7.

Channel Models

Signal Losses due to three Effects:

2. Medium Scale
Fading: due to
shadowing and
obstacles

1. Large Scale
Fading: due to
distance

3. Small Scale
Fading: due to
multipath

Wireless Channel
Frequencies of Interest: in the UHF (.3GHz 3GHz) and SHF (3GHz 30 GHz)
bands;
Several Effects:
Path Loss due to dissipation of energy: it depends on distance only
Shadowing due to obstacles such as buildings, trees, walls. Is caused by
absorption, reflection, scattering
Self-Interference due to Multipath.

10 log 10

Prec
Ptransm

log 10 distance

1.1. Large Scale Fading: Free Space

Path Loss due to Free Space Propagation:
For isotropic antennas:
Transmit
antenna

Receive
antenna

Ptransm
4 d
c
wavelength
F

Prec

Path Loss in dB:

Ptransm
L 10log10
20 log10 ( F ( MHz )) 20log10 ( d ( km)) 32.45
Prec

2. Medium Scale Fading: Losses due to Buildings, Trees,

Hills, Walls

The Power Loss in dB is random:

L p E L p
expected value

random, zero mean

approximately gaussian with

6 12 dB

Average Loss
Free space loss at reference
distance

d
L0
E{L p } 10 log 10
d0

dB

Reference distance

Path loss
exponent

E L p L0

indoor 1-10m
outdoor 10-100m

10

20dB

Values for Exponent

101 100 10

log10 ( d / d 0 )

Free Space 2
Urban

102

2.7-3.5

Indoors (LOS)

1.6-1.8

Indoors(NLOS)

4-6

Empirical Models for Propagation Losses to Environment

Okumura: urban macrocells 1-100km, frequencies 0.15-1.5GHz,

BS antenna 30-100m high;

Hata: similar to Okumura, but simplified
COST 231: Hata model extended by European study to 2GHz

3. Small Scale Fading due to Multipath.

a. Spreading in Time: different paths have different lengths;

Receive

Transmit
x ( t ) ( t t0 )

t0

y (t ) L hk (t t0 k ) ...

t0

time

Example for 100m path difference we have a time delay

100
102
1

3 sec
8
c
3 10

1 2

Typical values channel time spread:

x ( t ) ( t t0 )

t0

channel

Indoor

10 50 n sec

Suburbs
Urban
Hilly

2 10 1 2 sec
1 3 sec
3-10 sec

t0

1 2 MAX

b. Spreading in Frequency: motion causes frequency shift (Doppler)

x(t ) X T e j 2 Fct

Receive

Transmit

y (t ) YR e

j 2 Fc F t

time

v
for each path

Doppler Shift

fc

Fc F

Frequency (Hz)

time

Put everything together

Transmit

x(t )

time

time

Receive

y (t )

channel

x(t )

gT (t )

w(t )
y (t )

h(t )

Re{.}

g R (t )

LPF

LPF

e j 2FC t
Each path has

e j 2FC t
attenuation

shift in time

j 2 ( Fc Fl )( t l )
a
(
t
)
x
(
t

)
e

l
l
l

y (t ) Re

paths

shift in frequency

(this causes small scale time variations)

2.1 Statistical Models of Fading Channels

Several Reflectors:

x (t )
Transmit

y (t )
t

For each path with NO Line Of Sight (NOLOS):

r
v

average time delay

r
v cos( l )
each time delay l

yl (t )

each doppler shift Fl FD

yl (t ) Re

a e
k

j 2 ( Fc Fl )( t l k )

x(t l k )

Some mathematical manipulation

yl (t ) Re

j 2 Fc t
x(t l k ) e

a e e

k

j 2Fl t j 2 ( Fc Fl )( l k )

rl (t )

a e
k

j 2Fl t j 2 ( Fc Fl ) l k

x(t l )

Assume: bandwidth of signal << 1 / k

x (t ) x (t k )

leading to this:

yl (t ) Re rl (t ) e j 2 Fct

rl (t ) cl (t ) x(t l )
with

cl (t ) ak e
k

j 2Fl t j 2 ( Fc Fl ) l k

random, time varying

Statistical Model for the time varying coefficients

M
j 2Fl t j 2 ( Fc Fl ) l k
l
k
k 1
random
By the CLT cl (t ) is gaussian, zero mean, with:

c (t ) a e

E cl (t )cl* (t t ) Pl J 0 (2 FD t )

with

v
v
FD FC
c

the Doppler frequency shift.

Each coefficient cl (t ) is complex, gaussian, WSS with autocorrelation

E cl (t )cl* (t t ) Pl J 0 (2 FD t )
and PSD

2
1

S ( F ) FT J 0 (2 FD t ) FD 1 ( F / FD ) 2
0

with

FD

if | F | FD
otherwise

maximum Doppler frequency.

S (F )

This is called Jakes

spectrum.

FD

Bottom Line. This:

x(t )

y (t )
time

time

v
1
l

time

can be modeled as:

L
x(t )
time

c1 (t )

cl (t )

delays

cN (t )

y (t )
time

For each path

cl (t ) Pl c (t )
time invariant
from power distribution

unit power
time varying (from
autocorrelation)

Parameters for a Multipath Channel (No Line of Sight):

Power Attenuations:

1
P1

Doppler Shift:

FD

Time delays:

2 L

P2 PL

Summary of Channel Model:

y (t ) c (t ) x(t )

cl (t ) Pl c (t )
c (t ) WSS with Jakes PSD

sec
dB
Hz

Non Line of Sight (NOLOS) and Line of Sight (LOS) Fading Channels
1. Rayleigh (No Line of Sight).

E{c (t )} 0

Specified by:
Time delays

T [ 1 , 2 ,..., N ]

Power distribution

P [ P1 , P2 ,..., PN ]

Maximum Doppler

2. Ricean (Line of Sight)

FD

E{c (t )} 0

Same as Rayleigh, plus Ricean Factor

K
K
PTotal
1 K

Power through LOS

PLOS

Power through NOLOS

PNOLOS

1
PTotal
1 K

Simulink Example
M-QAM Modulation

Bernoulli
Binary

Rectangular
QAM

Bernoulli Binary
Generator

Rectangular QAM
Modulator
Baseband

Channel
Transmitter
Attenuation
Gain

Multipath Rayleigh
Fading Channel

-KB-FFT
Spectrum
Scope

Bit Rate

Rayleigh Fading Channel

Parameters

-K-

Receiver
Gain

-K-

Rayleigh
Fading

Set Numerical Values:

Recall the Doppler Frequency:

Easy to show that:

velocity
carrier freq.

FD

v
FC
c

3 108 m / sec

FD Hz v km / h FC GHz

modulation
power

channel

Channel Parameterization

1. Time Spread and Frequency Coherence Bandwidth

2. Flat Fading vs Frequency Selective Fading
3. Doppler Frequency Spread and Time Coherence
4. Slow Fading vs Fast Fading

1. Time Spread and Frequency Coherence Bandwidth

Try a number of experiments transmitting a narrow pulse p (t ) at different random
times

x(t ) p(t ti )

We obtain a number of received pulses

yi (t ) cl (t ) p (t ti l ) ;
l

c (t
l

0
transmitted

c1 (ti 1 )

t t1

c2 (ti 2 )

l ) p (t ti l )

cl (ti l )

t ti

t tN

Take the average received power at time t ti

P1

P2

P E | c (t ) |2

Pl

More realistically:

Received Power
0
10
20

RMS

MEAN

time

This defines the Coherence Bandwidth.

Take a complex exponential signal
the channel is:

x(t )

with frequency

F . The response of

y (t ) c (t )e j 2F ( t MEAN )

If

| F | RMS 1

then

j 2 F ( t MEAN )
y (t ) cl (t ) e
l

i.e. the attenuation is not frequency dependent

Define the Frequency Coherence Bandwidth as

1
Bc
5 RMS

This means that the frequency response of the channel is flat within
the coherence bandwidth:
Channel Flat up to the
Coherence Bandwidth

Bc

Coherence Bandwidth

Flat Fading

Signal Bandwidth

<
>

1
5 RMS

frequency

Just attenuation, no distortion

Frequency Coherence

Frequency Selective
Fading

Distortion!!!

Example: Flat Fading

Channel :

Delays T=[0 10e-6 15e-6] sec

Power P=[0, -3, -8] dB
Symbol Rate Fs=10kHz
Doppler Fd=0.1Hz
Modulation QPSK

Very low Inter Symbol

Interference (ISI)

Spectrum: fairly uniform

Example: Frequency Selective Fading

Channel :

Delays T=[0 10e-6 15e-6] sec

Power P=[0, -3, -8] dB
Symbol Rate Fs=1MHz
Doppler Fd=0.1Hz
Modulation QPSK

Very high ISI

Spectrum with deep

variations

3. Doppler Frequency Spread and Time Coherence

Back to the experiment of sending pulses. Take autocorrelations:

0
transmitted

1
c1 (ti 1 )

t t1

c2 (ti 2 )

cl (ti l )

t ti

R2 (t )
Rl (t )
R1 (t )

t tN

Where:

R (t ) E c (t )c* (t t )

Take the FT of each one:

S (F )

FD
This shows how the multipath characteristics

c (t ) change with time.

It defines the Time Coherence:

TC

9
16 FD

Within the Time Coherence the channel can be considered Time Invariant.

Summary of Time/Frequency spread of the channel

Frequency Spread
Time
Coherence

TC

9
16 FD

S (t , F )

F
FD
t

mean

RMS
Frequency
Coherence

Bc

1
5 RMS

Time Spread

Stanford University Interim (SUI) Channel Models

Extension of Work done at AT&T Wireless and Erceg etal.

Three terrain types:
Category A: Hilly/Moderate to Heavy Tree density;
Category B: Hilly/ Light Tree density or Flat/Moderate to Heavy Tree density
Category C: Flat/Light Tree density

Six different Scenarios (SUI-1 SUI-6).

Found in
IEEE 802.16.3c-01/29r4, Channel Models for Wireless Applications,
http://wirelessman.org/tg3/contrib/802163c-01_29r4.pdf
V. Erceg etal, An Empirical Based Path Loss Model for Wireless
Channels in Suburban Environments, IEEE Selected Areas in
Communications, Vol 17, no 7, July 1999