inwards in series of swirls to fill the voids and the flow is then said to have become ‘turbulent. 7: SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSnd laminar or turbulent fluid flow When a flow tums turbulent, the transfer of frictional energy is no longer via viscous forces between orderly layers of fluid moving at different velocities. There is now a direct exchange of kinetic energy’ between faster molecules colliding with slower ones as they move randomly within the region of disturbed fluid close to the plank. Resistance downstream of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow increases considerably to vary approximately with the square of the average flow velocity. The region of disturbed fluid flowing around a solid obstacle is known as the 'houndary layer’ where Bernoulli's law does not apply as energy is being dissipated through friction and heat in both laminar and turbulent flow conditions within the layer. The boundary layer can be considered as a thickening of the obstruction’s dimensions with Bernoulli flow conditions existing beyond the boundary layer but not within it. The streamlines around the downstream end of the obstruction do not fully converge so recovery pressure is reduced and resistance to the flow consequently increases. This is known as (form: drag’ and is considered further in chapter 2. The remnant of the boundary layer trails astern of the ship asa band of disturbed water that is known as the "wake. VISCOUS FLOW OF WATER AROUND A PARTLY IMMERSED PLANK ‘THE CHANGING OF THE WATER VELOCITY PROFILE AS THE FLOW PROGRESSES DOWNSTREAM —>| = WATER FLOW VELOCITY RELATIVE TO THE PLANK FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE VARIES WITH FLOW VELOCITY WITHIN THE REGION OF THE ORDERLY LAYERS OF LAMINAR FLOW. RESISTANCE VARIES WITH THE SQUARE OF THE FLOW VELOCITY AFTER THE CHANGE TO TURBULENT FLOW LAMINAR FLOW VELOCITY PROFILE BECOMES UNSTABLE DOWNSTREAM. LAMINAR FLOW ==> TURBULENT FLOW FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE « VELOCITY 'V | FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE » (VELOCITY 'V)* THE REGION OF DISTURBED WATER THAT IS CREATED BY THE FRICTIONAL FORCES IS KNOWN AS THE 'BOUNDARY LAYER’ AND IT INCREASES IN WIDTH AS IT MOVES FURTHER ALONG THE LENGTH OF THE PLANK PARTICULARLY AT THE TRANSITION FROM LAMINER TO TURBULENT FLOW LAMINAR FLOW —?>|<— TURBULENT FLOW veLocity OF PLANK. —EEEUEyEyUy—=mu— [ = Bounpary Layer, = REGION OF BERNOULLI FLOW CONDITIONS Laminar and turbulent flow can be likened to traffic on a four or five lane motorway. In laminar flow conditions, the speed of traffic increases in orderly steps as we move from the slow lane to the fast Jane but, within each lane, the vehicles move at the same speed. However, one broken down or very slow moving vehicle will act as a ‘turbulence’ tri the traffic behind it must change lanes to get past and maintain speed. If this only happens occasionally, or the traffic is relatively light, the flow settles down again to the laminar conditions but as very slow moving vehicles become more frequent, or the traffic more dense, there is a tendency for lane changing to increase. More and more cars are speeding up then slowing down as they move in between the lanes, more energy is being expended by these changes of speed and the flow is becoming turbulent. Highway laws and traffic police, combined with a fair amount of driver common sense, prevent traffic from becoming completely chaotic. Water molecules, however, lack these admirable constraints and are indifferent to 'road rage’, so they just do their ‘own thing’. A riot of random motion and collisions breaks out in the boundary layer as molecules move around to occupy any available space and the flow tums turbulent ‘THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 8nd Laminar or tur Laminar flow conditions have often been sought after for high performance eraft moving through a fluid, particularly aircraft in which quite a lot of development has been carried out on laminar flow wings. The U.S. navy has also carried out considerable research into the possibility of maintaining laminar flow over submarines and, in particular, torpedoes. though laminar flow, as, we will see later on, is not always so advantageous. The onset of turbulence in water flow around the hull can be delayed if any disturbing trigger is removed from the flow as soon as it occurs. One way of achieving this is to suck the local disturbance. into the hull, which is @ technique that has been employed in airerafi. The motorway equivalent of this would be to immediately airlift any broken down vehicle off the road. Another approach could be to have a flexible 'spongy' coating that allows the hull surface to contour the flow. This would be like instantly adding and removing traffic lanes locally on the motorway to suite the traffic conditions. Man has frequently looked to nature for ideas on how to make things work better and, for 2 long time, it was believed that the fatty layer, just beneath the outer skin of a dolphin, acted as such a damper. Similar spongy layers have also been found just beneath the skin of some fish. However, both fish and dolphins achieve propulsion by flexing parts of their bodies so flow conditions around them continually change. Experiments to replicate this damping effect on rigid bodies such as submarin have not been successful and the flow around these animals is not yet really understood. The nature of fluid flow and, in particular, the difference between laminar and turbulent flow, was first discovered and investigated by Osbourne Reynolds in the 1880's. He was primarily concerned with the flow of water in pipes, which was becoming increasingly important to civil engineers as industrial cites, with their water supplies and sanitation, were developing so fast. However, the principles that he Jaid down are also relevant to ships’ hull resistance, Reynolds’ experiments demonstrated that a flow would turn turbulent when the viscous forces became too weak, relative to the mass of the molecules of the fluid, to maintain orderly laminar flow. This can be predicted from the flow velocity, fluid viscosity, fluid density and the pipe’s diameter. Turbulent flow is more likely to occur at higher velociti s viscous fluid in a wider pipe. Reynolds combined all these factors together to describe a particular set of flow conditions by a single number, known as the 'Repnolds Number’. This number is non-dimensional so it will have the same value for a given flow, regardless of the units used, provided that these belong to a single consistent system. The density and dynamic viscosity of the fluid are usually combined in a single value, known as the ‘kinematic viscosity’, If the flow conditions in a pipe have a Reynolds number above a certain critical value, (about 2000) then the flow will turn turbulent, as illustrated below. THE CRITICAL REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR AN INTERNAL FLOW IN A PIPE po LSS SE vIscosTY ‘yy’ AVERAGE FLOW & veLociry 'v D DENSITY “0! J LAMINAR FLOW "Re’ = 2000 REYNOLDS’ NUMBER ‘Re’ we oR 2 TURBULENT FLOW "Re! > 2000 a # WITH S.. UNITS m*/s THE REYNOLDS’ NUMBER IS NON-DIMMENSIONAL, SO IT WILL HAVE THE SAME VALUE IN ANY SYSTEM OF UNITS, THE CRITICAL REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR INTERNAL FLOW = 2000 WHERE THE KINEMATIC VISCOSTY * Reynolds was concerned with internal flows and although the transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs in the external flow of water around a ship's hull, the situation is not quite the same. The flow within a pipe is constrained by the pipe's diameter and the surface area of the different velocity ‘shells’ of fluid in laminar flow is greatest where the fluid is stationary against the pipe wall 9 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSjar or turbulent fluid flow (cont. ‘As we move inward towards the faster moving layers of internal flow through a pipe, their arcas become progressively smaller. However, in the case of external flows, frictional energy from the layer against the ship's side is dissipated outwards through flow layers of progressively increasing surface areas until its influence is negligible. This would be the effective limit of the boundary layer, which ‘generally increases in width with increasing distance from the bow but there is no convenient physical outer boundary to measure this, Consequently, the Reynolds number for flow at any point along a ship's hull is expressed in terms of the length of the hull from the how, which replaces the diameter measurement in the Reynolds number for internal flow through pipes. Understandably, this will produce a critical Reynolds number that is appreciably higher for an external flow than for an intemal one, as, at any given point along the hull, the distance from the bow is considerably greater than the width of the boundary layer at that point. Furthermore, both the shape of the hull and its roughness influences the transition from laminar to turbulent flow, which occurs at a Reynolds number between 4 x 10° and 10° or even as high as 10”. However, laminar flow is not a serious option for merchant ships, which operate at Reynolds numbers in excess of, 10° and so they invariably experience turbulent flow along nearly all of the hull length. Laminar flow effects do, though, need to be taken into account in sealed down model tests of full size vessels. ‘THE REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR A SHIP "LUIS MEASURED AFT OF THE BOW I 1 cs SZ Mam 0.4.x 10° < CRITICAL 'Re’ < 10°, SO TAKING VALUES FOR SALTWATER AT 10°C DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF SALTWATER AT 0°C = 1.87x 10% N-s/m? & AT 25°C = 0.97 10° N-s/m? eve 2 REYNOLDS’ NUMBER ‘Re’ = —~ WHERE "y/ 1.4x10° N-s/m? & 'p' = 1025kg/m* so AT MIDSHIPS, ‘Re’ = 562x 10° AND AT THE STERN ‘Re’ = 112 x 107 THE TRANSITION FROM LAMINAR TO TURBULENT FLOW ALONG THE SHIP'S HULL IS LIKELY TO OCCUR WITHIN 0.2% OF ITS LENGTH AFT OF THE BOW. 0 300 600 900 x10" REYNOLDS No. re 01 50 100 150 Metres FROM BOW ‘TRANSITION FROM LAMINAR FLOW TO TURBULENT FLOW ‘Turbulent flow follows the contours of the hull as it tapers down towards the stern better than laminar flow. Here the flow is decelerating as the streamlines cone back together astern of the vessel. If the boundary layer fails to follow the hullform closely, ‘separation’ occurs and a void will be created that draws in large-scale water eddies from astern. The ship consequently drags an increased amount of water along with it and resistance increases. The random motion of the water particles in turbulent flow, however, delays separation more than laminar flow. Aircraft, as well as fish and birds, frequently have spoilers near the trailing edges of their wings or bodies, which create turbulence and discourage separation, The overall drag is reduced even though the flow becomes turbulent. THE NAUT! L INSTITUTE, 10THE FLOW AROU! A FOIL If'a person blows over the edge of a piece of paper whilst holding it by two corners between the thumb, and finger of cach hand, then the paper lifis up. The effect can be greatly enhanced if the edge of paper is curled over. GENERATING AN UPWARD FORCE BY BLOWING OVER A PIECE OF PAPER THE UPWARD FORCE IS ENHANCED BY CURLING AROUND THE LEADING EDGE OF THE PAPER The piece of paper is acting as an aireraft wing in producing an upward force perpendicular to the paper's surface. When the paper is hanging as a flat sheet, it is easy to assume that this ‘normal force’ on the flat sheet is simply the result of the impact of the air on its underside. However, we might expect that curling its leading edge would block off some of the under surface and yet repeating the experiment produces an even greater lift effect. This is actually due to the air flow over the top of the sheet being accelerated and therefore, by Bernoulli's principle, producing a drop in pressure. This ‘occurs whenever a fluid flow does not divide equally around a solid obstruction. It is usually achieved by making the flow strike the obstruction asymmetrically and is enhanced by streamlining its shape, Structures built to generate a force from a fluid flow that is perpendicular to the direction of flow are known as ‘foils’. These include aircraft propeller blade: ‘indmill sails, propeller blades, hydrofoils etc. in addition to aircraft wings. The component of the force perpendicular to the undisturbed flow is often called ‘lift’ even when it is horizontal as the principle is so predominant in aireraft flight. Asymmetrical flow is achieved by cither the flow striking an asymmetrical foil or a symmetrical flow aan oblique angle, known as the ‘angle of attack’ or frequently a combination of both. GENERATING A NORMAL FORCE FROM AN IDEAL FLUID FLOW OVER A FOIL FLOW OVER AN ASYMMETRICAL FOIL FLOW OVER A SYMMETRICAL FOIL, NORMAL FORCE ‘FN’ NORMAL FORCE ‘FN’ —-} = STREAMLINES, @ = STAGNATION POINT (SEE PAGE 4), x. = ANGLE OF ATTACK WHERE THE STREAMLINES ARE FORCED CLOSER TOGETHER ON THE UPPER SURFACES, FLOW IS ACCELERATED AND THERE |S A DECREASE IN STATIC PRESSURE. WHERE THE STREAMLINES SPREAD OUT ON THE LOWER SURFACE, FLOW IS DE-CELERATED AND PRESSURE INCREASES 1 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSThe flow around a foil (cont.) The asymmetrical flow around a foil can be considered as adding rotation to linear symmetrical flow as this will accelerate flow on one side of the foil (such as the upper surface of an aircraft wing) whilst decelerating it on the other side. This principle can be used to create a lifting force on a perfect sphere by giving it spin. A golf ball or cricket ball can travel much further if it is given the correct spin as it is struck or thrown. In the case of the golf ball, this is achieved by striking the ball at the bottom. The dimples on the golf ball and the seam on a cricket ball are to roughen the surface so as the ball spins the air is more effectively dragged around into a rotational flow THE ROTATIONAL COMPONENT OF ASYMMETRICAL FLOW AROUND A FOIL NORMAL FORCE ‘FN’, THE SIDEWAYS FORCE GENERATED BY THE PRESSURE DIFFERENCE ACROSS THE FOIL. LP. LP. +bv = a. = aes + v —— ee 4 i LP. ~By ASYMMETRICAL FLOW SYMMETRICAL FLOW ROTATIONAL FLOW CAUSESANET PRESSURE mm VELOCITY V? ALONE CAUSES A. VELOciPY Oy CAUSES DIFFERENCE WHICH == NOPRESSURE DIFFERENCE Flow 70 Seulr PRODUCES LIFT ACROSS THE FOIL DIFFERENTIALLY The flow across the low pressure side of a foil is accelerated and similarly, the rise in pressure on the high pressure side suffers deceleration so, by Bernoulli's theory, the pressure difference is proportional to the difference between the squares of two flow velocities either side of the foil (See page 4). The ‘squared! nature of this relationship means that an increase of *+dv' in flow velocity creates a greater pressure change than a reduction of '-bv' in flow, so the drop in pressure across the top of an aircraft wing or hydrofoil, is greater than the increase in pressure underneath, Consequently, the ‘suetion’ on the low pressure side of a foil provides a progressively greater contribution to the force on the foil than the increase in pressure on the high pressure side as the change 'dv' in flow velocity is increased. The resulting force is angled to the direction of flow and can be resolved into two components; namely ‘drag’, which is opposes the undisturbed flow and ‘lift, which is perpendicular to the undisturbed flow. PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ABOUT A HORIZONTAL FOIL AT ANGLE OF ATTACK ‘a’ V+oy — > (FLOW veLocrTy)* (V+5y)? DRAG = LIFT x TAN a DRAG wy? uFT (v-5vy? 0 V-by Vv veay a = ANGLE OF ATTACK FLOW VELOCITY [7] = Low PRESSURE DISTIBUTION J = LOW PRESSURE PERPENDICULAR FORCE [|= Hic PRESSURE DISTIBUTION 4 = HIGH PRESSURE PERPENDICULAR FORCE THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 12‘The flow around a (cont The greater contribution of the accelerated flow to the lift force can be further enhanced by increasing the surface area of the low pressure side of a foil, relative to the high pressure side. (The resulting, force being the pressure difference multiplied by the area.) Consequently, the upper surface of an aircraft wing is more curved than the underwing and the forward side of a ship's propeller is more curved than the aft face. These are foils that are generally designed to operate in one direction. Ships’ rudders, on the other hand, must work equally well at producing a sideways thrust in either direction so they are built with surfaces that are a mirror image of each other. We would expect the pressure change and, hence the perpendicular force, to be greatest about the maximum thickness of the foil's section. In an ideal flow, the lift would be centred at the mid-width point of a foil that was symmetrical about its vertical axis, as shown below. However, the viscous forces in a real fluid work to retard flow velocity as it moves further along the surface. This creates the boundary layer that becomes progressively thicker as we move downstream so the trailing half of the low pressure side of the foil contributes less to the lift than we could expect from an ideal flow. Consequently, in real fluid flow, the lift force is centred forward of the mid point of such a foil. THE EFFECT OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER ON LIFT DISTRIBUTION OVER A FOIL [= = Loweressure DISTIBUTION —_—EBINNNE_- = BOUNDARY LAYER. IDEAL FLUID FLOW OVER A FOIL, REAL FLUID FLOW OVER A FOIL THE BOUNDARY LAYER FORMED BY A REAL FLUID BOTH DECREASES THE OVERALL REDUCTION OF PRESSURE ON THE TOP SURFACE AND MOVES ITS CENTRE OF ACTION FURTHER FORWARD ‘The asymmetry of the flow increases if the flow strikes the foil at increasingly angles of attack and so the lift also increases with the angle of attack but only up to a certain angle, At angles of attack greater than this, the flow separates and the foil begins to stall. Flow on the foil’s high pressure side overspills onto the low pressure surface so the pressure differential and normal force are considerably reduced. ‘THE ANGLE OF ATTACK AND STALL CONDITIONS FNt tS LESS THAN FN2_ az IS GREATER THAN THE STALL ANGLE THE STALL ANGLE FNi > FN2 a THE UNDERSIDE HIGH PRESSURE FLOW HAS SPILLED ONTO THE UPPER SURFACE, THE FLOW HAS SEPARATED AND FORCE 'Fn’ IS GREATLY REDUCED <4 CONDITION oF ZERO LIFT & ATACK ANGLE THERE IS AN EQUAL DROP IN PRESSURE DUE TO THE ACCELERATED FLOW OVER THE LOWER AND UPPER, SURFACE OF THE FOIL 13 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSDefinitions of foil measurements The diagrams below define foil measurements as they apply to typical sections used in marine rudders and propellers. Note again that the dynamic force perpendicular to the undisturbed flow direction is still called the ‘lif’ force even though it is predominately horizontal when produced by a rudder or propeller. ‘TERMS USED IN THE MEASUREMENT OF FOIL SECTIONS TYPICAL PROPELLER BLADE SECTION TYPICAL RUDDER SECTION THE PROPELLER BLADE IS DESIGNED TO -—-‘THE RUDDER MUST 8E EQUALLY CAPABLE OF PRODUCE LIFT FROM FLOW THAT IS PRODUCING LIFT IN EITHER DIRECTION SO THE PREDOMINATELY IN ONE DIRECTION, BUT FOIL HAS ZERO CAMBER. HOWEVER THE FLOW NOT EXCLUSIVELY SO IS ALWAYS ONTO THE LEADING EDGE TE Le 1 ! CHORD. > \« CHORD >! = NOSE-TAIL LINE, —-— = CAMBER LINE, CHORD LINE, “C= LIFT LE, = LEADINGEDGE, TE. = TRAILING EDGE, T = MAXIMUM CHORD THICKNESS CAMBER IS A MEASURE OF HOW MUCH THE CURVATURE OF THE FOIL'S SURFACES ARE BIASED TO PRODUCE LIFT’ IN ONE DIRECTION AND IS MEASURED BETWEEN THE CAMBER LINE AND THE STRAIGHT ‘NOSE - TAIL LINE. THE CAMBER LINE LIES MIDWAY BETWEEN THE UPPER AND LOWER SURFACES OF THE FOIL SO IT COINCIDES WITH THE NOSE -TAIL LINE OF THE RUDDER SECTION. RUDDERS AND STABALISER FINS HAVE ZERO CAMBER AND CAN GENERATE A ‘LIF'T FORCE EQUALLY EFFECTIVELY IN EITHER DIRECTION. THE SURFACES ARE STILL CURVED AS THICKNESS VARIES ALONG THE CHORD, THE POSITIONS OF MAXIMUM CHORD THICKNESS LIE ALONG THE CHORD LINE (OR ‘DIRECTRIX) ‘The factors effecting the performance of a foi ‘The normal force to the foil surface produced by the flow over a foil varies with the following factors:~ 1) Normal force is directionally proportional to the square of the flow velocity 2) Normal force is approximately proportional to the angle of attack up to the stall angle. 3) Normal force is directionally proportional to the foil surface area. 4) Normal force increases with the foil thickness within limits, ‘THE NORMAL FORCE 'Fn', ATTACK ANGLE, FLOW VELOCITY & FOIL AREA DRAG FORCE UT ‘FN FORCE Fx’ FORCE Fn’ FORCE ‘Fx ° ° o ATTACK ANGLE ‘o" FLOW VELOCITY 'V FOIL AREA. The purpose of foils such as rudders and propellers is to most effectively create the lift force normal to the undisturbed flow rather than the foil surface. Increasing the angle of attack beyond about 20° suffers from the law of diminishing returns as the force ‘Fn’ has decreasing lift and inereasing drag components. Also increasing the area of the foil or the flow velocity increases the frictional losses in the flow, All these considerations must be taken into account in the design of rudders and propellers. THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 14‘The end effect on flow around a foil The higher pressure fluid will also tend to spill over onto the low pressure surface of a foil at the tip. This introduces a spiral motion into the flow that becomes most marked in the region of the tip where it causes a loss in lift END EFFECTS ON THE FLOW AROUND A FOIL FLOW ACROSS AN INFINITELY LONG FOIL FLOW AROUND THE END OF A FOIL SPIRAL FLOW IS SHED FROM THE TIP AS A TIP VORTEX" PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION toy 2.2. HIGH PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE The ratio of foil length to chord width is known as its ‘aypect ratio’ and the loss of lift due to tip effects can be minimised by forming the surface area into a long and narrow foil (i.e. a high aspect ratio foil) Alternatively, the formation of tip vortex can be reduced by ending the foil with a perpendicular ‘end plate’ that fences the flow in and so maintains a parallel flow pattern right up to the tip. Such end plates, however, will create extra frictional drag. FOIL ASPECT RATIO HIGH ASPECT RATIO FOIL LOW ASPECT RATIO FOIL eo “al Za w Ww L —_ he i in SPOIL TIP AREA SPAN ‘I —| ASPECT RATIO = SEAN END PLATE ON A FOIL TO PREVENT TIP VOTEX THE END PLATE ‘FENCES IN’ THE FLOW TO KEEP THE STREAMLINES ‘SQUARE’ TO THE FOIL THE TIP VORTEX IS PARTIALLY ELIMINATED AND LIFT IS MAINTAINED RIGHT UP TO THE END PLATE BUT THERE IS A COST IN EXTRA DRAG 15 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERS(tack angle and stall angle The end losses cause the flow across a foil to be diverted toward its tip and so the flow velocity gains a component along the ‘span' of the foil. A spiralling flow, or 'vortex’, is consequently shed from the foil tip and the lift force is decreased because the angle of attack is effectively reduced. We can see this if we look at the three dimensional geometry of the flow moving onto the foil Low aspect foils are often made with a curved taper towards the tip as the pressure differential is reduces towards the end and so this region of the foil is less effective at producing lift. This can result in the elliptical aircraft wing that was so characteristic of the famous World War Two fighter plane, the'S \e Spitfire’. High aspect ratio foils are more effective generators of ‘lift’ for their area and so tend to maintain a near constant chord width along most of their span. ‘END LOSSES’ OF A FOIL, ACTUAL ANGLE OF ATTACK AND ASPECT RATIO x PERPENDICULAR CROSS- SECTION XX THIS IS THE CHORD WIDTH AND FLOW PERPENDICULAR TO THE FOIL, FLOW CROSS- SECTION THIS IS THE PATH WIDTH THAT THE FLOW ACTUALLY FOLLOWS ACROSS THE FOIL THE 'BENDING' OF THE FLOW TOWARDS THE TIP EFFECTIVELY INCREASES THE CHORD WIDTH WHILST REDUCING THE ACTUAL ANGLE OF ATTACK, SO ANGLE a’ IS LESS THAN ANGLE a TAPERING LOW AND HIGH ASPECT RATIO AIRCRAFT WINGS LIET FORCE DISTRIBUTION LOW ASPECT RATIO WING LIET FORCE DISTRIBUTION ' ELIPTICAL WING CHORD IS REDUCED TOWARDS THE TIP AS THE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL DECREASES HIGH ASPECT RATIO WING WING CHORD AND PRESSURE yy DIFFERENTIAL REMAIN ALMOST CONSTANT FOR MOST OF THE SPAN THE HIGHER ASPECT RATIO FOIL WILL PRODUCE A GREATER OVERALL PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL THAN THE LOW ASPECT RATIO FOIL, SO IT WILL PRODUCE THE SAME LIFT FOR LESS FOIL AREA TAPERING THE FOIL ALSO REDUCES THE BENDING MOMENT AND STRESS AT ITS ROOT The smaller high aspect ratio foil is more efficient at generating lift than lower aspect ratio foils but it is ‘higher loaded’ (i.e. the pressure difference is greater). This presents problems with foils acting in water as there is a limit to the extent at which pressure can fall on the low pressure side before ‘cavitation’ occurs. This is when the water locally vaporises and is explained further on the next page. Cavitation puts a limit on the loading that a hydrofoil can operate under and is one of the reasons why foils working in water (i.e. rudders, propellers etc.) tend to have relatively low aspect ratios. The other principal reason being the limited space available for the rudder and propeller at the stem of the ship. Although low aspect ratio foils are less efficient at producing ‘lift, the effective reduction of the angle of attack delays the onset of stall conditions so they can operate over a larger range of attack angles, Page 136 illustrates this with respect to aspect ratios of rudders, TUTE 16 THE NAUTICAL INSWater flow around a foil Up to now, all the aspects of flow around a foil that we have considered applies to all fluids. There are, however, some important differences between gases and liquids, particularly water. 1) Density Water, unlike air, can be considered as incompressible so its density is constant in all the flow regions around a foil. Furthermore, the density of water is very much greater than that of air and so relatively small changes in water flow velocity cause considerably greater changes in pressure than would be the case for the same velocity changes in an airflow. Consequently, a hydrofoil working in relatively slow water flows is smaller than an airfoil producing a similar lift or thrust force from a faster airflow. .¢ formation of water vapour bubbles in the flow Water flow around a foil can be locally accelerated to such an extent that the local pressure becomes almost a vacuum and the water boils’, (i. changes state from liquid to water vapour or steam). The steam must form in bubbles and this is known as ‘cavitation’, which creates a spherical water / vapour boundary that will be subject to surface tension (see page 5 & 6). The resulting force acts to shrink the bubble and so the vapour pressure within must be able to counteract the surface tension as well as the ambient low pressure of the surrounding water. Vaporisation is easier if there are already gas bubbles present in the flow as in the case in shallow aerated water. In this situation, water vapour simply ‘escapes into existing air bubbles. However, if these are not available, vapour bubbles must grow from almost nothing and it can be shown that balancing internal bubble pressure is inversely proportional to its radius, This means, paradoxically, that the initial internal pressure of very small vapour bubbles must be very high, even though the immediate water pressure that lead to the vaporisation is very low Bubbles in such circumstances form almost explosively as the high internal pressure causes the bubble to grow rapidly against a surface tension force that decreases with increasing bubble radius, Cavitation limits the lift force as no further reduction in pressure can occur on the low pressure side of a foil once cavitation has spread, though the pressure on the high pressure side can still increase. Very low pressures in the flow are often restricted to a small region the foil’s surface and the vapour bubbles will collapse when they move down stream into higher ambient pressures. As a bubble radius redu prior to disappearing, So the internal pressure increases rapidly and the bubbles collapse against a f surface with a 'hammer-like' implosion to cause damage and vibration. Extensive cavitation can lead to the bubbles coalescing into a continuous layer of water vapour that is known as ‘sheet cavitation’ Cavitation can be seen when water is boiled in an ordinary domestic kettle. As the water comes to the boil, bubbles of steam erupt within the body of the water. These are particularly violent if the water has already been boiled once before. Re-boiled water contains very little dissolved air and so there are no existing gas bubbles within the water for the vapour to combine with. CAVITATION. THE FORMATION OF VAPOUR BUBBLES IN THE WATER FLOW EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES IN A BUBBLE RADIUS ‘R’ FORCE ‘Fp" DUE TO VAPOUR FORCE ‘FT’ DUE TO SURFACE PRESSURE TENSION ‘Fp"=X-SECTIONAL AREA FP. Fr ‘FT = CIRCUMFERENCE x x PRESSURE 'P” ‘SURFACE TENSION 'T" SO ‘Fr"= P x aR? SO ‘Fr= Tx 2xR BUT Fe = FT SO PxR = 2T, HENCE BUBBLE FORMATION AND COLLAPSE = AREA OF BUBBLE FORMATION AREA OF BUBBLE COLAPSE 7 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSWATER WAVES Ships at sea both encounter waves and create them by the disturbance of their motion. The water surface is a boundary between two fluids, namely air and water. Waves moving along such boundaries travel at a speed that are dictated by their wavelength and as this has considerable influence on the speed of the ship making such waves, we should examine the properties of these waves more closely Wind blowing across the sea surface eventually becomes turbulent and this turbulence is transferred into the water close to the surface to generate waves. Although the sea surface appears to move simply up and down, the water particles in a deep water wave (i.e. there is no influence of the seabed upon the wave motion) are actually rotating around in orbits that decrease exponentially in radius with depth below the sea surface. This produces a characteristic profile known as a ‘trochoidal wave" in which the peaks are noticeably steeper and more pronounced than the intervening troughs. Test tanks, however, simulate sea waves by superimposing a range of harmonic sine wave frequencies on top of each other. The circular motion of the water particles can actually be observed by injecting dye into the water in experimental conditions. DEEP WATER WAVE PROFILE & MOTION WAVECREST ‘TROUGH WAVECREST ‘ORBITAL RADIUS DECREASES ’ r EXPONENTIALLY WITH DEPTH ! << wavetencra 2) ————>| DIRECTION OF WAVE TRAVEL, (OR PROPAGATION —> THE VERTICAL SCALE IS EXAGGERATED, RELATIVE TO THE HORIZONTAL SCALE Phas locity of deep water es, When the wind is very light, small ripples or ‘cats paws’ start to form on the sea surface. These small waves of less than 10 cm in wavelength are known as ‘capillary’ waves and are influenced mainly by surface tension. They travel a bit like a disturbance along an elastic string, so shorter wavelengths with higher frequencies travel faster than longer ones. Such small waves, however, are not really significant to ships motion and are not considered any further in this book Longer waves are influenced primarily by gravity and a relatively simple equation, relating wave phase speed (or celerity) to wave length or wave period can be derived providing that the following assumptions are made: - 1) The water particles rotate at a constant circular speed (denoted by the symbol 'U’) 2) Once set in motion, all the energy is retained within the wave motion. 3) The particle velocity ‘U' is less than the wave celerity 'C. The mathematical trick is then to imagine the water flowing in the opposite direction to the wave but at the same velocity. This has the effect of freezing’ the wave profile in time and space. This approach is known as ‘the superimposed flow method! and in it, the orbital motion of the particles disappears. The water particles now follow a roller coaster path from one now stationary crest to the next, reaching a maximum velocity of 'C+U' in the troughs and a minimum velocity of 'C-U’ at the crests. Potential energy of the particles at the top of the crests is converted into a gain in kinetic energy in the crests and this allows us to create simultaneous equations to derive an equation for wave phase speed. THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 18PI (cont. DEEP WATER WAVE VELOCITY (BY THE SUPERIMPOSED FLOW METHOD) = WATER PARTICLE VELOCITY A. SMOOTH WATER FLOW IS SUPER- IMPOSED ONTO THE WAVE MOTION WAVE VELOCITY ‘c’ —————_> <—_ Flowvetocrry '-c" ‘THE ‘FROZEN’ WAVE PROFILE THAT RESULTS FROM THE ABOVE SUPERIMPOSITION c-u c-u cHu PARTICLE MOTION AT THE SURFACE IS NOW TRANSFORMED FROM A CIRCULAR MOTION TO A ROLLER COASTER MOVEMENT THAT FOLLOWS THE WAVE PROFILE ENERGY / KILOGRAM AT THE TROUGH = ENERGY / KILOGRAM AT THE CREST e ~(c+u)* _ -(C-v) 2 zt oH Joules WHERE ‘g' IS 9.81 m/s’, THE ACCELERATION ON EARTH DUE TO GRAVITY so -(C+U)?+(C-U)? = 2gH Joules THEN -4CU = 2gH Joules 2cu so WAVE HEIGHT'H' = == metres 6.@) BUT THE WAVE HEIGHT 'H' ALSO EQUALS THE DIAMETER OF THE WAVE PARTICLES’ ORBITAL MOTION AND THE PARTICLE COMPLETES ONE ORBIT IN WAVE PERIOD ‘T SO LENGTH OF ORBIT= xH metres & PARTICLE VELOCITY = U m/s ut HENCE WAVE HEIGHT "H’ = —— metres 6.@ COMBINING EQUATIONS ‘1" AND c wave Erion ‘T= 2% seconds 3 Ig so WAVE CELERITY 'C' = > metres / second WHERE ‘T IS THE WAVE PERIOD IN SECONDS & ‘g' = 9.81 m/s? WAVE VELOCITY, OR CELERITY. 'C’ IS RELATED TO WAVE LENGTH 7 & PERIOD T WAVE CELERITY'C! = 4 otros / second 7 metres / second WHERE "2S THE WAVE LENGTH IN metres. & ‘g' = 9.81 m/s" AND ALSO WAVE CELERITY 19 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSThe shape of the sea surface in deep water Longer deep-water gravity waves travel faster than shorter ones, which is the opposite to the very small capillary waves mentioned on page 18, and their speed is not directly dependent upon any property of water. '‘Celerity’ or ‘phase velocity’, relates to speed at which the wave profile undergoes a complete 360° cycle or phase change, which is not necessarily the same speed at which waves sp out as they disperse their energy. The difference will be explained later at the end of this chapter The characteristic parameters of a deep-water sea wave, including velocity equations derived on the previous page, are summarised below WAVE HEIGHT AND STILL WATER DATUM FOR A TROCHOIDAL WAVE WAVE CREST +‘ -HEIGHT'H + <= STILL WATER DATUM =>=——<= = - — reduc TROUGH <<. wave Lenotn >! 3 i \'<—_———————_ wave LenctH x"), ——————>> THE WATER PARTICLES’ AVERAGE HEIGHT DURING THEIR ORBITAL PATH IS HALF THE WAVE HEIGHT ABOVE THE TROUGH. IF HOWEVER, WE TOOK THE H/2 LINE AS THE AVERAGE HEIGHT TO CALCULATE THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF DISTURBED WATER, WE WOULD BE INCLUDING THE AREAS OF THE HALF ORBITALS THAT EXTEND BEYOND EACH END OF THE WAVELENGTH, LE. CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF AWAVEFORM = metre* H _ aH? THE HEIGHT Z' OF DATUM ABOVE THE TROUGH = > — [> metre WHERE ‘2’ IS THE WAVELENGTH AND ‘IS WAVE HEIGHT, BOTH ARE MEASURED IN METRES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SEAWAVE LENGTH AND HEIGHT IS NOT SIMPLE. FOR WAVES UP TO 150 METRES LONG, WAVE HEIGHT TYPICALLY APPROXIMATES TO 5% OF THE WAVELENGTH. HOWEVER, THE HEIGHT : LENGTH RATIO GRADUALLY DECREASES AT LONGER WAVELENGTHS WAVE HEIGHT (metres) 7.45 m }q---- HEIGHT = 0.05 x LENGTH *- ~~ HEIGHT = 0.61x [LENGTH i TYPICAL DEEP-WATER WAVE PROFILE 0 149m WAVELENGTH (metres ) DEEP-WATER WAVE EQUATIONS, Y156% mis, & 2 WAVELENGTH IN METRES, & PHASE VELOCITY 1.56T m/s, OR 'C THE WAVE PERIOD IN SECONDS, 1.56T? m WHERE 'T Fy 21.58 he energy in a deep water w The following page shows how we can determine the ener; one wavelength in a metre wide strip of water. of the wave motion that is locked into THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 20The en he THE POTENTIAL ENERGY / m? IS MAXIMUM AT THE == CRESTS WHERE A COLUMN OF WATER IS LIFTED A HEIGHT OF H/4 ABOVE THE STILL WATER LEVEL a= == 4b stut water vever 7 WE CAN ASSUME THAT THE STILL WATER LEVEL IS AT MID HEIGHT BETWEEN THE CREST AND THE TROUGH, PROVIDED THAT THE WAVE HEIGHT IS SMALL COMPARED TO ITS LENGTH (SEE THE PREVIOUS PAGE) ‘THE PRESSURE AT POINTS 'P’ AND 'P1' UNDER THE WAVE CRESTS, IS DUE TO THE POTENTIAL ENERGY GAINED BY THE ORBITING WATER PARTICLES AT THE TOP OF THEIR ORBITALS nix PRESSURE AT POINT 'P* = 9 4 Nim? WHERE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY ‘9’ = 9.81 m/s? & SALTWATER DENSITY 'p' = 1025 kg/m*, THIS PRESSURE IS EQUAL TO THE FORCE/UNIT AREA AT POINT” WHICH IS CREATED BY RAISING A COLUMN OF WATER UP TO FORM THE CREST, AS SHOWN IN THE INSET. THE WORK DONE/UNIT AREA TO RAISE THIS WATER COLUMN IS GIVEN AS THE PRESSURE x THE HEIGHT THAT THE COLUMN'S CENTRE OF GRAVITY HAS BEEN RAISED. LE P.E. = PRESSURE. x H/4 80, P.E./m? OF WAVE SURFACE AREA AT THE CRESTS = pg i x 4 = pg sim? AS WE MOVE ALONG THE WAVE PROFILE, THE POTENTIAL ENERGY /m’, INCREASINGLY CHANGES INTO KINETIC ENERGY / METRE® UNTIL THE WAVE PROFILE INTERSECTS THE STILL WATER LINE, AT WHICH POINT THE CONVERSION REVERSES AS KINETIC ENERGY IS TRANSFORMED FULLY INTO A NEGATIVE POTENTIAL ENERGY AT THE TROUGH. THE AMOUNT OF TOTAL ENERGY/m!, AT ANY POINT ALONG THE WAVE, HOWEVER, REMAINS CONSTANT. SO, AVERAGE ENERGY /m? OF WAVE SURFACE AREA = pg‘ Joules / metre * xaal® & ENERGY INA STRIP 1m WIDE 1 WAVELENGTH = pg“ Joules / metre / wavelength THE ENERGY IN A DEEP WATER WAVE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO ITS WAVELENGTH ‘2° AND THE SQUARE OF ITS HEIGHT 'H" Sea waves rarely appear as isolated distinct crests uniformly marching across the ocean surface, They usually consist of a range of periods and wavelengths that interact with each other, sometimes momentarily reinforcing to form extra large waves that then shrink as the constituent waves move to cancel each other out, The result is an endless changing pattern in which crests seem to diminish and disappear to be re-created somewhere else. SEA PROFILE PRODUCED BY SUPERIMPOSING THREE DIFFERENT WAVELENGTHS as Sc THE PHENOMENON OF WAVES SUPERIMPOSED UPON EACH OTHER IS CALLED INTERFERENCE’ AS THE INDIVIDUAL WAVE SPEEDS ARE DIFFERENT, INTERFERENCE CREATES EVER-CHANGING PATTERNS WITH TEMPORARY AREAS OF RELATIVE CALM OCCURING BETWEEN LARGE CRESTS 21 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSPhase velocity of shallow water waves As waves move into shallower water the particles’ rotational motion become vertically ‘squashed! into ellipses so the particle orbital speeds are no longer uniform throughout the cycle. Instead their speed is maximum when moving horizontally at the crests or the troughs and minimum when moving vertically up or down. Also, the wave height 'H’ becomes the minor axis of the elliptical orbit rather than the diameter of a circular one. The previous equations for deep-water wave celerity must be corrected by & hyperbolic tan function of the water depth to wavelength ratio to account for this change. WAVE VELOCITY AND WATER DEPTH DEEP WATER WAVES WAVES INFLUENCED BY THE SEABED. ‘CIRCULAR PARTICLE ORBITS AT CONSTANT SPEED. | MAXIMUM MINIMUM MAXIMUM MINIMUM MAXIMUM, PARTICLE PARTICLE PARTICLE PARTICLE PARTICLE VELOCITY VELOCITY VELOCITY VELOCITY VELOCITY PHASE SPEED m WAVELENGTH WAVE LENGTH "7 WHERE 'T' IS THE WAVE PERIOD IN SECONDS | WHERE 'T IS THE WAVE PERIOD IN SECONDS 1 & D'IS THE DEPTH OF WATER IN METRES ‘THE HYPERBOLIC TANGENT FUNCTION THE TANH FUNCTION EXPRESSES THE ECCENTRICITY OF THE ELLIPTICAL ORBIT, WHICH VARIES FROM 't' FOR A CIRCLE TO '0' FOR A HORIZONTAL STRAIGHT LINE. A GRAPH OF TANH'X’ AGAINST "x" RADIANS SHOWS HOW THE CORRECTION FACTOR TANH 22D /2, CHANGES WITH A REDUCING WATER DEPTH: WAVELENGTH RATIO Sinhx . e7=6" panas0/2 Coshx e*~+e* Tanhx — Tanhx = iF DEPTH'D' > 0.42. 2xD 5 251 THEN & Tank 22D. r: 0 OIA 022A 03% 0.42 0.5% DEPTH" ° 00510 20 30 40 xRADIANS EE RIGHT HANO CURVE SHOWS THAT THE BOTTOM HAS NO SIGNIFICANT EFFECT UPON WAVE VELOCITY WHEN THE WATER DEPTH IS GREATER THAN 40% OF THE WAVELENGTH THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 22Phase velocity of shallow water waves (cont The previous page showed that the seabed starts to slow down and shorten a wave by surpressing the vertical motion of the water particles when the water depth is less than about 40% of the wave length. The nature of the ‘tanh’ function is such that tanh 2xD / 2, approximates to 2xD / A when the water depth is reduced to only 4% of the wavelength. At this point wave speed is determined by water depth alone and the water particle motion is transformed from following a circular orbit to a simple back and forth horizontal oscillation. WAVE MOTION AND VELOCITY IN VERY SHALLOW WATER m/s BUT IF D> 0.04 3,THEN TANH 22D/A = 22D/2 m/s HENCE | PHASE SPEED'C’ = [gD m/s As waves enter more shallow water they slow down towards a common phase speed determined by the water depth. The gradual reduction in wave speed also causes the wave motion to be refracted towards the normal, i.e. a line perpendicular to the seabed contours, so waves become visible as single identifiable crests moving parallel to the shore just before they come up onto a shelving beach. Refraction can also focus wave energy as waves pass over a shoal back into deeper water. This will produce local areas of both intensified wave height and relatively calm water on the lee side of a shoal. They depend upon the shape of the shoal itself and can present a danger to small craft ‘THE EFFECT OF REFRACTION ON WAVES ENCOUNTERING SHELVING DEPTHS a NORMAL DEEEP WATER ss Vi> V2 SHALLOW < Ve WATER : = ne Cee SNELL'S LAW OF REFRACTION STATES THAT = BEACH, —— = DEPTH COUNTOURS Wi okie © sine sme: — = WAVE CRESTS, —+ = WAVE DIRECTION sq AVE PERIOD ‘T REMAINS CONSTANT REFRACTION EFFECT OF A SHOAL THE SUBMERGED SHOAL ACTS AS A LENS AND SO FOCUSES WAVE ENERGY INTO A REGION TO LEEWARD OF THE SHOAL. THIS LOCAL AREA OF INTENSIFIED WAVES AND HEIGHTENED SEAS WILL BE BORDERED BY AREAS OF UNUSUALLY CALM WATER FOR THE PREVAILING WEATHER CONDITIONS. QD) = Focus oF wave ENERGY 23 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERS,Phase velocity of shallow water waves (cont. The previous page explains some of the observable features of onshore waves approaching a beach but not why waves form curling breakers. As a wave moves into ever decreasing depths, the wave height becomes greater than the still water depth so the top of the crest is in significantly deeper water than the trough, which consequently is slowed down more than the crest. We can show how this effects the wave velocity by again applying the ‘superimposed flow’ method to the situation, as shown below APPLYING THE ‘SUPE! SED FLOW" METHOD TO WAVES IN VERY SHALLOW WATER CONSTANT FLOW OF ’-C’ m/s IS SUPERIMPOSED ONTO A WAVE WITH VELOCITY OF °C’ m/s ATTROUGH ~ AT CREST ‘ie ecu) . CU oH ope ENERGY/kg _ ENERGY/ kg H 2cu SO WAVE HEIGHT "H'= = WATER IS NOT ACCUMULATING IN ANY ONE PLACE AND WATER IS NOT COMPRESSIBLE SO THE VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE IS CONSTANT THROUGH ANY CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF THE ‘SUCE OF WAVE SHOWN OPPOSITE THIS IS THE ‘CONTINUITY CONDITION’ ‘SO, AT ANY CROSS-SECTION. VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE = CDy cubic metres / seconds At. S ATTHE TROUGHS 4 4. CDy = (C-U)(D+ >)y CDy = (C+U)(D-Z)y CH UH cH =cp-up+ >. co = co+un- CH H zune) WAVES SLOW DOWN AND SHORTEN AS THEY MOVE INTO SHALLOWER WATER AND THE CRESTS PROGRESSIVELY OVERTAKE THE PRECEDING TROUGHS BY INITIALLY BECOMING STEEPER ON THEIR LEADING FACES BEFORE CURLING OVER AND BREAKING IN VERY ‘SHALLOW WATER WAVES ALSO INCREASE IN HEIGHT AS THEY SLOW DOWN BECAUSE ENERGY IS BEING FED INTO THE WAVE FROM DEEPER WATER FASTER THAN IT IS PROGRESSING FORWARDS THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE, 24‘The effects of sl low water and currents on waves As waves slow down, energy is fed into the water's motion from offshore faster than it is progressing forward so the waves also grow in height as they come into very shallow water, either over a shoal or shelving beach. When waves break and wash up on a beach the water returns to the sea as an undertow that flows back out to sea beneath further oncoming waves. ‘Shallow water’ relates to the length of the waves. Earthquakes under or by the sea create tsunami waves with very long periods in the order of 1000 seconds and wavelengths of several hundred kilometres that move very fast (typically 250 m /s) as shallow water waves across deep oceans. Tsunamis steepen and grow dramatically in height as they slow down in very shallow water just prior to breaking so they can cause devastating damage to a coast when they reach the shoreline Currents can also slow down wave progress and there are many headlands around the British coast with submerged shallow rocky ledges lying close off shore where the tides frequently run strongly in the opposite direction to the wind. If the waves were actually brought to a stand still by the tidal current, then the wind would be continually pumping energy into stationary waves, which would consequently grow to an infinite height. This doesn’t happen because, as the previous page showed, the ‘waves become unstable and break when there is a significant difference between the depths of water beneath a crest and a trough. Nevertheless these shoals all have a reputation of producing short rough seas of steep near stationary waves when the tide is running strongly against the wind. UNDERTOW ON A SHELVING BEACH WAVES MOVING OVER A SHOAL AGAINST A TIDE ==> (wINo OVER TDF) Currents in deep water also alter the wave speed, which has focusing effect similar to waves passing over a shoal and can produce exceptionally large steep waves in certain conditions. 300 metre long SW waves generated by gales in the Southem Ocean frequently meet with the Agulhas current that runs SW down the edge of the continental shelf of SE coast of Africa. The current focuses the waves, which are also starting to slow down, shorten and steepen as they cross the 100-metre depth contour, to create occasional very steep waves of up to 30 metres in height that are preceded by deep troughs. Westbound ships sailing in not exceptionally rough weather have been severely damaged or sunk by encountering such a ‘hole’ as the following ‘monster’ wave then breaks over the ship's bow. I saw the 12,000 GRT cargo liner ‘Ben Cruachan' very distinctly bent after being hit by such a wave and towed. into Durban for major repairs in 1973. Other ships have not been so lucky and several disappearances of vessels in this region over the years have probably been due to such extreme waves. WAVE FOCUSING AT THE EDGE OF THE SOUTH EAST AFRICAN CONTINENTAL SHELF WIND & SEAS ==> sa <— THE AGULHAS CURRENT FOCUSES LONG WAVES FROM THE SOUTHWEST INTO A NARROW BAND RUNNING ALONG THE EDGE OF THE CONTINENTAL SHELF WHERE CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE OCCASIONALLY FORMS VERY LARGE WAVES. A SHIP RUNNING INTO A DEEP TROUGH IN THE FOCUS REGION IS UNLIKELY TO RIDE OVER THE FOLLOWING EXCEPTIONALLY LARGE STEEP WAVE CREST 25 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERS,‘THE FORMATION OF AND MAKE UP OF REAL SEA CONDITIONS The theories for the generation of waves can be quite complex but the following explanation gives an idea of the main mechanisms of the process. When wind blows across the sea surface above a certain minimal speed, a turbulent airflow creates a similar turbulence on the sea surface as energy transfers from the wind to the water particles. Initially, the resulting sea waves are quite small but they increase the roughness of the surface and this, in turn, increases the turbulence in the airflow. As the waves develop more, the airflow is alternatively compressed and expanded as it profiles the waveform and, by Bernoulli's principle, low pressure develops over the crests and high pressure over the troughs. The wave build up is enhanced in both time and distance that the waves travel as each wave is enhanced by the presence of neighbouring waves but the growth rate gradually slows down as the energies of the wind and the wave motions become more balanced. A steady state, known as a ‘fully developed sea’ is reached when the wave speed is about 90% of the wind speed, providing that the wind has been blown over sufficient distance, which is known as the ‘fetch’. The Bernoulli effect produces a greater water particle speed on the crests than the trough so orbital path is not quite a closed circle, A small overall ‘water movement, known as ‘Stokes or wave surface drift, occurs in the direction of the wave travel GENERATING WIND WAVES. INITIAL WAVE FORMATION WAVE INCREASES WITH TIME AND FETCH o % wT a eT AS THE AIRFLOW IS DRAGGED ACROSS THE AGITATED SEA SURFACE, MORE ENERGY IS PUT INTO THE ROTATING EDDIES PERSIST ON THE LEE SIDE OF THE WAVE WATER PARTICLES AND SO THEIR SPEED CRESTS BUT THE BERNOULLI EFFECT NOW. AND ORBITING RADIUS INCREASES CONTRIBUTES TO THE BUILD UP OF THE WAVES the past 200 years, the sea conditions for different wind speeds in open water have been described by Admiral Beaufort’s scale, which is readily understandable, particularly when backed up by the sea state photographs found on the bridge of almost every ship. Optimising a ship's design to withstand the worst conditions likely to be encountered, however, requires sea states to be mathematically defined. Data on wave height and period has been collected and analysed over the years from around the world, though a record of wave heights produced by any particular set of conditions will be very variable. A general measure of the sea's roughness can though be given by average height of the highest one third of the waves recorded over a particular time period, which is known as the ‘significant wave height’. There is no simple relationship, however, between wind speed and wave height, as this depends on the strength and duration of the wind as well as the fetch. (I was on a small ship once very close inshore to 50 metre high cliffs off the Scottish NE coast and sheltering from a NW'ly storm. Wind was blowing offshore over the cliffs at speeds in excess of 60 knots and the water's surface was almost white with spindrift but the waves were only about a metre in height as the fetch was less than half a mile.) Usually the wind will have increased and varied its direction during the build up of a sea, which will consequently be a mixture of all the wave periods and directions that have been generated during its development. (The variation in wave direction can often be seen the most clearly in the radar picture.) Wave data has been used to develop statistical models of ‘wave energy spectrums' for particular significant wave heights, which shows how the energy is distributed over the range of wave periods. The '‘Bretschneider’ model is used for open ocean conditions whilst the 'JONSWAP” model, based on the European North Sea, applies to confined continental shelf waters. The JONSWAP spectrum is narrower than the Bretschneider spectrum for the same significant wave height, as wave energy in confined seas is more concentrated around the predominant wave period and gives shorter and steeper predominant waves than in the open ocean, THE NAUTICAL INSTITUT 26‘The formation of and make up of a real sea (cont. AWAVE ENERGY SPECTRUM IN A SINGLE DIRECTION RANGE OF CONSTITUENT A PARTICULAR SEA STATE CAN BE DEFINED BY ITS WAVE PERIODS. WAVE ENERGY SPECTRUM AS SHOWN BELOW PEAK OR MODAL PERIOD ‘TP’ 0 WAVE ENERGY 0 WAVE PERIOD ‘Tw’ seconds = = wave FREQUENCY cycles /sec = f WAVES ARE OFTEN DESCRIBED BY THEIR 2x iw FREQUENCY RATHER THAN THEIR PERIOD WHERE ‘w' = THE WAVE FREQUENCY radians /s THE SPREAD OF WAVE ENERGY IN THE DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS WAVES GENERALLY HAVE A PREDOMINANT OR ‘PRIMARY’ DIRECTION BUT WAVE MOTION AND ENERGY MOVE IN DIRECTIONS EITHER SIDE OF THE PRIMARY DIRECTION. THE SPECTRUM OF WAVE PERIODS IS TAKEN TO BE CONSTANT IN ALL DIRECTIONS BUT THE ENERGY DIMINISHES AS THE DIRECTION DEVIATES FURTHER FROM THE PRIMARY DIRECTION, AS SHOWN BELOW. WAVE ENERGY PRIMARY 60° DIRECTION +30° +60 -60° -30° 0 +30° +60° WAVE DIRECTIONS VARIATION IN WAVE SPECTRA FOR A GIVEN SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT WAVES WILL DEVELOP OVER A GIVEN TIME TO A CERTAIN HEIGHT AND PERIOD, DEPENDING ON THE FETCH, WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION. THE WAVE SPECTRUM IN CONFINED SEAS IS MORE CONCENTRATED TO GIVE SHORTER STEEPER PREDOMINANT WAVES THAN IN OPEN OCEAN. » ‘Te > | _ = JONSWAP SPECTRUM 8 ‘OF CONFINED SEAS D | __ _ BRETSCHNEIDER SPECTRUM a OF THE OPEN OCEAN & | 4m = SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT 3 | | | ° Y > ° 2 4 6 8 100 12”—~=«WA WAVE PERIOD seconds 27 ‘SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSSIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT PREDICTION CURVES BASED UPON THE JOINT NORTH SEA WAVE PROJECT (JONSWAP 1969) FROM ‘PREDICTION OF WAVE HEIGHT AND PERIOD FOR A CONSTANT WIND VELOCITY USING THE JONSWAP’ RESULTS, D. CARTER, OCEAN ENEGY, VOLUME 9, No.1 1982 (THE SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGTHT IS THE AVERAGE HEIGHT OF THE LARGEST 33% OF WAVES RECORDED OVER A PERIOD OF TIME) WIND SPEED Th_WIND DURATION 2 hr ah hr Oh 12h _15hr 2th sans ITN ] IXIN oes, ve 25mis (60 knots) 20mis (40 knots) 15mis (80 knots) 10 m/s (20 knots) mis (10 knots) | 4g 2 3 4 5 6 78910 20 30 40 80 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 600 600 FETCH IN KILOMETRES. ‘STEADY STATE CONDITIONS ENTER WITH WIND SPEED ON THE LEFT-HAND SIDE AND MOVE ACROSS UNTIL LIMITING FETCH OR DURATION CURVE (EITHER FETCH_OR DURATION WILL LIMIT WAVE GROWTH) IS REACHED, THEN MOVE DOWN THE APPROPRIATE FETCH OR DURATION LINE TO INTERSESECT THE WAVE HEIGHT CURVE 28 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEPEAK WAVE PERIOD PREDICTION CURVES BASED UPON THE JOINT NORTH SEA WAVE PROJECT (JONSWAP 1969) FROM ‘PREDICTION OF WAVE HEIGHT AND PERIOD FOR A CONSTANT WIND VELOCITY USING THE ‘JONSWAP" RESULTS, D. CARTER, OCEAN ENEGY, VOLUME 9, No.1 1962 (THE SIGNIFICANT WAVE PERIOD IS THE AVERAGE PERIOD OF THE LONGEST 33% OF WAVES RECORDED OVER A PERIOD OF TIME) wind SPEED: “Thr_WIND DURATION _2 hr oh t2hr Wh 320mis (60 knots) WAVE WAVE PERIOD LENGTH 10mis (20 knots) Smis (10 knots) 5 6 7 8910 20 FETCH IN KILOMETRES. ENTER WITH WIND SPEED ON THE LEFT HAND SIDE AND MOVE ACROSS UNTIL LIMITING FETCH OR DURATION CURVE (EITHER FETCH_OR DURATION WILL LIMIT WAVE GROWTH) IS REACHED, THEN MOVE DOWN THE APPROPRIATE FETCH OR DURATION LINE TO INTERSESECT THE WAVE PERIOD CURVE SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERS 29WAVE PROPAGATION Ifa disturbance is created on the water surface, either on a large scale by as storm or on smaller scale by a pebble being thrown into a pond, then a whole spectrum of wavelengths is produced. The previous pages have shown that, in deep water, wave celerity, or phase speed, increases with the square root of the wavelength so we would expect longer waves to spread out, or propagate’ faster from the deep water disturbance than the shorter waves. This does indeed happen but any particular wavelength appears to advance at only half the speed of its phase velocity. Furthermore, if we watch the ripples radiating out from a pond after disturbing it, we will see longer wavelengths ahead of the spread but individual wave crests cannot be continually tracked. They seem to appear from nowhere, grow as they move outwards and shrink and disappear. We are, of course, watching an interference pattern where the faster waves are overtaking and interacting with the slower ones, resulting in waves of similar lengths moving outwards in small packets of typically six to eight crests at a time. The resulting waves develop at the back of the group, pass through the group at the phase velocity to be destroyed at the front of the group whilst new crests are created at the rear. The wave energy spreads outwards at the velocity of the packet or group and this is known as its ‘group velocity, Ua. WAVE GROUPS AND GROUP VELOCITY NG = WAVES, AG = WAVE2, N = RESULTANT WAVE, —p C = PHASE VELOCITY WAVES 180° WAVES: WAVES 180° OUT OF PHASE IN PHASE OUT OF PHASE ——— WAVE GROUP ——_—,, ATT =0, THE ORANGE WAVE HAS JUST FORMED AS A CREST AT POINT 'P'IN/A GROUP IN WHICH THE LONGER WAVE 1 HAS A HIGHER PHASE VELOCITY THAN THE SHORTER WAVE 2. AT T= 1, THE ORANGE WAVE HAS MOVED FORWARD A WAVELENGTH BUT BECOME A TROUGH AS THE ENVELOPE HAS ADVANCED LESS AND SO IS MOVING BACKWARD, RELATIVE TO THE WAVES. ' ' i ‘THE GROUP ENVELOPE MOVES BACKWARD AT THE VELOCITY 'Ve", RELATIVE TO THE INDIVIDUAL WAVES ‘THE GROUP VELOCITY ‘UG’ FOR WAVES OF LENGTI WHERE Ve = THE GROUP'S BACKWARD VELOCITY, RELATIVE TO THE INDIVIDUAL WAVES THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 30Wave group vi ity Group velocity can be initially a little tricky to visualise as the wave pattern changes in both time and space. The reader, however, can reproduce the effect shown on the previous page by carefully drawing two regular wave profiles of slightly different lengths (the actual shape is not important, the waves can be triangular), either on a computer or tracing paper. The interference pattern will become apparent as soon as the two waves are superimposed upon each other. If the longer wave is then moved slightly ahead of the shorter one, the ‘nodes (i.e. the positions where the two waves cancel each other out) will move in the opposite direction by a considerably greater amount. ‘An equation for this backward speed of the oncoming node, relative to the individual waves, can be determined by resorting to our mathematical trick of ‘freezing’ the pattern by superimposing a flow equal and opposite to the slower wave speed 'C'. Of course, the pattern will not be completely ‘frozen’ as the longer wave is still moving but at the very much reduced velocity of 'C2""C1'. Any movement of the interference pattern will now be solely due to the difference in the two wave speeds. We also can assume that the wavelengths and phase speeds of the two separate waves and the resulting combined wave are essentially the same except that there is this small difference that creates the pattem of nodes and anti-nodes. Although this may seem to be a bit of a ‘cheat’ or contradiction, it is actually quite reasonable in a regular sea as the dispersive nature of deep water waves sorts out the Wave spectrum so that almost identical wavelengths travel together in the same group. SUPERIMPOSING A REVERSE FLOW ONTO TWO NEAR IDENTICAL WAVES A FLOW VELOCITY, EQUAL BUT OPPOSITE TO THE SLOWER WAVE SPEED IS SUPERIMPOSED ON THE INTERFERENCE PATTERN. THE FASTER WAVE MOVES AT THE WAVE VELOCITY DIFFERENCE ‘\y = WAVELENGTH 21 WITH PHASE VELOCITY C1, P1 = FIRSTNODAL POINT \G = WAVELENGTH 22 WITH PHASE VELOCITY C2, P2 SECOND NODAL POINT THE WAVELENGTHS OF Wr, W2 & THE RESULTANT WAVE ALL APPROXIMATELY = SO, THE NUMBER OF RESULTANT WAVELENGTHS 'N' BETWEEN ‘Pt’ & 'P2" AND THE LENGTH 'P1P2' OF THE WAVE GROUP = Nx’, SO 'P1P2" NOW THE GROUP ENVELOPE IS, ITSELF, A WAVEFORM THAT IS MOVING TO THE LEFT WITH A FREQUENCY THAT MUST BE EQUAL TO THE APPARENT FREQUENCY OF THE LONGER WAVE 2, AS THIS IS THE ONLY CYCLIC FREQUENCY IN THE PATTERN WITH THE SUPERIMPOSED FLOW c2-C1 ® 2(C2-C1) (2-7a) THE RATE OF CHANGE OF PHASE VELOCITY WITH WAVELENGTH SO, FREQUENCY OF ‘ENVELOPE* = NOW THE SPEED ‘Ve’ OF THE ENVELOPE = LENGTH 'PiP2'x FREQUENCY = (C2-C) _ dc G2-2i) ~ ah AND THE GROUP VELOCITY ‘Us! WHEN THE PATTERN IS ‘UNFROZEN’ C-Ve WHERE ac dh SO FOR WAVELENGTH ‘).' AND PHASE VELOCITY GROUP VELOCITY 31 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERS.Wave group velocity (cont. We can now apply the equation for the interference envelope to the wave equation for deep and very shallow water waves to determine the group velocity in these situations. GRAVITY GROUP dc FOR WAVES OF LENGTH "2', THE GROUP VELOCITY "Uc'= C - > nD AND, IN DEEP WATER, ‘THE PHASE VELOCITY x ‘SO, IN DEEP WATER, HENCE, IN DEEP WATER, oh IN DEEP WATER, ‘THE GROUP VELOCITY "Uc" = fe. WHERE 'C’ = PHASE VELOCITY DEEP WATER PHASE VELOCITY AT ANY GIVEN WAVELENGTH a wo ° D+ WAVELENGTH IN SHALLOW WATER, THE GROUP VELOCITY ‘Uc’ = ¢ 4s. & = zeRO IN WAVE PHASE p WATER WAVE VELOCITIES ")) = WAVELENGTH As waves spread out from a disturbance in deep water, they will invariably form groups through interference between almost identical waves travelling at almost identical speeds, which seem to ‘trip over each other’. The resulting waves form a train in which they initially appear at the back of the train, grow in size then progressively diminish to disappear when they reach the head of the train. This pattern has given rise to such mariners’ sayings as each ‘seventh wave’ in heavy seas is the largest but it might be every tenth or every third wave that is the largest, depending upon the range of wavelengths present at the time, As water depth is reduced and phase velocities for different wavelengths converge and the group velocity for a particular wavelength approaches the decreasing phase velocity. In very shallow water the group velocity equals the phase velocity and is only dependent upon depth of water. THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 32Wave group velocity (cont.) A common way of explaining group velocity is that only the horizontal components of the water particles’ motion actually propagate energy. Energy in the vertical motion is locked in place, raising and lowering the water level. Deep water waves can only spread out from their source at their group velocities unless they are being continuously ‘fed! with energy. A moving source, such as a ship is, however, constantly reinforcing the particular wavelength that has a phase velocity matching the course and speed of the ship and so the wave continually travels along with the vessel. As water depth decreases, relative to the wavelength, energy is progressively dissipated through seabed friction and the water particles’ orbital motion becomes horizontally elongated so the group velocity approaches the phase velocity The groups of very similar length waves tend to be somewhat obscured in a rough sea where the wave spectrum of locally generated wind waves creates a lot of interaction between waves of the different lengths travelling in a variety of directions. The resulting confused sea consists of three dimensional humps, or ‘short crested’, waves, rather than the two dimensional ridges or "long crested" waves that characterise a long swell when seen in relatively calm conditions. Swell waves are well sorted into groups of very similar lengths and direction by the time they reach a ship after travelling from a distant storm, so the group behaviour is well defined. They may be moving in a completely different direction to locally generated wind waves, which they seem to pass through without any real alteration. The oblique wave velocity Phase and group velocities are measured in a direction perpendicular to the wave crests. However, if we observe waves striking a long jetty at an oblique angle (i.e. less than 90°), then the waves appear to move along the jetty at a speed that is faster than their propagation veloci THE WAVE VELOCITY AT AN OBLIQUE ANGLE TO THE WAVE CREST WAVES STRIKE THE JETTY ATO v IN THE WAVE PERIOD 'T’ A WAVE TRAVELS A DISTANCE OF '2/ Sin ff ALONG THE JETTY FROM ‘Ar’ TO''B' WHILST THE WAVE ENERGY PROPAGATING AT VELOCITY 'V' ONLY ADVANCES A SINGLE WAVELENGTH 2, FROM ‘A’ TO '8' SO: d v OBLIQUE WAVELENGTH AND VELOCITY ALONG THE JETTY = 5 & gq RESPECTIVELY ‘THE OBLIQUE VELOCITY OF A WAVE IS ALWAYS GREATER THAN THE PROPAGATION VELOCITY If'we are watching the waves pass obliquely down a moving ship's side then their apparent velocity is combination of the ship's own speed and the waves’ oblique velocity. The apparent wave period will be either shortened in head seas or lengthened in following seas but the effective wavelength along the length of the ship, however, is increased in both situations, which significantly effects its response A supersonic aircraft provides a good example of waves (albeit compression or sound waves) moving at an oblique speed that is very much greater than their propagation velocity. As the plane passes through the sound barrier, it creates wave fronts that spread outwards at the speed of sound from their source points along the plane's track. However, these form a conical shock wave that trails along obliquely at the faster speed of the aircraft. The supersonic airliner ‘Concorde’ typically travelled at nearly twice the speed of sound and it dragged its sonic boom behind it at the same speed. 33 SHIP DYNAMICS FOR MARINERSThe oblique wave velocity (cont, THE SHOCK WAVE PRODUCED BY A SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT ‘THE AIRCRAFT IS FLYING LEVEL AT 680 m/s (TWICE THE SPEED OF SOUND OR 'MACH 2) aie" 8 ag —__ X= SOURCE OF SOUND WAVEFRONT <€{ = WAVEFRONT SPREADING OUT AT 340 m/s <} = SHOCK WAVE MOVING OBLIQUELY AT 680 m/s A LOW FLYING SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT TRAILS THE CONICAL SHOCK WAVE BEHIND IT AND THE "SONIC BOOM IS HEARD AS THE CONE INTERSECTION WITH THE GROUND PASSES AN OBSERVER. [|] = CONICAL SHOCK WAVE SURFACE 680 mis qq 680 m/s The supersonic aircraft shock wave is a usefull phenonomen to understand as it is often compared to the similar wave pattern created by a ship moving through the water at any speed. The ship's deep- water wave pattern, however, differs to that of the supersonic aircraft, as it consists of waves propagating at a range of different speeds. This produces a more complex pattern, which is considered in detail in the wave making resistance section of the next chapter THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 34