# Equations

~ SHM:
a=(-W^2)x
Maximum accelaration=(-W^2)A
Maximum velocity=(W)A
* For someone starting a stop watch with a pendulum at maximum displacement:
x=Acos(Wt)
* For someone releasing a pendulum but starting a stopwatch as the pendulum swin
gs through the midpoint:
x=Asin(Wt)
* SHM Oscillators:
T=(2pi)sqrt(m/k)
T=(2pi)sqrt(l/g)
~ Cirular motion [F=1/T]
* Angular velocity:
W=2pi/T
W=2piF
W=theta/t
W=v/r
* Centralpetal accelaration:
a=v^2/r
a=(W^2)r
* Centralpetal force:
F=mv^2/r
F=m(W^2)r
~ Waves
---Interference depends on path difference
* Constructive interference occurs when path difference = nlamda [where n is an
integer]
* Destructive inteference occurs when path difference = (n+1/2)lamda
Phase difference=2pi(path)/lamda
* Wave equation: v=Flamda
*intensity: I=P/(4PIr^2)
-I=NHF
-P=NE
* Diffraction
Sin(theta)=lamda/d
* Fringe spacing:
X=Dlamda/d
X-Fringe spacing
lamda-wavelength
d-spacing between slits
D-distance from slits to screen
(Value of D for laser = 1-10m) (d-slit difference 0.1-1mm)
Double-slit interference pattern is modified by the single slit interference pat
tern
It has to to travel a greater distance at the sides, the amplitude decreases and
theres less energy
* De broglies wavelength
lamda = h/p
p-momentum=mv

~ Doppler shift equations

v=hd
deltalamda/lamda = v/c
deltaF/F = v/c
# Base units
~Giga 10^9
~Mega 10^6
~Kilo 10^3
~Milli 10^-3
~Micro 10^-6
~Nano 10^-9
~Pica 10^-12
~Femto 10^-15
# Definitions:
~Coherent: Constant phase difference
~Superimpose: place on top of; "can you superimpose the two images?"
~Electron volt(eV): The kinetic energy acquired by an electron accelerated from
rest through a potential difference of one volt.
~Diffraction: '1' The bending of light around objects, such as cloud and fog dro
plets, producing fringes of light and dark or colored bands.
'2' The bending of light or another form of electromagnetic radiation as it pass
es through a tiny hole or around a sharp edge.
~Interference: Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting
in a new wave pattern. As most commonly used, the term usually refers to the int
erference of waves which are correlated or coherent with each other, either beca
use they come from the same source or have the same frequency.
~Superposition: The priciple of super position says that when two or more waves
cross, the resultant displacement equals the vector sum of the individual displa
cements.
~Wavefront: Line/surface joining points in phase
~Work function: minimum energy required to move an electron from the surface of
a metal
~Natrual frequency: the frequency of the free or inforced oscillations
~Resonance: when vibration is forced or driven at the natrual frequency. The amp
litudes of oscillations becomes large/violent.
end is a maxima amplitude/large energy transfer.
~Plane polarised: Plane polarised is when oscillations are in one plane or direc
tion only. [ONLY TRANSVERSE WAVES CAN BE POLARISED]
~Longitudanal wave: When oscillations are along or parallel the direction of tra
vel/propagtion/energy transfer
~Transverse wave: A wave in which the vibration is moving in a direction perpend
icular as that in which the wave is traveling.
~Intensity: Power per unit area

~Red shift: '1' The lengthening (or "stretching") of light waves coming from a s
ource moving away from us.
'2' the apparent shift in a spectrum of light coming from a star or distant gala
xy to the red end. Red shifts indicate that an object is moving away.
'3' When an object, such as a galaxy, is going away from you, the light it puts
out appears to become longer in wavelength
that is, shifted towards the red (lon
g) end of the spectrum. The faster the object is travelling away, the greater de
gree of redshift.
~Freefall: The only force acting is weight, R=0, no force exerted by surrounding
s, apparant weightlessness.
~Simple harmonic motion: When the accelaration is directly proportional to the d
isplacement from the equilibrium position and is directed towards the equilibriu
m position.
~Amplitude: The distance from the undisplaced position[middle] to the point of m
aximum displacement
~Wave-particle duality: When a wave/particle has properties of a particle/wave.
A neutron is a particle in the nucleus, it has a mass and momentum and can colli
de.
{}->mv
Neutrons can also diffract/interfere, a wave like property.
~Photoelectric effect: '1' Experiment concerning the detection of electrons from
a metal surface, whose speed off the surface was dependent on the frequency of
light striking the surface.
The theoretical explanation rests on viewing light as made up of photons, or ind
ividual bullets of energy.
'2' Shine UV photons onto a metal surface and electrons will escape. They may al
so escape with lower energy photons but there is a threshhold frequency, which b
elow they cant escape.
one electron can only take one whole photon
'3' It is often thought of as the ejection of electrons from the surface of a me
tal plate when visible light falls on it. It can also occur if the radiation is
in the wavelength range of ultraviolet radiation, X rays, or gamma rays.
~Stopping potential: '1' Voltage required to stop the outward movement of electr
ons emitted by photoelectric or thermionic action.
'2' Photons liberate photoelectroncs which cross the gap. Increase voltage until
they stop, cross the gap at I=0.
~Fate of the universe:
The amount of curvature depends on the average density of the universe p[o]
The density required for the universe to be flat is called the critical density
p[c].
* Open universe: expands forever. The density of the universe is smaller than th
e critical density. p[o]<p[c]
* closed universe: The density of the universe is greater than the critical dens
ity, which is 6 atoms per meter cubed.p[o]>p[c]
* Flat univesere: The density of the universe is equal to the critical density.
p[o]=p[c]
~The doppler effect: '1' Relationship between wavelength and speed where shiftin
g of wavelength occurs when the movement of an object is away or towards an obse
rver.
'2' The change in the observed frequency of an acoustic or electromagnetic wave
due to relative motion of the source and the receiver.
'3' change in the apparent frequency of a wave as observer and source move towar

d or away from each other.

# Experiments:
~Demonstrate stationary waves using microwaves: As the microwave probe/detector
is moved perpendicular to metal plate. Maxima and minima (corresponding to nodes
) are detected. [microwave transmitter, microwave detector, metal plate]
~Microwaves are plane polarised: Move the wire grid every 90 degrees, and there
will be a minimum detection at the rotation. [Microwave probe, wire grid and dio
de.]
# Explain:
~Why there is an accelaration in circular motion when the speed is constant: The
re is a result force acting and the direction of the speed is change,
hence the velocity is changing. A change of velocity means there must be an acce
laration. The accelartion is called the central petal accelaration and acts towa
rd the centre of the circle.
~Why only transverse waves can be polarised: Transverse waves have vibrations pe
rpendicular to the direction of travel, so vibrations can be in different plans,
but polarisation restricts it to one plane.
~Movement causing wave pattern: The x displaces and releases the string causing
a progressive wave on the string.
This wave reflects at the end and the incident and reflected wave superpose to m
ake a stationary wave.
~Conditions for interference pattern: Simular amplitudes, intensities. Same freq
uency, wavelength. Constant phase difference, coherent.
~In phase/constructive interference -> maximum/antinote
Cancel out/out of phase/destructive interference->minumum node
~How stationary waves are different from progressive waves:
A progessive wave is one whose profile moves through space, wheras a stationary
wave has a static profile. The waves on vibrating strings and in the vibrating a
ir columns of musical instruments are stationary waves.
* There is no flow of energy along a stationary wave, although stationary waves
often radiate energy
* within each loop of a stationary wave, all particles vibrate in phase and exac
tly out of phase (pi radians phase difference) wih the particles in adjacent loo
ps.
* the amplitude of vibration varies with position in the loop
* there are nodes, where the displacement is always zero and antinodes which vib
rate with maximum amplitude.
~Spectra [Continous, Line emission, Line absorbtion]
Continous:
* From hot bodies e.g tungsten
* All visible wavelengths and infrared
* Dependant on temperate e.g red hot contains all colours up to red and white co
ntains all colours up to violet.
Line emission:
* From heated [or electrically excited] gases
* Colours related to element (when excited electrons arrive back) to ground stat
e.
Line absorption:
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* When cold gases absorb different colours
* All visible wavelengths and infrared but also black lines in place of absorbed
colours.
Hot->White light-continous->Cold gas->Diffraction grating->Line absorbtion spect
rum..
~Photoelectric effect-theories [particle and wave]
Particle theory:
* One photon releases one electron, giving it KE
* INCREASE frequency -> GREATER KE electrons
* LOWER frequency..finally KE=0, no electrons released
* More intense light give more electrons, but no change in max KE
Wave theory:
* More intense light should give greater KE {BUT DOESNT}
* Wave is continous, when enough are absorbed, electrons should be released {BUT
THIS DOES NOT HAPPEN BELOW THRESHHOLD FREQUENCY}
# EM Spectra:Wavelength
{Penetration:uses:effect}
~Radio: 10^-1 - 10^6
Pass through matter:Radio transmissions:No effect
~Microwave: 10^-3 - 10^-1
Mostly pass through matter, but cause some heating:Radar, cookery, tv tram: Abso
rbed by water, danger of cooking human body
~Infrared: 7x10^-7 - 10^-3
Mostly absorbed by matter, causing it to heat up: Night vision, Tv remote: Heati
ng, excess heat can harm the bodys systems.
~Visible: 4x10^-7 - 7x10^-7
Absorbed by matter, causing some heating: Human sight: Too bright can damage eye
s
~Ultraviolet: 10^-9 - 4x10^-7
Absorbed by matter, slight ionisation: Sunbeds, security markings: Can cause ski
n cancer and eye damage
~X-ray: 10^-13 - 10^-9
Mostly pass through matter, but cause ionisation as they pass: Medical/dental di
agnosis, kill cancer cells: Can cause cancer due to cell damage.
~Gamma ray: 10^-16 - 10^-10
Mostly pass through matter, but cause ionisation as they pass: Kill cancer cells
, Sterilisation of medical instruments: Can cause cancer due to cell damage