Experiential Learning

through Travel:
A Review of Theory &
Practical Considerations
EDUC 5001G Principles of Learning

Marc Longo
100529427

During a new learning experience, there are various ways through which learners can
gain new knowledge. The choice made by the learner for example, to learn linguistically
would depend on the preferences or learning styles unique to that individual (Kolb, Boyatzis, &
Mainemelis, 2001). Kolb and Kolb (2005) identified a number of factors which contribute to the
variety of learning styles that exist: the personality type of the learner, the educational or career
path that has been taken, and even the specific tasks that are common to the learner in their
everyday life. It is therefore quite difficult for learning theories to generalize about how we learn.
In creating the Experiential Learning Theory, David Kolb tried to outline a holistic
method based on principals that include the nature of learning as a process (not just an outcome),
analysis of prior learning and cognitive dissonance as stepping stones to creating new
knowledge, and the importance of interactions with the environment in the learning process
(Kolb & Kolb, 2005). Hoover and Whitehead suggest that experiential learning occurs when a
personally responsible participant cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally processes
knowledge, skills, and/or attitudes in a learning situation characterized by a high level of active
involvement, (as cited in Gentry, 1990, p. 10). Experiential learning values the prior knowledge
and experience of learners, and it better aligns with future work activities than do many current
standardized assessment tasks (Healey & Jenkins, 2000); students get a feel for the messiness
and ambiguity associated with real-world situations (Gentry, 1990, p. 14).
There are four stages to Kolbs Experiential Learning Theory, with learners required to
employ different abilities at each stage (Healey & Jenkins, 2000; Miettinen, 2000). In Concrete
Experience, learners are completing hands-on tasks, often working in a kinesthetic or
interpersonal way. Following this comes Reflective Observation, where learners think back to
the experiences that they recently completed and compare the results of their activity with prior
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knowledge. In Abstract Conceptualization, the goal is to acquire or contemplate a model that

relates to the situation. Finally, during Active Experimentation, learners prepare for action by
planning how the model will be tested in the Concrete Experience stage. Although in theory,
learners would flow through the four stages in that order, they may actually start the process at
any stage, and will likely move back and forth between stages many times throughout their
learning process (Healey & Jenkins, 2000). To ensure that proper connections are made between
the different stages, it is important that teachers guide the learning process initially (Healey &
Jenkins, 2000). Table 1 illustrates some examples of different activities that teachers can assign
to encourage learning during each stage.
Adoption of the experiential learning process into an educators practice is not meant to
come at the expense of current teaching style preferences, but rather existing practices can be
modified or extended to ensure the goals of the four stages are met (Healey & Jenkins, 2000). It
is such an effective learning process because each stage offers the students opportunities for
feedback as well as further questions that can be explored in other areas of the cycle. Miettinen
(2000) criticizes Kolbs process, stating that learners will be influenced in their observations and
reflections by their prior knowledge and cultural biases, and therefore unable to make accurate
generalizations. For this reason, teachers are required to provide feedback and guide the
reflection process so that experiences can properly be put into perspective (Gentry, 1990).
Feedback about the process of learning is also claimed to be more valuable to students in the
long run than is feedback about the specific task outcomes. It is also beneficial for the experience
to be powerful enough that learners recognize it is outside the scope of their prior learning.

The inclusion of an international component creates an enhanced version of experiential

learning which challenges the participants identity, understanding of their home culture, and
their outlook on the global job market (Elmore, 2006, p. 118).

Historical examples of international experiential learning include wealthy European

(typically British) men who travelled through Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries in an
educational rite of passage known as the Grand Tour (Falk, 2012; Stone & Petrick, 2013). As the
industrial revolution led to a larger middle class in Western society, the popularity of leisure
travel grew. However, these trips consisted largely of passive experiences with a strong
hedonistic focus, as they were primarily an escape from work (Falk, 2012, p. 910). It wasnt
until late in the 20th century that increased disposable income, free time, and a shift in the
population (an aging population seeking more informal learning opportunities) created a higher
demand for travel experiences that were intellectually stimulating (Conceio & Skibba, 2008;
Falk, 2012). Advancements in communications technology have also contributed to an increased
awareness and interest in foreign cultures (Falk, 2012).
There is a lot of potential to learn experientially through travel; this learning is at times
deliberate and premeditated, while on other occasions it may be an incidental or even
unintentional outcome of the travel experience (Falk, 2012 p. 916). When formal curriculum is
tied to travel, there is specific knowledge acquisition that has been planned by the teachers in
charge. At other times, learning occurs more passively, as participants take part in experiences
which, besides being educational, are intrinsically rewarding and enjoyable. Falk (2012) believes
that the combination of education and entertainment in travel experiences work synergistically
together to create meaningful learning.

In all cases, learners cultivate a number of important skills, including problem solving,
communication, time and resource management, adaptability, increased self-confidence and
independence, and foreign language abilities (Pearce & Foster, 2007). Young students have even
been described as less materialistic upon returning from international travel (Pearce & Foster,
2007). In surveys of travellers, effective communication was the skill most frequently mentioned
as having improved through travel experiences, but Scarinci and Pearce (2012) claim that
confidence and adaptability to new groups of people improve in greater amounts. Table 2 shows
some skills that are gained through both active and passive learning in travel.
The development of such skills is important, but extremely difficult to measure. Often,
progress through travel experiences is judged through self-evaluation or the comments of others,
rather than through analysis of trained professionals. General academic performance has also
been shown to be above average in students who travel, but this is also tough to prove, as those
who are able to travel more often may also have other advantages that facilitate their scholarly
achievement (Stone & Petrick, 2013).

[T]eaching is more than simply giving students information; it is about inspiring student
interest in a subject (Krakowka, 2012, p. 236).

Motivation is critical to success within experiential learning, as students must constantly

take an active role in their learning. Arcodia and Dickson (2013) found it easier to motivate and
satisfy students who had not previously completed a similar travel experience. A destination that
participants considered interesting was also recognized as a contributor to building motivation.
Individual inspiration for the travel experience has been shown to factor into the resulting skill
development. In a study by Pearce and Foster (2007), when backpackers were divided into four
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groups by their travel motivations, there were consistent differences in the learning outcomes; for
example, high thrill seeking younger males were seen to develop fewer generic skills while less
socially oriented older females reported the highest generic skills acquisitions revolving around
independence, self-evaluation and resource management (p. 1296).
There seems to be some debate in the literature over how individuals actually gain new
knowledge when learning experientially through travel. Multiple theorists point to an inner
journey that takes place, in which learners are confronted with challenges that disrupt their
existing perspective on a number of issues (Boyle, Nackerud, & Kilpatrick, 1999; Morgan,
2010). These challenges act as what Mezirow calls disorienting dilemmas, and are said to
trigger critical reflection and cognitive dissonance in a process that somewhat mirrors Kolbs
Experiential Learning Theory (Morgan, 2010). The ideal outcome is that this process stimulates
the reformulation or even recreation of new and more adequate frames of reference, leading to
transformational learning for students (Morgan, 2010, p. 251). Although these challenges do
occur naturally in life, educational activities act as deliberate interventions, with the aim to
induce learning in this way (Morgan, 2010, p. 251).
Conceio and Skibba (2008) outlined an alternative explanation that knowledge is
created during travel through social interactions. When learners take part in an authentic
experience, they are given the opportunity to recognize what knowledge is significant to that
situation, as well as to the members of the local community. Educational travel experiences have
also been credited with producing episodic memories, which help learners build knowledge
because such memories act as emotional triggers to aid the future recall of information
(Weeden, Woolley, & Lester, 2011, p. 350).

Although the travel experiences themselves hold great educational potential, learning is
greatly influenced by what happens both before and after these experiences transpire. Effective
pre-trip orientations help to prevent misconceptions that could bias participant interpretations of
their experiences, and post-experience reflection has been suggested by many as imperative for
learning (Conceio & Skibba, 2008; Elmore, 2006; Falk, 2012; Pearce & Foster, 2007). In
studies of learning through wildlife tourism, researchers found that reflective engagement,
which involved both cognitive and affective processing of the experience, was more strongly
associated with learning outcomes than the immediate but fleeting excitement of seeing the
animals, although this excitement was instrumental in eliciting a reflective response (Falk,
2012, p. 919). Reflections can take the form of structured discussions between participants, but it
is also very common for students to be assigned individual journals to record their own thoughts
and experiences throughout the trip. Portable technology and the prevalence of internet cafes
have begun to facilitate online forms of reflection during travel, such as blogs, that can include
(or primarily consist of) photographs and other media. An analysis of student travel journals
validated the impact of these out-of-classroom experiences, with researchers stating that these
journals expressed learning, even if it was not commonly thought of as knowledge (Stone &
Petrick, 2013, p. 737).

[L]earning cannot be designed, but it is important to design the social infrastructures that
promote learning and engagement (Conceio & Skibba, 2008, p. 27).

Even if teachers and trip organizers cannot assure that learning will transpire, thoughtful
preparation and execution will increase the chances of success. Prior to the trip, appropriate
learning goals and activities must be chosen to meet the needs of learners. Conceio and Skibba
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(2008) suggest that trip leaders include discussions or questionnaires about participant learning
preferences in pre-trip orientations, so that activities can be customized accordingly. While
incorporating aspects of all four stages of the Experiential Learning Theory is advantageous in
that it challenges learners to construct knowledge in different ways, it is also recommended that
learners are given the freedom to spend more time in activities that best suit their preferences.
During the trip, plans should be reviewed and adjusted where necessary, and the learning process
as a whole can also be monitored to sustain a favorable learning environment foster positive
aspects and eliminate those features that are negative (Gentry, 1990, p. 11).
Just as transformative learning can occur at any time (not only during a travel
experience), so to can it be accomplished in any location. Morgan (2010) states that it is of
greater importance that the learners mind be primed for change than that the experiential
learning take place somewhere specific. That being said, some destinations may hold more
potential for learning than others; it is likely that certain kinds of places (and certain types of
activities therein) will be more efficacious than others since they are better able to elicit the
appropriate mind-set (Morgan, 2010, p. 253). There are particular characteristics of a location
that can distance learners from home not only geographically, but mentally. By providing stark
contrasts in areas such as culture, climate, or accommodation to what is considered normal in the
mind of the learner, the environment adds to the feeling of displacement a catalyst for cognitive
dissonance and learning (Morgan, 2010). Conceio and Skibba (2008) encourage authentic
social interactions with local people and the avoidance of tourist traps if purposeful learning is
desired.
Predictably, travel experiences which are longer in length have been found to benefit
students more than shorter ones, but short trips still hold great learning value (Stone & Petrick,
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2013). Of importance, however, is that multiple studies have found that for significant skill
development, numerous trips are required (Scarinci & Pearce, 2012; Stone & Petrick, 2013).
Scarinci and Pearce (2012) state that students with four or more travel experiences displayed
greater learning and growth from those experiences than did others. A relation may exist here
between wealth and perceived skill development, putting those results into question, as other
factors would become relevant.
A number of claims and issues mentioned above require further research and
clarification. It would be very valuable to know more about the connection between travel
experiences and general academic achievement. Also needed is an effective means of measuring
learning and skill development objectively both during and after travel experiences. Interestingly,
in the United Kingdom, pressure has been put on tourism venues to prove their educational value
in order to continue receiving public funding (Falk, 2012). Finally, further research on the
importance on the duration and distance (from home) of educational travel experiences could tell
us more about how to improve future excursions.
The Experiential Learning Theory model of conceptualizing, planning, acting, and
reflecting provides an effective and holistic approach to learning that can benefit all types of
learners. When employed within a travel experience, the effects are magnified, as the challenges
that students face are greater, creating many opportunities for cognitive dissonance and learning.
Through the planning, execution, and feedback given in these excursions, educators have the
power to influence the likelihood of successful learning. Whether the educational goals are
formal or informal, international travel generates great motivation for learning in participants,
and research has identified numerous areas of personal growth that are positively affected by this
type of learning.
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Appendix

Table 1 Practical methods to implement the experiential learning cycle

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Source: Figure 4. Practical methods to implement the experiential learning cycle (based on
Gibbs 1988, 23-63). (Healey & Jenkins, 2000, p. 191). 2000 National Council for
Geographic Education.

Table 2 - Conceptualising How Travel Contributes to Learning

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Source: Table 1. Conceptualising How Travel Contributes to Learning. (Falk, 2012, p. 917).

2011 Elsevier Ltd.

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