384 SHOCK WAVES 7-11(e) Summary of the Rules for the Interaction of Oblique Shock Waves An oblique shock wave turns the flow toward the wave. Oblique shock waves from successive corners converge toward each other. An oblique shock wave reflects from a solid boundary as an oblique shock wave, An oblique shock wave reflects from a free pressure boundary as an expansion wave, 5. Oblique shock wave reflections may be cancelled by turning the wall away from the flow direction, 7-12 SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNELS A wind tunnel is an apparatus for producing in a laboratory flow conditions that simulate those of actual flight. Wind tunnels may be classified loosely as subsonic, transonic, and supersonic, depending on the Mach number in the test section, The general features of supersonic wind tunnels are discussed below, with particular attention being devoted to the operation of the diffuser and to the associated starting problem Figure 7.40 illustrates schematically the general arrangement of the components for four different methods for supplying gas, usually air, to a wind tunnel 1. High-pressure gas storage tanks for a blow-down wind tunnel. 2. A compression and diffusion system for a continuous flow wind tunnel. 3. A vacuum tank or a vacuum pump for an atmospheric inlet wind tunnel, 4. A shock tube for a high-pressure, high-enthalpy wind tunnel. ‘The essential features of any wind tunnel area source of gas, a converging-diverging nozzle for providing a supersonic flow, a test section, and an exhaust system, The available time for testing a model in a wind tunnel, called the testing time, depends on the source of the gas and the type of exhaust gas system. In the blow-down wind tunnel (see Fig, 7.40a), the testing time depends on the capacity of the gas storage tanks, whereas in the shock tube driven wind tunnel (see Fig. 7.40d), it is determined by the size of the shock tube. If the exhaust system is a vacuum tank, the testing time is determined by the volume of the exhaust tank. For an atmospheric inlet wind tunnel operated by a vacuum pump (see Fig. 7.40c), the testing time is essentially infinite, but the size of the test section and its flow Mach number depend on the capacity of the vacuum pump. The only practical apparatus for obtaining long testing times in a large wind tunnel is the continuous flow tunnel, illustrated in Fig. 7.40b. The limiting factor for a continuous flow wind tunnel is the power available for driving the compressor. In the case of a supersonic flow tunnel having a large test section, the power required may be several hundred megawatts. The charac- teristics of the nozzle and the diffuser for a continuous flow wind tunnel are diceuses below. 7-12(a)_ Fixed Geometry Supersonic Wind Tunnel Figure 7.414 illustrates schematically the nozzle, diffuser, and test section of an ideal continuous flow supersonic wind tunnel; that is, one in which the flow is isentropic throughout. The operating characteristics of the nozzle are the same as those of the De Laval nozzle discussed in Section 4-7. The test section is essentially a constant area isentropic flow region, and the diffuser is basically a reversed De Laval nozzle, Figure 7.41b illustrates diagrammatically the static pressure distribution between7-12 SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNELS 395 Test section Exhaust aystom Met SS Mt me eitfser, vacuum o-0 tank, oF atmosphere) Nowe fe oy) o Atmospheric Presure @ Exhaust system 1 Nozzle @ Figure 7.40. Several types of wind tunnels. (a) Blow-down wind tunnel. (6) Continuous low wind tunnel (0) Atmosphere inlet wind tunnel (d) Shack tuhe driven wind tunnel Stations 1 and 4. The power required for maintaining steady flow in the tunnel 1s that needed for overcoming the boundary layer effects and any energy losses associated with the model being investigated. Two problems arise, however, that complicate the operation of the above arrange- ‘ment. Because of the energy losses associated with the frictional effects between the throat of the nozzle and the throat of the diffuser, there is a stagnation pressure drop between those two stations. If the Mach number is unity in the throats of the nozzle and the diffuser, then, since the mass flow rate m* is constant, equation 4.137, Table 4.6, yields wit = UP WAN yg _ V*PoAD my VikTy = hp = VoRT, (7.122)396 SHOCK WAVES peep giao poe T Ny 2 3 Dp @ « » Figure 741 ideal supersonic wind tunnel, (a) Geometry. (b) Pressure dist bution where the subscripts N and D denote the conditions at the throats of the nozzle and the diffuser, respectively. For the adiabatic flow of a perfect gas, Ty = Tp, and. », Rand y* are constants. In that case, equation 7.122 yields Ap _ Pk 2 a7 p> (7.123) Equation 7.123 shows that the diffuser throat must be larger than the nozzle throat. If the diffuser throat is too small, a supersonic flow cannot be attained in the nozzle exit section, nor in the test section, because the diffuser throat would be the first cross section of the wind tunnel to choke during the start-up of the tunnel. On the other hand, if the diffuser throat is too large, supersonic flow will persist into the diffuser divergence and a shock wave will form therein. The following more serious problem occurs during the start-up of the wind tunnel The fow initiated by the compressor simuluneously lowers the pressure at the diffuser exit and raises the pressure at the diffuser inlet. The latter flow process is sufficiently slow and may be regarded as being a steady flow throughout the wind tunnel; that is, during start-up the flow in the wind tunnel is quasi-steady. The static pressures at the different stations of the wind tunnel may be referred to the nozzle inlet stagnation pressure Py. Figure 7.42 illustrates schematically the steps occurring in the start-up of a wind tunnel nozzle, Assume that Ap is large enough so that the flow does not choke at the diffuser throat. As the pressure ratio p4/Py is decreased, the nozzle attains the sequence of states described in Section 4~7(c), until the normal shock wave positions itselfat the nozzle exit plane, as illustrated by curve ein Fig. 7.42. ‘When that condition occurs, the drop in the stagnation pressure attains its largest value, because the Mach number of the flow in front of the normal shock wave is7-42 SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNELS 397 igure 7.42. Pressure distributions for several stages during the star-up of a supersonic wind tunnel the test section Mach number Mrq.; the latter is the largest Mach number for the flow in the wind tunnel circ As the pressure ratio p,/Py is decreased further, the shock Wave moves very rapidly through the test section and the diffuser inlet and positions itself in the diffuser vergence at an area that 1s slightly larger than that o the test section. When that occurs, the shock is said to have been “swallowed” by the diffuser. Curve f in Fig. 742 and curve a in Fig. 7.43 illustrate that particular operating condition. The pressure ratio p,/Py may now be increased, by adjusting the compressor pressure ratio, so that the shock wave is moved upstream toward the diffuser throat where the shock strength is a minimum, and the corresponding stagnation pressure drop is likewise a minimum; see curve c in Fig. 7.43. The location of the shock wave is determined by the flow conditions in the portion of the wind tunnel downstream from the diffuser throat. The inlet area ratio of the diffuser A3/Ay is smaller than the nozzle area ratio Ay/Ay, since Ap > Ay. Hence, if Mp > 10 and the normal shock wave positions itself at the diffuser throat, there is a stagnation pressure drop that must be com- pensated for by the compressor. Curve c in Fig. 7.43 illustrates diagrammatically the largest obtainable stagnation pressure recovery for a fixed geometry supersonic diffuser. In practice, the normal shock wave would be positioned slightly downstream from the diffuser throat because of the ever-present small fluctuations in the flow that may cause a shock wave that is located exactly at the throat to move slightly upstream into the diffuser inlet where its position would be unstable. The shock wave would continue moving through the diffuser inlet and locate itself once again in the nozzle divergence. Consequently, the entire procedure for swallowing the chock wave must bo repeated. Example 7.16. Consider a fixed geometry supersonic diffuser operating with air as the working fluid. Neglecting all losses except the stagnation pressure drop for the flow associated with the normal shock wave, calculate the following as a function of398 SHOCK WAVES Figure 7.43 Pressure distributions in a fixed geometry supersonic diffuser as the pressure ratio py/Py is increased the test section Mach number Mra: (a) the ratio of the minimum diffuser throat area to the nozzle throat area, Ap/Ay, (b) the Mach number at the diffuser throat when the shock wave is positioned at that location, and (c) the corresponding stag- nation pressure ratio Pp) Py Solution (a) The ratio Ay/Ay is obtained from equation 7.123, where the value of Py/Py is obtained from Table C.11 (normal shock wave) corresponding to Mra. For example, for Mya = 30, Table C.L1 gives Pp/Py = 0.32834, and Apt Ay 0.32834 — ae which is the minimum area ratio that would permit the shock wave to be swallowed. (b) When the shock wave has been swallowed, the flow in the diffuser inlet is supersonic, the Mach number at the diffuser entrance is the test section Mach number ‘Mreq,and the Mach number at the diffuser throat is supersonic (i, Ap > A*). Thus, Ap _ Ap a f(Mp) where A* = Ay for isentropic flow in the nozzle and test section. From Table C6, for A/A* = 3.0456, Mp = 2.635. (6) The stagnation pressure ratio Pp/Py when the shock wave is located at the diffuser throat is that for a normal shock wave corresponding to Mp. Hence, for Mr, = 30, Mp = 2.635, and from Table C.11 for Mp = 2.635, Pp/Py = 0.44762. Figure 7.44 presents plots of Ap/Ay, Mp, and Pp/Py, for 7 = 1.4, as functions of the test section Mach number M;.. for a fixed geometry supersonic diffuser. Also shown is P,/P,, the stagnation pressure ratio for a normal shock wave at the test7-12 SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNELS 399 10 P Py 18 AD ay 10 Mr Figure 7.44 Variation of the diffuer-to-nozzle throat area ratio Ag/Ay, the diftaser throat Mach number Mfp, the stagnation pressure ratio P,/P,, and the stagnation pressure ratio Pp /Py with the test section Mach number Mya, for y= 140, section Mach number M,,,. The stagnation pressure ratio Pp/Py for a fixed geometry supersonic diffuser is seen to decrease rapidly as the test section Mach number increases. In fact, the ratio Pp/Py is not much larger than the ratio P,/P, for a normal shock wave located in the test section when M ~My. Decause of that severe decrease in stagnation pressure, fixed geometry supersonic diffusers are, in general not employed for large supersonic wind tunnels. 7-12(b) Variable Geometry Supersonic Wind Tunnel The basic features of a fixed geometry continuous flow wind tunnel are discussed in Section 7-12(a), where it is shown that one of the major problems with a fixed geometry system is the large stagnation pressure drop associated with the shock wave in the diffuser. The pressure drop caused by the shock wave may be significantly decreased by employing a variable geometry system. In practice, either the nozzle400 SHOCK WAVES throat area or the diffuser throat area, or both, may be made variable, In the fol- lowing discussion, it is assumed that the nozzle geometry is fixed, but the diffuser throat area is variable. The results are also applicable to the case where the nozzle geometry is variable, because the significant parameter is the ratio of the diffuser throat area to the nozzle throat area Ap/Ay. During start-up, the throat of the variable geometry diffuser is opened to an area larger than that specified by equation 7.123. As the pressure ratio p4/Py is decreased, the sequence of events is identical to those illustrated in Fig, 7.42 for a fixed geometry diffuser. Once the shock wave has been swallowed (curve f in Fig. 7.42), the diffuser throat area is decreased, while simultaneously the pressure ratio p,/Py is increased so that the shock wave is caused to move to the diffuser throat. Decreasing the diffuser throat area Ap increases the diffuser inlet area ratio A,/Ap, causing the Mach number in the diffuser throat to decrease and approach unity as Ap approaches Ay In the limit, the Mach number in the diffuser throat becomes unity. Accordingly, the normal shock wave at the diffuser throat then has vanishing strength, and the entire flow field becomes isentropic. The sequence of events is illustrated in Fig. 7.45. Figure 7.45. Pressure distributions in a variable geometry supersonic diffuser as the pressure ratio pa/Py i increased and the area ratio Ap/A is decreased, The completely isentropic flow described above is, of course, physically unattain- able in a practical wind tunnel because of viscous effects encountered by the flow. The flow in the diffuser is in the direction of an unfavorable pressure gradient ., dp/dx > 0) with respect to the boundary layer, so that the energy loss because of viscous effects may become significant. In addition, if the Mach number at the diffuser throat is unity, any slight disturbance in the flow may cause the sonic point to move temporarily into the diffuser convergence, which is an unstable mode of operation. If that occurs, the diffuser would unstart, a normal shock wave would appear in the nozzle divergence, and the start up procedure would have to be7-18 INLETS FOR AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION ENGINES 401 repeated. For the above reasons, the Mach number in the diffuser throat must be slightly larger than unity, with a corresponding stagnation pressure recovery some- what less than unity. ‘The major conclusion ftom the foregoing discussion is that the diffuser area ratio Ap/Ay is the most significant parameter influencing the start-up phenomena in the wind tunnel. Figure 7.44 presents 4p/Ay, Pp/Py, P,/P,, and Mp as functions of Myo, for gases with y = 1.40. 7-13 INLETS FOR AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION ENGINES* The efficient diffusion (flow compression) of the air entering an air-breathing propul- sion engine is essential to its efficient functioning, irrespective of whether it propels, a vehicle at cither a subsonic or a supersonic speed. For example, the ait entering the combustor of a ramjet engine must be decelerated for combustion reasons to a Mach number not exceeding approximately 0.2. For a turbojet engine to perform satisfactorily, the air supplied to the inlet face of the axial flow compressor should have a Mach number less than approximately 0.4 and a fairly uniform flow pattern. The air flowing through the intake duct of the engine must experience the smallest possible decrease in its stagnation pressure, Furthermore, the flow of the air over the external surfaces of the air intake should not produce a large external drag. For brevity, the intake-diffuser system for an air-breathing propulsion engine is called an inlet. Ifthe velocity of the free-stream air relative to the inlet is supersonic, the diffusion process is complicated by the formation of shock waves. At first blush, flow diffusion appears to be merely the reverse of flow expansion. It is, however, considerably more difficult to achieve an efficient diffusion than an efficient expansion, because in diffusion the fluid flows in the direction of a positive pressure gradient; in a flow expansion the flow is in the direction of a negative pros. sure gradient. The difficulty in obtaining an efficient diffusion arises from the inter- action of the main stream flow with the boundary layer. ‘A flow passage that converts the kinetic energy associated with a subsonic gas flow (M <1) into a static pressure rise is termed a subsonic diffuser, and one for decelerating a supersonic gas flow (M > 1) to approximately the local acoustic speed (M ~ 1) is called a supersonic diffuser. Ifa vehicle is propelled at a supersonic speed by either a ramjet or a turbojet engine, the complete diffusion of the free-stream a is achieved in two steps: (1) a supersonic diffusion to M © 1, and (2) a subsonic diffusion from M ~~ 1 to M <1 Inlets may be classified into two main groups: (1) subsonic inlets, and (2) super- sonic inlets. They may be further subdivided into external-compression inlets in which the flow compression takes place in the free stream, and internal-compression inlets whereitt the flow compression takes plave inside of the inet, 7-13(a)_ Performance C1 ria for inlets There are several different criteria employed for expressing the performance of an inlet. Three of the more common ones are discussed below. The diffusion process is illustrated schematically on the hs plane in Fig. 7.46. The stagnation pressure ratio np, defined as the ratio of the stagnation pressure at the diffuser exit P; to the free-stream stagnation pressure P,, is one of the most important performance criteria for an inlet, because the stagnation pressure of the gases at the nozzle entrance determines the nozzle pressure ratio, and hence the402 SHOCK WAVES of Internal compression Po 3 }—External compression (isentropic) Figure 7.46 Diffusion process plotted on the hs plane. nozzle thrust (see Section 4-10). By definition, P, P, The kinetic energy efficiency nxe is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy V42/2, which would be obtained by expanding the diffused air isentropically from state 2 to the free-stream static pressure p,, to the free-stream kinetic energy V,?/2. Thus, _Vyi2_H-hy KE= V2 Hh, np (7.124) m (7.125) The above definition of nx is analogous to the kinetic energy efficiency for nozzles defined in Section 4~8(b). ‘A third performance criterion is the adiabatic diffuser efficiency np, defined as ig = hy a = hy = Vip ~ Hh, where point 4 is a fictitious state corresponding to an isentropic compression from the free-stream static pressure p, to the actual stagnation pressure P, (7.126) 7-13(b) Subsonic Inlets Alll air-breathing propulsion engines for propelling aircraft at subsonic flight speeds are equipped with subsonic inlets. The velocity of the captured air inducted into such an inlet is subsonic throughout its flow path. In general, the flow compression7-13 INLETS FOR AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION ENGINES 403 of that air involves two steps: (1) an external compression of the free-stream air, from Station 0 to Station 1 in Fig. 7.47, and (2) an internal compression of the air flowing in the duct, from Station 1 to Station 2 in Fig. 7.48. Subsonic inlets may be grouped into two basic types. 1, External-compression subsonic inlets. 2. Internal-compression subsonic inlets. Inter area, ‘capture area A, Vz Internal flow | [<= enw comprenion ° Figure 747, Subsonic external comprestion ik 1 inlet duct ° 1 2 Figure 7.48. Subsonic internal compression inet. Figure 7.47 illustrates schematically a subsonic external-compression inlet; for Simplicity it is assumed (o be of circular cross section. Its general appearance is & constant-area duct with a contoured intake lip. Because the internal flow passage has a constant area, all of the diffusion of the entering air (the internal flow) occurs upstream from the inlet (Station 1). The flow stream tube entering the inlet has the capture area A, far removed from Ay. At Ay, p= Po, and the cross-sectional area of the stream tube increases to A; > A, at the entrance to the inlet. All of the trans- formation of the kinetic energy of the air into static pressure rise takes place external tothe net where chere are no solid suites, Hence, the external difusion Is semtropic (as = 0) Because the capture area A, < A,, some of the flowing air is deflected as it approaches the inlet and is accelerated as it flows over the intake lip; the flow is said404 SHOCK WAVES to “spill over” the inlet. Because of the increased local Mach number resulting from the acceleration of the flow, the “spilled” flow produces an external drag. It is important that the local Mach number in the vicinity of the intake lip be less than unity to avoid forming shock waves with their attendant large external drag. Con- sequently, the type of diffuser illustrated in Fig. 7.47 is unsatisfactory for application in the high-subsonic-speed range. There is no satisfactory analytical procedure for designing a subsonic external- compression diffuser; the current theory is quite similar to the airfoil theory em- ployed in analyzing incompressible flow. ‘Subsonic internal-compression inlets are utilized in all air-breathing engines. The diffusion is accomplished in the duct connecting the intake cross section and the burner in a ramjet engine, and in the duct connecting the intake cross section and the compressor inlet face in a gas-turbine engine Itis shown in Table 44, that for a steady one-dimensional isentropic flow, the flow area change dA/A, the static pressure change dp/p, and the flow Mach number M are related by equation 4.51, which is repeated here for convenience. Thus, dA _1~Mdp A” 9M? p (451) Although equation 4.51, strictly speaking, applies to an isentropic flow (ds = 0), it may be employed for obtaining qualitative information regarding an adiabatic flow (ds > 0). The equation shows that the area ratio A,/A, for a duct that is to diffuse a subsonic flow must exceed unity; that is, the flow streamlines must diverge. Hence, a subsonic internal-compression inlet is a diverging duct, such as that illustrated schematically in Fig. 7.48. Subsonic internal-compression inlets have received extensive study but, because of the lack of an adequate theory, their design is largely empirical. tis apparent that, to prevent the energy losses in an internal-compression diffuser from becoming excessive, the positive pressure gradient dp/dx should be kept small; that is, the area increase in the direction of flow should be gradual. However, if the pressure gradient is to be kept small, then the length of the diffuser for accomplishing a specified reduction in the flow Mach number may become so large that the cor- responding decrease in the stagnation pressure because of wall (skin) friction may be excessive. For a conical internal-compression diffuser, the maximum semiangle of the divergence for preventing flow separation phenomena is between 5 and 7 deg for a substantially incompressible flow (M, < 0.4); it decreases approximately as (1 = M,?) for higher subsonic Mach numbers.'* Because of the restrictions on the available space and weight for the diffuser, it is rarely possible to utilize such small divergence angles. Consequently, the design of a subsonic internal-compression diffuser is usually a compromise between the stagnation pressure recovery and the length available for the dittuser. 7-13(c)_ Normal Shock Wave Supersonic inlets All air-breathing propulsion engines that propel vehicles at supersonic speeds, except the SCRAMJET* engine, require that the air flow leave the inlet with a subsonic velocity. The design of an efficient supersonic inlet is critical, since neither the external nor the internal compression of a supersonic air stream can be accomplished * Acronym for Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, a type of engine that has received study and some technol- vay development It permits operating the gombustion chanuber with a supeisouic velocity17-13 INLETS FOR AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION ENGINES 405 isentropically because of the formation of shock waves. As pointed out in Section 7-4(e), shock waves are inevitably accompanied by an increase in the entropy of the flowing air and, therefore, by energy dissipation. One of the important design prob- lems is to produce a supersonic inlet having a shock wave pattern that will cause only a relatively small increase in the entropy of the diffused air. In addition, the supersonic diffusion should be accomplished with a minimum of external drag. In most cases those two requirements are conflicting, so that a practical design is a ‘compromise between achieving the minimum stagnation pressure loss and the mini- mum external drag. The inlet also must be capable of operating stably over a range of angles of attack and at conditions other than the design point without serious adverse effects on either the stagnation pressure recovery or the external drag. A normal shock wave supersonic inlet is illustrated schematically in Fig. 7.49. ‘The design puint, illustrated in Fig. 7.494, occurs when the normal shock wave is attached to the inlet lip. The stagnation pressure ratio at the design point is that for a normal shock wave at the design Mach number; that pressure ratio is presented in Fig. 7.44 by the curve labeled P,/P,, for y = 1.40. The latter figure shows that for a ow supersonic flight Mach number (below M, = 1.8), the normal shock wave inlet furnishes a subsonic flow to the subsonic internal-compression diffuscr that has a reasonable stagnation pressure ratio. The subsonic flow leaving the normal shock wave is further compressed in flowing through the subsonic internal-compression diffuser. Obiique shock wave Lounge suck eves Norma Ma> 1 t > Ao | aoe 1 Oe Figure 7.49. Operating characteristics ofa normal shock wave supersonic inlet. (a) Design condition. (b) Effect of increasing the back pressure. (c) Effect of “decreasing the back pressure406 SHOCK WAVES If the engine requires a smaller mass rate of air flow than the design value, the excess air must be spilled-over the lip (leading edges) of the diffuser. To accomplish the spillover of the air, the normal shock wave detaches from the diffuser lip, as illustrated in Fig. 7.49b, and a bow shock wave forms upstream to the inlet, The spillage of the air over the lip of the inlet increases the external drag. ‘We may assume that the portion of the bow shock wave immediately in front of the inlet is a normal shock wave. Hence, the flow properties in front of and behind the bow shock wave may be computed by means of the equations for a normal shock wave [see Section 7—4(a) and Table C.11] If the back pressure in the outlet section of the diffuser is decreased. the normal shock wave is swallowed; that is, the shock wave locates itself inside the diffuser, as illustrated in Fig. 7.49c. Oblique shock waves form inside the inlet, and the stagna- tion pressure ratio of the inlet decreases, ‘The normal shock wave supersonic inlet gives reasonable performance at flight Mach numbers less than approximately 1.80. At values of M, larger than 1.80, the stagnation pressure recovery of the normal shock wave inlet decreases rapidly. 7-13(d) The Converging-Diverging Supersonic Inlet It would be natural to expect that reversing the flow of air through a converging- diverging nozzle, a device for obtaining large supersonic exhaust velocities with high efficiency (see Section 4-7), would achieve an efficient supersonic internal compres- sion of the reversed supersonic air flow. Such an arrangement is illustrated sche- ‘matically in Fig. 7.50, Unfortunately, it is practically impossible to achieve shockless diffusion with such a device because of the adverse interactions between the main = == oe +e @ L——~_ igure 7.50 Effect of increasing the free-stream Mach number on the low conditions for a converging- diverging diffuser.7-13 INLETS FOR AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION ENGINES 407 stream flow and the boundary layer as a consequence of the positive pressure gradient (see Section 5-10). Furthermore, the presence of shock waves in the converging-diverging passage causes a large increase in the entropy of the air so that the main stream flow is no longer isentropic. Even if it were possible to design a converging-diverging flow passage to achieve a substantially isentropic diffusion at the design point, its poor off-design operating characteristics would make it im- practical.'® A fixed geometry converging-diverging passage can give a substantially isentropic diffusion, because of its fixed contraction ratio, at only one operating point, the design point. Moreover, the starting of such a diffuser, as explained in Section 7-12, presents a critical problem. The starting problem for a supersonic inlet is quite similar to that for the super- sonic wind tunnel discussed in Section 7-12. The sequence of conditions attained during start-up is illustrated schematically in Fig. 7.50, for a fixed geometry converging-diverging diffuser. At low subsonic flight speeds, the entire flow is sub- sonic, as illustrated in Fig. 7.50a. The capture area, denoted by A,, depends on the mass flow rate requirements of the engine, and may be greater than, equal to, or less than the inlet area A. As M, is increased, or the engine mass flow rate increases, the operating condition illustrated in Fig. 7.50b prevails, where M, ~ 1 and M, ~ 1. The streamline pattern ahead of the inlet is no longer influenced by the conditions downstream of the diffuser throat, but depends only on M, and the inlet area ratio A,/A,. When the flight Mach number M, reaches unity, the capture area 4, equals the throat area A, , as illustrated in Fig. 7.50c. Considerable drag because of spillage of air over the lips of the inlet may occur if A,/4, is very large. Further increases in the flight Mach number to supersonic values cause a bow shock wave to form upstream of the inlet, as illustrated in Fig. 7.50d. Both spillage drag and shock drag are present, When the fight Mach number reaches a suficiently high value, a normal shock wave is located at the inlet entrance, as illustrated in Fig, 7.50e. A slight increase in M, causes the normal shock wave to enter the inlet convergence, a position that is unstable, so that the shock wave procedes through the inlet throat and positions itself in the inlet divergence, as illustrated in Fig. 7.50f. At that point, the inlet is started. As in the start-up of the supersonic wind tunnel diffuser, discussed in Section 7-12, the inlet back pressure may be increased, thereby causing the shock wave to move toward the diffuser throat, where its strength de- creases. The maximum stagnation pressure recovery is attained when the normal shock wave is located exactly at the throat; a location where the shock position is unstable. The design point is, therefore, chosen so that the normal shock wave will locate itself slightly downstream from the throat, as illustrated in Fig. 7.50g. Should the back pressure be increased sufficiently, the shock wave will be disgorged from the diffuser, and it will be necessary to repeat the start-up procedure. As in the case of the fixed geometry wind tunnel diffuser discussed in Section 7-12(b), the Mach number at the diffuser throat, in Fig. 7.50/, is supersonic. Instead of increasing the back pressure to drive the shock wave toward the throat, the flight Mach number M, may be decreased, thus decreasing the Mach number at the diffuser throat. When M, is lowered to the value corresponding to isentropic choked flow in the diffuser inlet, which is that given in Table C.6 for the area ratio 4 /4,, the Mach number in the throat of the inlet is M, — 1.0. If the back pressure is adjusted properly, the inlet divergence is subsonic throughout, and the entire flow through the diffuser is isentropic, as illustrated in Fig, 7.50h. The last-mentioned method for starting the inlet is known as overspeeding. The diffuser inlet area ratio 4,/A, corresponding to a normal shock wave attached to the inlet entrance plane for a given value of the free-stream Mach number M,,408 SHOCK WAVES as illustrated in Fig. 7.50e, may be obtained by first determining the subsonic Mach number immediately downstream of the normal shock wave, from Table C.L1, and then determining, from Table C., the isentropic area ratio required for accelerating that subsonic flow to M = 1. Figure 7.51 presents that area ratio 4,/A, as. function of M,, for 7 = 1.40, for the operating condition where the normal shock wave is attached to the inlet lip. Operation at any point in the region below the curve cor- responds to a situation where the shock wave is detached in front of the inlet. Operation at any point in the region above the curve corresponds to a condition where the shock wave is swallowed. For example, Fig. 7.51 shows that for an area ratio A,/A1 = 0.70, the shock wave becomes attached at a flight Mach number of M, = 32. 1 sm wt 09) id is swallowed st von wis 7 es <= | : | cmt ssn gm _ 7 aS 7 Moy t a: — J r 2 3 4 Free-stream Mach number Ma Figure 7.51 Difaserinles area ratio 4,/4, for attaching a normal shock wave to the difuser entrance plane, Figure 7.52 presents 4,/A, as a function of M,, for 7 = 1.40, for isentropic flow throughout the diffuser and a throat Mach number M, = 1.0; the values are taken from Table C6. A point located in the region below that curve corresponds to an inlet throat area that is too small for passing all of the captured flow at that particular flight Mach number: a normal shock wave would propagate from the diffuser throat through the inlet and position itself upstream from the inlet entrance, thus unstarting the inlet. For any operating point above the curve in Fig. 7.52, the flow in the inlet convergence would be supersonic up to and including the throat. A normal shock wave would position itself somewhere in the inlet divergence, the location depending on the back pressure presented by the remainder of the engine7-13 INLETS FOR AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION ENGINES 409 10 asion of spersnic os) ‘ervope flow mit entrance wit My > 10 oe a7 € 08 = yo 140 £ os Bnet trout wes tov 0.4; small to pass all of the captured ie ly, ot 02 ° v 2 2 + Free-stream Mach number Mo Figure 72 Diffuser inlet area ratio A,/4, for isentropic supersonic flow in Ue inlet convergence annl My = 1.0, ‘The curve presented in Fig. 7.52 applies only after the inlet is started. Consequently, an operating point on or above the curve presented in Fig. 7.51 must first be obtained before Fig. 7.52 is applicable. The two curves of Figs. 7.51 and 7.52 are presented together in Fig. 7.53 to illustrate the overall operating features of the converging- diverging supersonic inlet. Refer to Fig. 7.53 and consider an inlet having a fixed area ratio A,/A, = 0.70. During start-up, only the upper curve in Fig. 7.53 is physically meaningful. The horizontal line ab traces the operation of the inlet as M, is increased. At point b the shock wave is swallowed, and the lower curve becomes physically meaningful. Ifthe ight Mach number M, is decreased, the operating point moves from b toward c. In the region between b and c, the shock wave is swallowed and is located in the inlet divergence. At point c, the shock wave is located at the inlet throat where M, = 1.0, and dhe shock suength i Fig. 7.50h, If M, is decreased further, the shock wave is disgorged. Thus, there is a hysteresis effect, in that the shock wave is swallowed at a flight Mach number cor- responding to point b, but the shock wave is not disgorged until the flight Mach number corresponds to point c. At point ¢ in Fig, M, = 1.80. Consequently, a fixed geometry inlet having A,/Ay, = 0.7, designed for shock free operation at M, = 18, would have to be over- speeded to M, = 3.2 to start the inlet. To do that, a propulsion system would be required that is capable of propelling the vehicle to M, = 3.2 with an unstarted inlet, a totally unrealistic situation. Overspeeding for starting the subject type of inlet is, therefore, practical only for very low supersonic design Mach numbers. In fact, the ly suiall, that point corespuuds ty410 SHOCK WAVES 19) oe ‘kiess flow | i on] — Ae yep-Sreet ve ate oa swallowed | on f 7 a Baton Porat = 08 —\\ "4 € os|— \ internal shock wave |_| g \ é 04 | —Fiom is apron ‘irouhout | Deached hack wave formed upsream 4 Feee-steam Mach number, My Figure 783. Area ratio for detached, attached, and swallowed normal shock waves ae function ofthe lreestream Mach number for the converging-diverging diffser upper curve in Fig, 7.53 approaches the asymptotic limit of 4,/4, ~ 0.60. From the lower curve, at A,/A, = 0.60, M, = 2.0. Consequently, for a design flight Mach number of 2.0, the inlet would have to be overspeeded to a Mach number of infinity to start it, indicating that for design Mach numbers above 2.0, the subject type of inlet is impossible. A procedure for eliminating the overspeeding problem is to employ a variable geometry inlet. Consider an inlet designed to operate at M, = 3.2. If the area ratio A(/A, Of the variable geometry inlet is adjusted so that its value is equal to that at point b in Fig, 7.53, the inlet will start at M, = 3.2. A strong shock wave will, how- ever, position itself in the inlet divergence. If the area of the variable throat is then reduced, the operating point for the inlet will move vertically downward from point b toward point d. When 4,/4, = 0.2 approximately, the inlet operates at point d, and the entite flow though the inlet is isentuupic. Alternately, if the aica satiy Ay/c4, is adjusted initially to a value larger than that corresponding to point b in Fig. 7.53, for example, point e, the inlet starts at a lower Mach number. As the flight speed is increased, the area of the variable throat is reduced simultaneously, so that the ‘operating path of the inlet follows a path such as curve ed in Fig. 7.53. It is apparent that starting a variable geometry inlet is a straightforward procedure. The major drawback to the practical application ofa variable geometry converging- diverging passage as an axisymmetric inlet is its mechanical complexity. For a two- dimensional planar inlet, the mechanical design can be accomplished, and such inlets have been constructed. For applications requiring an axisymmetric inlet, which are quite common, the conical shock wave or spike inlet discussed in Section 7-13(e) has proven to be quite successful