The basics of

robotic motion
Robotic motions rely on electrical, pneumatic
or hydraulic power, and digital controllers.

here are all types of industrial robots, and most can be broken down into a handful
of basic components. One of the most basic are the drives and the controls. The
drive provides power and can be electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic, while the
controller determines how that power is used to move arms and actuators which
carry effectors or tools to the workpiece.
Lets step through the basics, taking a look first at
controllers.

Controllers
Controller coordinates all the movements of the
robots mechanical actuators. They also receive input
from the immediate environment through various
sensors. Machine vision, for example, gives robots
eyes to see objects, patterns, and whether an object
is properly orientated for the next step in assembly.
These days, controllers all contain a digital microprocessor linked to inputs and outputs, including
monitoring devices.
Commands issued by controllers activate motioncontrol devices consisting of various sub-controllers,
amplifiers, and actuators. Actuator are motors or
valves that converts power into movement of the
robot. Movements are initiated by a series of instructions or program stored in the controllers memory.
Controllers usually have three levels of hierarchical control. In a hierarchical-control scheme, levels
of organization are assigned to various sub-controllers. Each level sends control signals to the level below while getting feedback and instructions from the
level above. Levels become more elemental as they
moves toward the actuator.
T h e c om m on t h re e c ont rol l e ve l s are :
Level I: Actuator Control: Heres where separate
movements of the robot along various planes, such
as the X, Y, and Z axes, are generated.

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Level II: Path Control: At this level, separate

movements along the planes (determined in Level I)
are combined into desired trajectories or paths.
Level III: Main Control: At this level, written
instructions from a human programmer defining
the tasks required are interpreted and reconstructed
so that Level II controllers can understand them.
In other words, the instructions are combined with
various sensory signals and translated into the more
elementary instructions that Level II can understand
and carry out.
Robots can be further classified in a number of
ways, depending on their size, tasks, industry, and
use. For engineers and designers, robots are usually broken down into three classifications: types of
control, types of drives, and the shape of the work
envelope.

Type of control
Robots traditionally use one of two control systems: non-servo and servo. The earliest robots were
non-servo, which are considered non-intelligent
robots. Servo robots, however, are classified as either
intelligent or highly intelligent, with the main difference between intelligent and highly intelligent robots being the level of awareness its sensors give it.
Non-Servo robots, the simplest robots, are often
referred to as limited sequence, pick-and-place,
or fixed-stop robots. They operate in open-loop
systems where there is no feedback that lets the ro-

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january 2012

A six-axis articulated-arm
robot from Epson uses a series
of electric drives to move
the various joints and
give the robot its
dexterity.

bot compare programmed (desired)

positions to actual
positions.
A good example
of an open-loop system is the operating
cycle of a car-wash machine. At the beginning of the operation, the car is hooked
up to a chain that moves the car through a
tunnel of hoses, cleaning brushes, and soap
spreaders. The machine stops when the car
pops out the other end of the tunnel. Such a
car wash is considered an open-loop system
for two reasons:
Neither cars or anything else is ever examined by sensors during the washing cycle
to see if they are clean. In other words, there is
no feedback.
And cycle length is preset. It is not adjusted to compensate for the amount of dirt
remaining on the car or exactly how large a
car is going through the washer. The cycle and
all it attributes are predetermined.
Non-servo robots have limited number of
movements, usually established by a mechanical stop. These types of robots do well at repetitive tasks, such as material transfer.
In general, non-servo robots are:
Relatively inexpensive compared to servo robots.
Simple to understand,
program, operate, and
maintain.
Precise and reliable.
Capable of fairly high
speeds of operation.
Limited to relatively
simple programs.
Servo Robots use feedback so they are considered closed-loop devices.
In closed-loop devices,
feedback sent to the
servo amplifier affects the output.
Servo amps transA SCARA (selective compliant
late signals from
articulated robot arm), such as this
controllers into
electrically-driven one from Epson,
motor voltages and
uses a parallel-axis joint layout,
making it slightly compliant in the X-Y
current signals.
direction but rigid in the Z direction.
Servo amplifiAnd the articlated arm lets it extend
ers
in motioninto confined areas or retract or fold
control application
up out of the way. This can be an
for robots provide
advantage when moving parts from
place to place and for loading or
precise control of
unloading in enclosed areas.
position or veloc-

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ity. In a sense, a servomechanism detects and

corrects for errors.
Servo robots are:
Relatively expensive to purchase, operate,
and maintain.
Us e a s ophisticated, clos ed-lo op
controller.
Have a wide range of capabilities.
Can transfer objects from one point to
another, as well as along a controlled, continuous path.
Can interpret and use sophisticated
programming.
Use a manipulator arm programmed to
avoid obstructions within the work envelope.

Actuator drive types

Another common way of classifying robots is by the type of drive used by its actuators. Most robot use ether electric, pneumatic
or hydraulic actuators.
Electric drives encompass three kinds of
motors: ac servo motors, dc servo motors,
and stepper motors. Many newer robots use
servo motors rather than hydraulic or pneumatic ones. Small and medium-size robots
commonly use dc servo motors. Larger robots rely on ac servos for their high torque
capabilities,
Stepper motors are incrementally controlled dc synchronous motors. They are rarely
used in commercial industrial robots, but are
commonly found in educational robots.
Robots that use electric drives take up less
floor space, and their energy source, electricity, is readily available compared to hydraulic and pneumatic power. However, conventionally geared drives suffer from backlash,
friction, compliance, and wear. These problems reduce accuracy, torque control, and dynamic response, while increasing the need for
regular maintenance. They also limit the top
speed on longer moves. And heavy enough
loads will stall (stop) the motor, which can
cause damage.
Electric motors have relatively poor power-to-wight ratios, compared to hydralulic
and pneumatic drives. This means a bigger,
heavier motor must be mounted on the robot
arm when a large amount of torque is needed,
even if its needed for just a small portion of
the total movement.
The rotary motion of most electric drives
must be geared down so that they can provide the speed or torque needed by the arm
or effector. However, manufacturers are now
offering direct-drive motors on robots, which

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eliminate some of these limitations and problems. These high-torque motors drive arms
directly and do not need reducer gears.
The basic construction of a direct-drive
motor couples the motor with the arm segment being moved, and this eliminates backlash, reduces friction, and increases the mechanical stiffness of the drive mechanism.
Using direct-drive motors in robots lets
engineers come up with more streamlined
designs. Maintenance is also reduced. Robots using direct-drive motors can operate at
higher speeds and with greater accuracy than
conventional electric-drive motors.

Hydraulic drives
Many early robots were driven by hydraulics. A conventional hydraulic drive consists of
a pump connected to a reservoir tank, control
valves, and a hydraulic actuator, as well as a
working fluid. Hydraulic drives can generate linear and rotary motion using much simpler arrangements than conventional electric
drives. One advantage of hydraulics over electric drives is that the storage tank, in effect, can
supply a large amount of instant power, which
is not available from electric drives.
Other advantages include precise motion
control over a wide range of speeds and the
ability to handle heavier loads on the end of
the manipulator arm. They can also be used
around explosive materials and are not easily
damaged when quickly stopped while carrying a heavy load. However, they are expensive
to purchase and maintain, and are not energy
efficient. Hydraulic actuator drivers are also
noisier than electric drives and are not recommended for clean-room environments due to
the possibility of hydraulic fluid leaks.

Pneumatic drives
Pneumatic drives use of air-driven actuators. And because air is a fluid, many of the
same principles that apply to hydraulic drives
apply to pneumatic drives. For example,
pneumatic and hydraulic motors and cylinders are very similar.
Most industrial plants have compressedair pipes running throughout assembly areas,
so compressed air is not only economical, it
is readily available. This makes it easier and
less costly to install robots that use pneumatic actuator drives than hydraulic robots.
Pneumatic actuator drives work at high
speeds and are most useful for small-to-medium loads. They are economical to operate
and maintain and can be used in explosive

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The market for robots

In a recent market-research study, Global Industry Analysts Inc. San Jose,
Calif., reported that the worldwide market for industrial robotics will hit
143,000 units by 2015 and that most of the growth in robots will come from
expanding application possibilities, technology developments, rising value
propositions, demographic shifts, and ensuing labor shortages.
In 2008 and 2009, a drop in manufacturing and industrial production
limited demand for new robots. This was particularly noticeable in the automotive, consumer goods, semi-conductor and electronics, and rubber and
plastic industries. For example, there was a major drop in new vehicle sales
in the automotive industry, one of the largest user of robotics.
But the precipitous drop in robotics growth in the auto sector turned out
to be largely temporary. And the recession has not changed the economic
fundamentals of robotics. In other words, robots still give manufacturers advantages in terms of production and labor cost efficiency.
The report credits the quick resurgence in spending on robots to the
accumulation of postponed and deferred orders, as well as manufacturers
increasing their investment in plant renovation, modernization, and capacity expansions. The growth in high-volume toy manufacturing and medical and healthcare should also build demand for industrial robots over the
next few years as these sectors look to benefit from increased automation.
And demographic trends, especially the aging populations in most western
countries as well as Japan will spur growth in robots as companies strive to
maintain production with smaller work forces.
Assembly-line tasks represents the largest application market for robots
worldwide. Welding, however, remains a key contributor to volume sales for
robots in North America and Europe.
Technological advances in robotics in areas such as artificial intelligence,
machine vision, and distributed motion control will let robots perform a
wider range of tasks independently. These advances will make industrial robots useful and economical, boosting demand for them.
According to GIAs report, Asia-Pacific will be the fastest growing regional
market, with sales of industrial robots growing at 9.6% annually for the next
five years. The markets in that area pushing demand will be countries such
as South Korea and China, which host some of the leading electronics manufacturers in the world.
Increases in outsourcing of manufacturing to low-cost locations such as
China and India will also build demand for robots in the region.
Major players in the market include ABB Limited, Adept Technology,
Inc., American Robot Corp., Denso Wave Inc., Evolution Robotics, Inc., Fanuc
Corp., iRobot Corp., Kawasaki Robotics (USA) Inc, Kuka Roboter GmbH, Panasonic Welding Systems Co., Ltd., Nachi-Fujikoshi Corp.n, RoboGroup Tek Ltd.,
Rockwell Automation Inc, ST Robotics, Staubli Corporation, and Yaskawa
Electric Corp.

atmospheres. However, since air is compressible, precise placement and positioning require additional components to achieve the
smooth control possible with a hydraulic
system. It is also difficult to keep the air as
clean and dry as the control system requires.
Robots that use pneumatic actuator drives
are noisy and vibrate as the air cylinders and
motors stop. For lightweight pick-and-place
applications that require both speed and accuracy, a pneumatic robot is potentially a
good choice.

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Working envelope

Here is an example of a working envelope

for an articlated-arm robot. It shows the
maximum vertical and horizontal reach
of the arm as well as areas the arm will
sweep through.

The work envelope

Another way to discriminate between
robots is based on their work envelopes or
the volume of space that can be reached
by the robots effector. In general, the envelope shape and size is a function of the
coordinate system used by the robots
arms and manipulators, and the arrangement of joints and length of the manipulators segments. Work envelopes also
vary from one manufacturer to another,
depending on type of manipulator or arm
used. And combining different configurations in a single robot can also create
new working envelopes. Engineers should
know the application and the exact work
envelope before choosing a specific robot
configuration.
Some work envelopes are geometric,

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while others are irregular, and some robots

may have several different work envelopes.
The four major configurations that determine work envelope shape are: revolute,
Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical. Heres
a look at each:
Revolute configuration (articulated or
jointed arm): This is the most common.
These robots are often referred to as being
anthropomorphic because their movements
resemble those of a human arm and upper
torso. Rigid segments take on the roles of the
forearm and upper arm while various joints
mimic actions of the wrist, elbow, and shoulder. A joint referred to as the sweep represents the waist. A revolute robot generally
has an irregularly shaped work envelope.
Revolute configurations can be further
broken down into two formats: vertically
articulated and horizontally articulated.
Vertically articulated robots usually have
five rotary joints. Horizontally articulated
configuration generally has one vertical or
linear joint and two rotary joints, and are
commonly called SCARA (selective compliance assembly robot arm) configurations.
SCARA robots are fairly yielding in horizontal motions, but rigid in vertical motions.
SCARA robots are well suited for operations
in which little vertical motion is needed, but
significantly more horizontal motion is required. Such operations include assembly
work where parts are taken from one location, perhaps a bin, and moved nearly horizontally to the product being assembled.
The revolute configuration is far and
away the most flexible in terms of operations
and has the largest work envelope of all traditional configurations.
However, revolute robots need sophisticated and more expensive controllers.
Programming is also more complex. Other
considerations engineers must taken into
account is that the revolute robots positional accuracy, load capacity, dynamics,
and repeatability vary with the location in
the work envelope. The robot can also becomes less stable as when the arm extends to
its maximum reach.
Cartesian configuration: Arm movements of robots using the Cartesian configuration can be described by the three traditional axis: X, Y, and Z, giving them a rectangular work envelope.
Movements of the arm and its joints can
start and stop simultaneously along all three
axes, so motion at the tool tip or effector is

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smooth. This lets

such robots move
directly to specific
points instead of
following trajectories parallel to each
axis.
One advantage of
robots with a Cartesian configuration
is that their totally
linear movement This single-stage
allows for simpler pneumatic robot from
controls, They also Max Robot was built
have a high degree to support injection
molding. A special arm
of mechanical rigid- lets it remove runners
ity, accuracy, and re- and sprues. It can carry
peatability. They can up to 4.5 lb
carry heavy loads,
and this weight lifting capacity does
not vary at different locations within the work
envelope. As to disadvantages, Cartesian robots are generally limited in their movement to
a small, rectangular work space.
Cylindrical configurations: Cylindrical
robots consists of a vertical post with a sliding
arm mounted at 90, making it parallel to the
ground, The stationary post is often mounted
so that it can rotate. The sliding arm robot
moves in and out, and can move up and down
on the carriage that attaches it to the vertical
post. Movement along the three axes traces out
the cylindrical work envelope, which is usually
larger than the envelope of Cartesian robots.
Cylindrical robots are well suited for pick-andplace operations.
The downside of cylindrical robot includes
reduced mechanical rigidity due to the rotary
axis needing to overcome inertia when rotating. This gets amplified when the robots is carrying a heavy load and the sliding arm is fully
extended. Repeatability and accuracy is also
reduced in the direction of rotary movement.
Cylindrical robots need more advanced controls than Cartesian robots.
Spherical configuration (polar): These
robots resemble turrets on military tanks. A
pivot point gives the robot vertical movement,
while a telescoping boom (the gun barrel of
the tank) provides variable reach by extending or retracting the effector. Rotary motion
results from the turret or base turning.
The spherical configuration generally provides a larger work envelope than Cartesian or
cylindrical configurations. The spherical design is also simple and provides good weight-

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lifting capabilities. Spherical robots are well

suited to applications in which only a small
amount of vertical movement is needed, such
as loading and unloading a punch press. Its
disadvantages include reduced mechanical rigidity, limited vertical mobility, and the need
for more sophisticated control systems than either the Cartesian or cylindrical robots. These
robots also suffer form the same problems with
inertia and accuracy cylindrical robots.
Many industrial robots are hybrids of these
four basic types. Robot designers can always
make the base rotate or vertically collapse and
expand, or add additional joints and wrists
to make the robot more nimble, tailored to a
specific task, or to the amount of space needed
to install a robot. And for even more flexibility,
industrial robots can be mounted on walls and
ceilings, as well as floors. MD

This hydrualically
driven servo-robot
has a rotary arm
with two degrees
of freedom.

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