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Behnam Bahr
College of Engineering, Wichita State University,
Wichita, KS 67260-0035
The aim of the present work is to extend the applicability of Oxleys analysis of machining
to a broader class of materials beyond the carbon steels used by Oxley and co-workers.
The Johnson-Cook material model, history dependent power law material model and the
Mechanical Threshold Stress (MTS) model are used to represent the mechanical properties of the material being machined as a function of strain, strain rate and temperature. A
few changes are introduced into Oxleys analysis to improve the consistency between the
various assumptions. A new approach has been introduced to calculate the pressure
variation along the alpha slip lines in the primary shear zone including the effects of both
the strain gradient and the thermal gradient along the beta lines. This approach also has
the added advantage of ensuring force equilibrium of the primary shear zone in a macroscopic sense. The temperature at the middle of the primary shear zone is calculated by
integrating the plastic work thereby eliminating the unknown constant . Rather than
calculating the shear force from the material properties corresponding to the strain, strain
rate and temperature of the material at the middle of the shear zone, the shear force is
calculated in a consistent manner using the energy dissipated in the primary shear zone.
The thickness of the primary and secondary shear zones, the heat partition at the primary
shear zone, the temperature distribution along the tool-chip interface and the shear plane
angle are all calculated using Oxleys original approach. The only constant used to fine
tune the model is the ratio of the average temperature to the maximum temperature at the
tool-chip interface (). The performance of the model has been studied by comparing its
predictions with experimental data for 1020 and 1045 steels, for aluminum alloys 2024T3, 6061-T6 and 6082-T6, and for copper. It is found that the model accurately reproduces the dependence of the cutting forces and chip thickness as a function of undeformed
chip thickness and cutting speed and accurately estimates the temperature in the primary
and secondary shear zones. DOI: 10.1115/1.1617287
Introduction
Oxleys model of machining was developed based on experimental observations 17 of the material deformation. As shown in
Fig. 1, the deformation in metal cutting is concentrated in two
zonesa primary shear zone centered about AB the nominal
shear plane of length L and a secondary shear zone along the
tool-chip interface. Though the actual shapes of the two zones are
approximately as depicted in Fig. 1, the primary shear zone is
assumed to be parallel-sided and the secondary shear zone is assumed to be of constant thickness, to simplify analysis. The parameter c is used to represent the relative length of the primary
shear zone with respect to the thickness of the primary shear zone
and is the ratio of the thickness of the secondary shear zone to
the chip thickness.
In the primary shear zone the slip line along the direction AB
Fig. 1 is an alpha slip line and in the secondary shear zone the
slip line along the chip face is a beta slip line. Assuming that the
strain at AB is uniform, equal to one half the strain in the primary
shear zone, and further assuming that the temperature and strain
rate are uniform along AB, the shear stress along AB is calculated
for a given c. A parameter is introduced to obtain the temperature of the middle of the shear zone as a fraction of the temperature rise through the primary shear zone. The gradient of shear
stress along the beta slip lines is obtained from constitutive equation 12 assuming the strain rate is a maximum along AB 10
and that the component due to the temperature gradient is negligible. Using the force equilibrium of an element on the free surface of work material close to point A the hydrostatic pressure at
point A, p A , is obtained. Applying force equilibrium along the
shear plane direction and using the gradient of strength perpendicular to the nominal shear plane the normal pressure variation
along AB can be determined. Knowing the pressure and the shear
stress along AB, the resultant force, its direction of action and its
moment about B the tool tip are calculated.
Assuming uniform distribution of the normal stress along the
rake face, the tool-chip contact length is obtained so that the moment of the normal force about the point B equals the moment of
the resultant force along the shear plane. The normal stress n and
the shear stress int on the rake face are obtained from the corresponding forces and the contact length. The normal stress on the
rake face can be obtained in a different manner by assuming that
the alpha slip line in the primary shear zone turns to meet the tool
perpendicular to the rake face. The parameter c is fixed at the
value that causes n calculated by both ways to be the same 11.
Assuming that there is sticking friction at the tool-chip interface, the shear strength of the chip (k chip ) at the average temperature of the tool-chip interface should be equal to int . The maximum temperature at the tool-chip interface is calculated using
equations derived from Boothroyds 18 results. A parameter is
used to obtain the average temperature at the tool-chip interface,
T a v e , from the maximum temperature rise, m . For each assumed shear plane angle, all of these calculations are carried out
to find int , and the highest value of for which int k chi p is
taken to be the shear plane angle 9.
The calculations above are repeated for various values of , the
relative thickness of the secondary shear zone, to obtain the that
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering
(1)
AB n 1C ln
TT r
T m T r
(2)
T AB
TW
C p T
TT r
1
T m T r
dT 1 A AB
1C ln
s
0
B
n1
n1 AB
(3)
T EF
TW
C p T
TT r
1
T m T r
dT 1 A EF
1C ln
s
0
Fig. 2 Temperature variation along the thickness of the primary shear zone predicted by the modified model for Al 2024T3. Cutting conditions: 8, t 1 160 m, V 1.31 ms and b 1
4.7 mm. 0.38, AB 0.63. Average temperature110.7C,
temperature of the middle of the shear zone117.7C and
0.54.
B
n1
n1 EF
(4)
tively. The average shear stress along the shear plane s is calculated as the shear force divided by the shear plane area. In Oxleys
analysis, the shear strength of the material at the strain and temperature of the midpoint of the shear zone is taken to be the shear
stress at the shear plane, from which the shear force is then calculated, without any guarantee that energy balance Eq. 6 will
be satisfied. Figure 3 shows the variation of the shear strength
through the thickness of the primary shear zone for Al 2024-T3.
Because of the competition between the temperature and strain
there is a maximum in the shear strength along the shear zone.
Also, the value of shear strength at the midplane is larger than the
value of s obtained from the above energy balance.
3.4 Calculation of the Hydrostatic Pressure at the Cutting
Edge and the Normal Stress on the Tool-Chip Interface.
From the equilibrium of the free surface near point A the hydrostatic pressure, p A , can be obtained as
EF
T EF C p T dT
w
(5)
(6)
F s wVt 1
s
As
V sL
where V s is the shear velocity and V, t 1 and b 1 are the cutting
velocity, undeformed chip thickness and workpiece width, respec658 Vol. 125, NOVEMBER 2003
p A s 12
(7)
(8)
where k u and k l are the shear strengths at the upper and lower
boundaries of the primary shear zone. k u and k l can be obtained
knowing the temperature, strain and strain rate corresponding to
the upper and lower boundaries of the primary shear zone. Calculating p B from the above equation automatically takes into consideration the effects of the gradient in strain as well as the gradient in temperature along the alpha slip line, the latter being
neglected in Oxleys analysis. The angle between the resultant
force and the direction of the primary shear zone can be obtained
using the known pressure distribution and shear stress along the
shear plane.
tan1 12
c k u k l
4
2s
Fs
cos
cos
(10)
Fs
F
sin
cos
The slip line field equation describing the relation between the
pressure at point B and the normal stress on the tool-chip interface
can be written in terms of s as
n p B 2 s
(11)
b 1 L 2 2p A p B
N
3
(12)
1
N
1 2
k l k u Hb 1 s
2
(13)
Assuming sticking friction over the tool-chip interface, the average value of the strain in the chip material can be considered to
be
int EF
int H
3V c
(14)
m
R Tt 2
0.060.195
c
H
0.5
0.5 log10
R Tt 2
H
(15)
4
(9)
temperature increase at the tool-chip interface ( m ). For a rectangular secondary shear zone, this ratio is expressed as a function
of the relative thickness of the secondary shear zone , chip
thickness (t 2 ), length of contact H and thermal number (R T ) as
T m (C)
A (MPa)
B (MPa)
Al 2024-T3*
Al 6061-T6**
Al 6082-T6***
AISI 1045****
502
582
582
1460
325
293.4
250
553.1
414
121.26
243.6
600.8
0.015
0.002
0.00747
0.0134
0.2
0.23
0.17
0.234
1
1.34
1.31
1
The diameter and the wall thickness for 6061-T6 tubes were 57
mm and 3.3 mm respectively. The inserts used were Kennametal
grade K68 with an edge radius of approximately 10 m as speci660 Vol. 125, NOVEMBER 2003
shear plane angle for cutting 1045 steel with different undeformed
chip thicknesses using different material models. The size effect
can again be seen in Fig. 11a. It can also be seen that the
Johnson-Cook material model predicts the variation of the specific
cutting force more accurately compared to the Oxley material
model and the Maekawa material model, especially for the larger
undeformed chip thicknesses. It can be seen from Fig. 11b that
while all the models tend to underpredict the shear plane angle,
the Johnson-Cook material model leads to predictions closest to
the experimental data. Note that in this case Oxleys original
model predicts specific cutting force and the shear plane angle
better compared to the modified model with different material
models but the difference is of the same order of magnitude as the
variation in the experimental data.
Figure 12 shows predictions of the cutting force and temperature at the tool-chip interface for cutting 1045 steel with different
cutting speeds using different material models. As can be seen in
Fig. 12a, the Johnson-Cook material model predicts the cutting
force most accurately. It can be noted that the cutting force predicted by the Maekawa material model is almost constant for different cutting speeds. Also, Oxleys material model gives good
agreement with experimental data only for low values of cutting
662 Vol. 125, NOVEMBER 2003
speed. Figure 12b shows the effect of cutting speed on the toolchip interface temperature. The temperature was measured experimentally 30 using the tool-work thermocouple technique. The
measured values of temperature are between the maximum temperature and the average temperature at the tool-chip interface.
The experimental data is closer to the average temperature for the
Oxley and Maekawa material models, whereas it is closer to the
maximum temperature for the Johnson-Cook material model for
Transactions of the ASME
5
Fig. 9 Comparison of predicted a Cutting force, b Thrust
force, and c Chip thickness with experimental data for Al
6082-T6 25. Cutting conditions: 8, different cutting speeds
and undeformed chip thicknesses.
Conclusions
Fig. 12 Comparison predicted a Cutting force, and b Temperature of the tool-chip interface using different material models with Oxleys original model 31 and experimental data 30
for 0.45% carbon steel. Cutting conditions: 5, t 1 0.2 mm,
b 1 3 mm and different cutting speeds. Oxleys original model
underpredicts both cutting force and temperature along the
tool-chip interface. The Johnson-Cook and Maekawa material
models perform better in prediction of the cutting force and
temperature respectively.
Though the modified Oxleys model has been shown to successfully predict a wide range of experimental observations for a
range of materials, it is not the case that the model is complete
from a point of view of understanding machining. Questions remain as to the role of energy minimization and the validity of
different assumptions used. A systematic series of studies is currently underway to further refine Oxleys machining theory. This
includes a study of the sensitivity of the model to each of the
assumptions used 35. Another study is aimed at refining the
assumptions based upon results of finite element analysis of machining using the same material and friction models used in the
theory 36. As mentioned by Oxley, better models of the geometry of the secondary shear zone and the normal and frictional
stress distribution at the tool-chip interface will help improve the
accuracy of the analysis and lead to improved understanding of
machining.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Thomas Samuel and Sivakumar Balasubramanian for providing us the results of experiments
conducted as part of their M.S. theses.
Transactions of the ASME
Nomenclature
A yield strength in the Johnson-Cook material model
A s area of the primary shear zone
B strength coefficient in the Johnson-Cook material
model
b 1 width of the workpiece
C strain rate constant in the Johnson-Cook material
model
c ratio of the length to the thickness of the primary
shear zone
C p specific heat of work material
F friction force at the tool-chip interface
F s shear force along the nominal shear plane
H length of contact between tool and chip
k AB shear strength at the middle of the primary shear
zone
k l shear strength at the lower boundary of the primary
shear zone
k u shear strength at the upper boundary of the primary
shear zone
k chip shear strength at the tool-chip interface obtained from
the material model
L length of the shear plane
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering
Appendix
Mechanical Threshold Stress MTS Model. In this material model the flow stress is expressed as a function of a reference stress , the mechanical threshold stress, or flow stress at the
absolute zero temperature. can be resolved into two components
such that a t . The athermal stress a characterizes the
rate independent interactions of dislocations with long-range barriers such as grain boundaries and t characterizes the rate dependent interactions with short-range obstacles. The general form of
the flow stress can be expressed as a s( ,T) t , in which
NOVEMBER 2003, Vol. 125 665
a a 1
kT ln 0 /
g 0 b 3
1/q
1/p
(16)
d
0 1
d
a
s a
tanh 2
tanh 2
(17)
0 239012 ln 0.034
s so
p2/3,
q1,
so
(19)
a 40 MPa,
so 6.21010 sec1 ,
k/b 0.823 MPa/K,
3
(18)
kT/ b 3 A
0 107 sec1 ,
42 GPa,
A 1 0.31,
g 0 1.6
and
so 900 MPa
Using the above values Eqs. 16 and 17 can be solved simultaneously to obtain the flow stress .
Maekawas Material Model for AISI 1045. Maekawa and
co-workers 24 proposed a history dependent material model for
0.45% carbon steel as follows for which the strength is expressed in MPa.
A 2 e aT
1000
M m 1
e aT/N 1
strain path
1000
m 1 /N 1
N1
(20)
where:
A 2 1350e 0.0011T 167e 0.00006 T275
N 1 0.17e 0.001T 0.09e
0.000015 T340 2
(21)
(22)
M 0.036
a0.00014
m 1 0.0024.
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