t a

tarkam-Saastriiya vidhaanam

(Logic and Scientific Method)

English original-Telugu Translation

Scrutiniser

PP

viii-f

Prof.

Sri

M. Rajagopal Rao

N. Yadagiri Reddy, First Edition 1986,

156.

Dr. S. P.

English Version

Gupta,

TELUGU AKADEMI,

Hyderabad, Tefugu Version

First Edition,

Copies

1986

1000

whatsoever in this book are strictly reserved and

no portion of it may be reproduced by any process for any
purpose without the written permission of the copyright
owners.

All rights

This book

book

is

entitled

tion Rights

the Telugu Translation of the original English

"Logic and Scientific Method" The Transla-

were obtained by the Telugu Akadmi from the

original author.

Price

Rs.

4-50

Printed in India

atVani Press, Lakdikapool, Hyderabad-500 004.

Andhra Pradesh

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co

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a)

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es

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(assrtions)

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8

a-S",

;S)2Sa'r3 S)

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a.S'

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(theorem)

(relevent)

(George Boole
1815-64)

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(Patrick Suppes)

(general set theory),

(exiomatic method)

^806'

S)

oSe"o3

(John God frey Saxe)

10

There were

men

six

of Hindustan

To learning much

Who went

inclined,

to see the elephant

(Though

of

all

them were blind)

That each by observation

Might satisfy his mind

The

approached the elephant

first

And, happening

to fall

Against his broad and sturdy side

At once began to bawl

"God

bless
Is

me

very

wall".

like a

The second, feeling

Cried

but the elephant

at the tusk

''Ho

what have we here

So very round and smooth and sharp

To me 'tis mighty clear
This

wonder
Is

The

third

of an elephant

very

like a

spear !"

approached the animal

And happening

to take

The squirming trunk within his hands

Thus boldly up and spoke
:

"I

see", quotes he, "the elephant

Is

very like a snake?"

The fourth reached out

And
"That most
Is

felt

this

his eager

hand

about the knee

wonderous beast

is

miahtv olain " mintes hiv

like

"Tis clear

The

fifth,

Can

tell

that the elephant

enough

Is

very like a tree

who chanced

Said

what

en the blindest man

'E'

resembles

this

Deny the

I"

to touch the ear

fact

who

can,

This marvel of an elephant

very like a fan

Is

The

sixth

!"

no sooner had begun

About the beast

to grope,

Than seizing on the swinging

That
"I

fell

tail

within his scope

see", quotes he, "the elephant

Is

very

like a

And so these men

rope !"

of Hindustan

Disputed long and long,

Each

in his

opinion

Exceeding
For each

stiff

and strong

was partly in the right

And all were in the wrong

(Exercises)

2.

(iii)

4.
5.

ioifi?

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=

s^

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es

language)^

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(other terms)

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o sSroDoa.

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sjos

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(primitive term)

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(connotation)

A-cfcr-oca.

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^23

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(stetemnent)

cp

gj.

SpSSj^
Q

lido

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(names)
(variables)

&

lid's*
CO

3
3

asoA

15
J

g}

CD
x

(geometry)

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(Point)

(line)

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(Postultes)
(&o&ycco^-i

names)

&\

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(variables)

fSon

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spt^s

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Tq^ f6o^

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16

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nouns),<bW&r>eo (Pronouns)
zeon

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fySK

(es)

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.

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(equation)

a. b, c

20;$

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S^oof63

(essential)

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(intensiew)
'

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il

e,

17
'

Jo^S

s$8fi

L.

(Distribution of

'S^P^ex)

spS'eotf*
e

term)

69^

sS

(propositions)

^o^e^oo
r

T>

iSSS^
L
gf

53o 5'?eood3ii ca).

.

(Hama

is

an Indian)

<Dto

'

(it is

raining)

18

^
^go53sco5

t>

spggo3

e^

fl

<9

&.

SPSioS*

a, "I

s5<?
,

sr

03-0

S.o&SosS&y
IJ

J>

<0

ol

is

L
5yS"i?o 53es15 ^d'ESoff

&

as

Stfon*

l)eoo^di.

isSci&'s^o^
v_

^*

|Sj^ P c6o,

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&
53

^o,

(symbolism) wtfee

(if

L.

^oo

were a king)

(Go ahead)

*^^*-BD eB ^odao C

^^

E8

19

S3

Q-^Dtfc&o

(Proposition and judgment)

59

D-

(1)

(2)

^s "SO^CPO

oi!3&

5^

q>

(conclusion)

^s5r6>.

iSSSs' syS'^o.

s^

esa

SSCOD^

tJ

sSs 53^ ?o
n3

>tfdo CTQ
oJ
3

(Project)'

5<>tf("(Lewis Carrol)"Alice in

(Cury)

".

(Normal form)

'

si*

wonder

20

&tfo _ wotffib

S)8e$ja

(1).

(no )_9cS

&P&CO

(all

g^otf&

(some

ad
(esoeb
\

S^.C^S'^^D

(2).

(Name

of the subject)

c&,

(copule)

a^c8jg

yoD^o 3DSg"o33Co

sj^^

(boys)

^ocSj^s^

^^

s$a^es

5J^|o

(some boys

J^P^O ro^eo (some),

'are',

^^03

s^cdi^

SO^OHP^

Acfi.

es^SS^

intelligent

"

Some

existing things are honest

0(3 atforp sSeg

(i)

Honest people

Some

(ii).

exist.

'honest people' exists

(Hi).

The class 'honest people'

(fv).

There are honest people.

(v).

exists.

There are some honest people.

of discourse)

'are' 'is'

of the predicate)

(Name

gent)

S"1)

Boys

are intefli

a^dfioo

SJ=OD

(intelligent).

"Some

not

are

apples

apples/are/

not

r>xreo

ripe"

fruit".

ripe

aJ

';

ac&^a.sS\Goa^-;&y &a6'es& "No

unless he

persons
a

paper

is

"

well educated

&!

"some

esS^.

_S'^-^ 8

S&d&xpsSr'Kh

one needs paper

"
No/
esS^

SP^O SP&POD

who are not well -educated/ are/ persons reading a

"
ctfK> Some farmers always grumble at
0^
:

the weather, whatever it may be"^

sys^SI sS^sSxPco es^.
"
who
always grumble at the
some/farmers/are/persons
(i)

wheather, watever

mers

it

may

be"efo=

(ii)

some/persons/are/far-

who always grumble at the weather, whatever

^g'5'

e;

i^.

[jS

0^^,^ S)^d6^,

people are honest:- <SwS

No people

6ooa.

J__0

Some

ssfi

may

be.

S o(Classificationof propositions)

"

S^d6o,

All

it

are honest.

'I

'

people are honest.

*A'

to

be

Some

people are not honest.

Sqpp^S'
&

Affirmo

^pdo^j

es3

'

|&s*
l_

SPS'^CO.

'I'

p<*3tfso&>

gjl

'

&
"

N E G

e3

^pdoar

^o^ es^oS* ''

'O'

(Modern classification)

0(3

1.

iOCospSS'

[j^s 53oo (categorical proposition)

11

policy.

Rama

Commerce

is

is

student.

Honesty

a noble profession.

There

'unless'

'If/

is

is

the best

no question

of getting a degree without exams.

(Hypohetical
implicative proposition).

^^a

or

?6Sp^

conditional

or

,a^
^^6
U

sf

.Ac3si o ^jE8

If

the supply of an article

increases the

price decreases.

^^a

(antecedent)

s^o^o^

'S)

(consequent)

then B

^od^dS.

'A'
N

If

a cL

jpoorf&ooo

t-

'B

ap

5T>5ipn>

&ocl

If

>-B

then
.

&so"3 'A'
'A'

'A'

fSotfal^

w^o. A

KSo^SotfeSa

^co:^ B

A does

not yield
.

A, B

B
^ O a -B $So^e^V - A
^j^o ^odSbo'S <a^A^
K)^ (not)
a
f

-A

<acco^ 'B'
.)

'A'
'B'

c^)).
/

._

>

jSo^So^g"^

(e&o"&

fGo^^Q s6'ra'S
CO

e->^^ e3ccoSi

2)

B .-+_ A. ^-cyoY^oSbfoot)

A -

A ^O^CP^.
-B -+

?5soa

550^1

'A

m'-A'-*-- B

3.

c$o53j"B 83'

SP^gO

[SSSfiJ*

(canjuvative proposition)

rvfj

A
.

A A

s)

TY

gj>

a o

'and'

B
'

AC

24

4.

2}o3j83^

ai(3

[J$&J3J

SPS'go (Disjunctive proposition)

D
3oi& isSB
L 6<$r"\d5c> (alternative)' i^
'A or B' A v B rr>
ex-

Asa

(Either

ftfcfc}

dBb^^.

rain or not).

will

it

(Ram

or

Mohan may do

the work).
(inclusive).

(Either

Rama or Mohan

may do

or both

the work)
eo'ofir

5.

(equivalent

3 &c&$

'either' 'or'

proposition)

Sf

and

iS5as.^a?<>o
L
E)
B)^'.

SDsidSooer

B *A

es^ "30^0

A, B

^o^)
eo

If

SJQ'^O'O

'A

-B

if

KB

eso"&

then-A

If

fo&*.

o. ) .A-*-.

K.B

& &1

-64

IS
L.

then B

o$$o

eso^o^orSsSs (implied)

and only

if

B'

necessary and sufficient foj B'

is

(A f B
^

sSSs

19

6.

25

SPS^CO
&

S^SPtfs

loS&sr
(sets)

(General proposition)

SPgo

>#<>

&ocl

oc?

p=^fe'

Kr'c5: r$p

3 cJ

men

sp

e:

to^ &xia> (All scholars are honest). ^aisS

"

'

E,

1,

i^S
L

x,

(Flu

s curable)

es

^o

Jooeoctfo

>

are honest)

(e)

[S^bs'o^sSi

^>^

bj*eo&*co}.(AII triangles have three

sides)

+ 8 =6
2+X -6.
2

(w)
(B)

fe

(^e)

t>^'ao6 "(what

your name)

(Be careful)

^[Xj^!

(&)

is

^>er>^b

(I

shall land
is

happy indeed)

(no,
.

>

(a,)

l.am

^BR^ 3

you are happy)

happy)

o'|br?

^
(what a tragedy)

on the moon)

27

(S?)

(wo)

"> tffS

a,"i

2.

(i).

&o>

sS^

(ii)

.69026^ eo^>s^Li.

Lewis Carrol, Alice

wonderland)

in

$$$

(iv)

Lewis Carrol, Alice

in.

wonder/and)
(v)

8.

sS^Ss'
7
8j

'

^^
&
(s}.Y

^0^

E8

E)

isSSa
?6o^Sot)^ ^
isS^^oS*
V_
SP

pa

4.

53^po ?5boa,

ST'S'??}^
8 ol

efl^oi^S'
,

CoQn

^J

(you should behave)

f6oj^o.<3* cDoc^^) iSo'sj)

cjebating, society?

'0

(Beware of the dogs)

why

don't

you

(May God

crisp

protect you

and delicious)

d<

5.
(i)

^ea

^O..(H)
'

.'

^f6ou"}

a^o

(iii)

join

the

6.

7.

8.

o<2>

Men

(i)

No men 50

(iii)

'The classmen

feet high exist.

(iv)

There are not any

There are no
:

men 50

men 50

No

.,
;

50 feet high does not

(v)

(Answer
9,

high do not exist.

.50 feet

(ii)

exist.

feet high.

feet high.

existing things are

men 50

feet high.)

)
.

Some men

(i)

(iv)

T'
"

'S'

admitted.

No lawyer is artist.
God helps those who

(iii)

10.

are not honest.

All but children are

(ii)

"

It is

cloudy"

Today

is

clear

"

snowing today"

&so^

help themselves.
'R'

and

(RAS) (Ans.

A (C

v R)
'

-*-c

vc

Y'

r^iniAg
Yes,tferday

today,"
it

was

oi

If

it

is

neither raining nor snowing.)

It is
J

clear

today,

then

it

is

30

11.

oS ^odfo

'

(&\

Either

V_

is

it

Ef

raining or

some has

RvS)
(Answer
will go either by bus or by

left

the shower on.

(t!3\

(si)

train.

will work.

Jay

Ans

(&\

is

It

Shyam

(S v R

or

Ram

wait.

will

).

raining tonight, then

either

Jay must stay home

or he must take a taxi.

(

Ans:

am

(&}

If

(&B\

Ram

(aa)

either tired or hungry,

will sit

and wait

don't understand

begin.

how

H v T
then

).
I

cannot study.

or he take a taxi and go.

he can ever finish,

if

hedoes'nt

3o.

&?5o(Deduction)(ii)iistf&?$o (Induction)

^tfg

(0

0*5^

^ (theorem)

(Facts)
e)

ol

S$!d&

(generalisation)
5d'o^f6o
<I>

(shorter)

SoS'o'S

fr&

(infers). fi^

fib

OL
83e

es

Le^S^

cps2(ooSSo
53

^9
-

spD

(comprehensive),

99
vv

(Inference)

&od>.

(Immediate inference)

(2)

(Mediate inference).

8.2
f6Sj\)ifo

es

oj

Aodaoofi

(Time)
\
/

(Man

is

mortal)

J5

8ot^d
_i

ss

j$g&" (Ram

is

mortal)

s$j<6|&"

(Ram

is

b"(Ram

mortal)
is

man)

(Relation between
proportions)

36

(Ram

is

related to

Shyam)

iS
L

esodb^o
CD

|J

^osje

L.

si*

(Independent

SJ'S'gOO

propositions)

(The sky

(Ram
"30^0

i^Ss^

is

5^5=00^

is

blue).

an adult).

r6^Q5

o?5D

eX)

P and

(Equivalent

propositions)

30

ff

is true,

If

is false,

Q is true
Q is false

O (Contradictory
propositions)

P and

Q &

If

is

true

If

is

false

The grass
The grass
esoo^

(green)

is

is

true

green

is

not green

"The grass

^oife

true,

false

is

is

The grass

(If

~3o&> loSSs^

is

is

yellow(Q)

^^ sSrfyp

then

green (P)

(yellow)

is false)

(jf

false

then

97
<

is

undetermined)

brown, yellow-green

yellow,
es<3
Scpj.

(yellow)

s D -a^

s'S&fcj,

sii3o

S^on Q
8

es

53sD ^ex> (Contrary propositions) escdjCa.

green

<^^ yellow n

J^

L
a.^'dS

fi*

?O^ P ^)ODD

rvro

e53s B aPexr

sf

&o

a
'

oL

v^o

S^o^ofir

Poppa r)'-3&>

(Karol

_
"

^a 69o*S

|^j?o^a>
^
L
a

^-s

(empirical falsification)

(J,5s=P ST'^^eJO

SqpF3D ^^

o-

"

eor&

(Sub-altern propositions)

iS

If

is

true

If

is

false

Q
Q

is

is

true

undetermined
(sub-altenation)

^.

(SSji&o^ ^cp.^o

is

false.

&sb*|?fcS&$. Jj'S
/Ksi)K)o^Sjt5b;\.

^spe^oSr

jjo^2o)^

D
|SjSSJpo ?6oK>o5 ^iI

laSQ^pQ^oaowo^r

V^CDD^ |f p is true

If

then

is

true then

is

alse trUe.

38

"Soft

S"gi?6 r$oe>o&io_e3o"&

mined

&~

~3O&<5 &J

If

is

false then

is

undeter

S^ory &OO>O<5.

(Conversion)

eo?

e>

"No student

is

conservative

in

social

matters"
t)

Si

"Nobody
student"

conservative

in

matters

social

^0(3.

Soi^^C^

jS^B

69^..

SP

oLsye
)eo^eSb.

S&*oO&>'_ "AH

e>&&:><3.

students set
F3

sjfi

T-S/

&Dj*tfe3o

8,3"

'A'

students are progressive",

dents"

is

oS

cy^o* "All progressive

^eSgorv^i. ^DiSb^o^oi^

are stu-

progressive set

^o"^ ^tf5>. eso^s"^ i^o^e^ Sc^o^eo

progressive

'some progressives are students'

&&roB"a-

"Some

e3?6doo

students are

89

rtb>oi?6dx>rY>

progressive"

"Some progressives

are students"

-0'

?$#<?&

Some
?

mortals are

"Some

"Some

not progressive"
students''

&&*OO O "Some

men

students are

progressives are

not

5><*3

men'

not
are

5^

|_sSSe'

not mortals"

(Obversion)
All

ter"ocT'sS,

progressive"

students

are

"No students

are unprogressive
ESI

(negating)

S'

(contradicting)

e>

e)

"students
students"

all

eb

s
:

e^53^aar

Students

All students are

'all'

"|\|o

students are progressive"

Progressive stf$j

es5"o.

Ib^S S)^

unprogressive"

^eSjoo)

(Srotoofi.

go

gsSdlb

'g'

"Some

students are progressive

"some

are not unprogressive"

c^o^fiooe

"

'Progressive"

"Unprogressive''
not'

J^SoSj

&{lbroDo.

ssive"

drotooS.

Sb^Sb^^

o'S'o

'0'

a-S-S-

"Some students
0-50.

Some

are not progre-

students are unprogre-

'not'

A, E
'all'

'no'

o&

^oiTo'crr'aoEj'oSi

'9' tfSofir*

'

not

-not'

(Opposition of propositions)

'

41

eo
53=

So

^98 ^

oVoeso

8^*53

A
E
I

Soj^elboiS-

S5lsS

13

53D a' ?O
l

teachers are honest.

All

- No teachers are honest.

- Some teachers are honest.

0- Some

A-0
is

65^

false,

teachers are not honest.

spg&^oft tf&S^o. ^o&gb"&

and

if

is

is

false,

A-E
A

true.

)$or\

is

true

f6<os5)ex)

(contraries)

[aj8Sbere^

As^l^&o,

|f

oXb

^oST 'all'
'some' aSp^^so^^. &n&'d'e3o 'Some like
hot'

SSs-op^oer* 'some a^
1

'it is

possible

Some

'all'

all like it

rtp&
hot'

teachers are honest

"All teachers are honest"

l&'ao^sS^^b.

teachers are not

honest

'Some'

fS^gsSacso^

Son

it

53^0
y
.

es

fS

"Either.. .or"

'Some',

"both"^

'all'

1-0
a.S'dS

'

(traditional

square of opposition

you are
tall

'six

"and" you

feet' 'five

are five feet tall"

feet'

&6o<,.

&^oe

six feet
o

(Equivalence of

compound

propositions)

"If there

535g^
is

will)

there

a will

is

&&gooas>.

way

is

"

&3 $*&$

jfr^'SS'oS* 3r*o"gort
jStfiete*

^S^o/K ?5^e^ (there

is

S'o.

and there

\&<jf
there

(If

way)

true" 'there

there

'There

will

is a

^o5bs'o"^

^)co^e5b.
If

''there Is a will

was

is

and there

65^^.^

a will then

a will

f^o ,'there

'will'

there

and there

is

is

is

not

away

is

r?& 'way'

was

not a

way

way

is

not true'

not true'

...

there

not a will or

is

will or there

is

there

way"

way"

is

ea^^SiS

e)g

'If

there

is

a way',

is

fo^go

lb.eae<Sb.

^oiSb^o'Si

"if there is a will"

5^^.

not a way, there

is

Either

"Either there

^&^ (Component) ]&&

'there

not

way^

esa

not a will'

is

44

io<3
L

"If a

man

i^as

S5tfc>o&o>

ftsodft&ccDfj

cps<>e)

There are 2 possibilities

he continues to love her, or

He begins

to hate her,

he continues to love her

If

All the better.

he begins to hate her,

There are 2 possibilities

If

Either he falls

ill

Or he commits suicide
If

he

falls

If

he commits suicide

all

ill,

the better.

There are 2 possibilities

Either he goes to heaven,

He goes
If

If

to

is

still

Because

Most

heaven,

the better.

he goes to
that

or

hell

he goes to
All

o>

there are 2 possibilites

falls in love,

Either she loves him, or she does'nt

Either

rt>

2)

tg

hell

then

better-

he'll

find

of his friends

there

45

Either

go home

shall

not go home. Therefore

If

stay up

late

stay and read.

or

tonight,

be dull

will

shall

and read [H.S]

shall stay

tomorrow.

don't stay late then she will curse me. Therefore

either
will be dull tomorrow or she will not
If

curse

Wages

me (S.D.C.)
will increase

only

if

there

is inflation.

If

there

then the cost of living will increase.

Therefore, the cost of living will increase [W.I.C].
inflation

is

If

take the bus,

then

my appointment and
I'll

to

start

Therefore,

if

will get that

the bus

is late,

down

will

miss

then
dont get that job, then
feel downcast and
should go home.
take the bus, then if the bus is late,

should not go home.

3.

if

start to
If

feel

cast,

job

(B,L,M,D,H,J).

"Well,

've

often

thought Alice',

seen

but

the strangest thing

without

cat

smile without a

lever saw

in

my

smile/
cat? It's

life."

4.

'Then you should say

Hare.
"I
I

do" Alice

replied

say that's the

what you mean*

quickly

same thina

"Well,

von

said the

March

mean

what

46

same thing

"It Is not the

"If
as,

it
I

is

then'

true,

at all" said the

see what

eat"

Hatter.

the same

is

eat.

"Or you might say' added the Mouse, who seemed

be taking in his sleep/' that 'I breathe when
breathe"
sleep' is the same thing as' sleep when

to

''It

some

the

is

thing with

said the Hatter

you"

5.

fStf|S>eo3S

[tantology]

[formula] [53*s5r>s9sS.
eicy

"Pis

shall

P"

[-P]

A^Sy

"Where

&oS5*o'68& "If P, then

Oj

begin please" the White Rabbit asked.

"Begin at the "begining" the king said seriously,

"and go on until you come to the end then stop!"
:

6.

oj

'P'

"If there

is

tftfoSS)eDc$ ^sSboiara-oS^

no meaning

"we needn't try

some meaning in

to

3'a

any.

the king.

And

yet,

seem

to

it"

S^ "There
in it"

in it" said

find

"P and-P

^o'lsg'ori

is

no

meaning

MA M

(M

in

it.

<so"&

yet

see

meaning)

47

7.

[_c<3

number

'f

It

Hence
If

is

It

is

it

number

it

is

divisible
is

(eg)

(^s)

[&]
[a*]

it is

even

by 2

divisible by 4,

divisible

by

4.

works or sleeps.
is

sleeping.

"Some animals

ys)

even

not working

is

Hence, he

(es)

is

it

so

Either he

He

divisible by 2,

even

Hence,

is

even

is

die

young"

r$#g&ox>cl

\go&

Most animals do not die young

Most animals die

All animals die
All

old.

young

animals die old

Some

of those dying

young are animals.

Most of those dying old are not animals.

of animals die young.

[am] Thirty percent
9.

0(3

[11

[21

10.

SSfiT

s^^peftoosF

&OCT

?;

/y

11.

The king died,

6"

5f

^>_3^ "Being

S'o^T

Sidi'
CD

'\

am

what
wanted
I

'zn^<^o
L

have even

seeking,

take

Long

live

king i"?

and Nothingness"

^)_g

the

lost

and yet

clear un d e rstanding of

am engaged

in

what

the search for

it.

and discover myself in the course of taking. But

take in my hands is something else than what
I

to take.

sense

it

and suffer, but without being

wanted to take for troubled as
I

capable of saying what

am, the very comprehension of
I

am

the

my

desire escapes

me

dreamer 'who, waking, finds himself engaged

in clenching his hands on
the edge of the bed without
recalling the nightmare that induced his gesture"
I

like

C3*

(syllogism).

o<3

|eD

T*>

Soaex>
(es)

(premises)
(conclusion)

1.

All

2.

Science

3.

Science

theories are probable

is a
is

theory

probable,
'theories',

'probable',

'science',
?6SD

>oex>.

Sa^ox^.

j,

jjj

jj

50

All soldiers are strong.

All soldiers are brave.

Some
'

strong

men

are brave.

"Soldiers/ jj"strong;" "brave"

"soldiers

d>
'theory'

'science'

& s^g/theory'S

'science'sb'probable'

ftso
;

^ss|o ^oS5^
.

term).

'soldiers'

^S

sS5*sStfo.

'strong/ brave,

s^^ s:^o S3b^g&s:(^o

'

^ cSprJ orpoSj) ^"SS^^^o. S?5^^^o?T &

"^^^^" (mjnor term)/
(major term)

A
B

is

is
is

older

than B;

older than

C;

older than C.

'science,

'theory'

Hence

(middle

51

(1) 'A- (2) 'older

'B' (4)

than B' (3)

older than'C'. 'aatf

uco

_^

^O.

650^)

SjS

All

x are

All

m are
Some x

Hence,

(necessarySjc5coo&doo

sufficient)

y
are y.

m,

y,

Qd

"All x are

some x

are y".'

&

y"

if

all

x are y ecuo^ some x must be

(Rules of validity)

edo:)(rrp\
L
L
i

oi>

(Rules of Quantity)

2.

(Rules of Quality)
3.
4.

5.

^*'

"*"^)

y-

raSr

^3

soldiers"

sSc5o

No worker is
No capitalist

'^ll soldiers

7 '

SSKteitf

&c&.

a capitalist.
is

poor.

"no worker

is

poor"

29^3

'no worker
capitalist

s^o'S

No worker

capitalist

-^^<^?i)

is a

is

a capitalist'

worker

capitalist

owns

Hence, no worker

a factory

owns

go

a factory

r'
L

(1)

No worker

capitalist

Hence,

is a capitalist

suffers from hyper-tension

No worker

suffers from hyper-tSfltfeion.

54

tftf^-o

All soldiers

(2)

Some

can march

babies are not soldiers

Hence, some babies cannot march.

(General

theor%

of syllogism),
1.

?6o?)

a.S'^.&iccc?!

sne

&s

^Sb^^o^O.

^ep^i (proof)

55

3)

3.

'

S$d3rrpor?

es

57.

8og"d3

f'2l
L J

[1]

[2]
.

^dSb.

S^cJJo SSc3ay

^^jp

eoa*>S:

^s.

es

58

esfi

1.

All

theories are probable;

is a theory;

Science

Science
2.

is

probable.

Some books
Some books

are interesting.

are

bore.

No conclusion.
3.

All

booke are meant

for

Some books are bore.

Some (books) meant
4.

Some persons

reading.

reading are bore.

for

are brave.

No person is ten
No conclusion.

feet tall.

^8

ooelb

j
.

SSDofi

ScSr

^_
^ oti>d^

039

59

2=?$

(Perception)/ S9&^?5o (inference),

(analogy),

^^ (verbal
oqioo
.

testimony).

06

(The

hill

(K^6^

has

fire).

(Because the

(wherever there

s5odoaoa)
op

in

the ktichen).

"Devadatta

is

mortal.

Because Devad
All

men

atta is a

are mortal."

man.

er<K

is

hill

is

smoky)

smoke)

(there

is

fire

as

6.0

a
'

&O&DO&.
8?

S>

^sp^p

*To

1.

2.

3.

4.

5,

sSpc^eocSdJ
,

^bj^eo ^o

A, B,

61

-'

Sf

83"

es

8)

rT'eatsorfeo

2.

e9&sii'f5sSbo.!,.

eso

eb

(inferernce)

4.

''Alice

the

in

wonderland"

The cat was sitting near the

one ear to the other.

fire

'Please

little

tell

me/

said Alice, a

and smiling from

shyly 'why your

cat smiles like that ?

'It's
is

a Cheshire

why

cat/ said the

Duchess, 'and

that

pig".

She said the

ped with

word so angrily that Alice jumBut she saw that the Duchess was

last

fright.

--ff*

she went on

talking to the baby, so

know
know

that

cats

They

all

Cheshire cats smiled

AcEo

again.

like that.

'I

didn't

didn't

could smile."
can

the

said

Duchess,

'and

most

of

'them do'

know any

'Idon't

that

do/ Alice

said

very politely.

Then you don't know very much,' said the Duchess.

'We're

all

mad

here.

'm mad, you're mad,' said

the cat.

'How do you know

I'
m mad ?' said Alice
you must be/ said the cat / or you would'nt have
come here/
5.

()

birds

All

can sing

Hence, some birds can

those

All

who

sing

understand

(es)

Some

amimals

understand

song.

English
English,

Hence, some animals are educated.

(si)

All

the clever boys got

No foreigner got
Hence,

no foreigner

prizes

prize
is

clever.

are educated.

(laws qf

(thinking),

QO&&O&

(thoughts)

i&o
|SS|cS3b

s&ex>

s$ob)5oa

(The law of identity)

5^).

64

ac&s&o (The law of contradiction)

(2)

5jg&

(3)

&QVJJ

d&6o (The law

of excluded middle)

"to be"
P

grass";

"The grass

|d&Sb

^e 53sc!0^
B esL

green".

is

S^c6sS^^ "green".

^&2S)^oa.
_.

'Is'

es^^do "grass" "green''

-grass'-'green'

s^tr-fib.

^e

^as

6is5jcer

fl

'is'

(copula)

"Rama

"son of Dasaratha" o
v

is

the son of Dasaratha

&^g BFOI

sScs

wo"S

"Rama

'son of Dasaratha

Sojao^t3^; O'^^S

aJ

'-Dasaratha" '6

New

Delhi
.

is

the capital

-New

of

/
'^^e5i(^^l "R ama

India"

es>3

Delhi", capital of lndia"o

"capital of India" So
>

C3 55

>peo.

Cia

rtrzy

>c&

_a&>oa.
S^ctfpeo

o
tfocSo^.exjo&sSt&Y &nsSJ tf'8s>go

c!

a,

s So too

ol

"|f

then y = x
If

anything whatsoever, then x

is

^^oa?y=

^e^o^o.

&

ef>g^rj

$ i)

goS"

(assumption)

(symmetric relation) ^^CO^^D:

^ |>xSoeDo^^o

es-^otftf u

x"

If

is

(Transitive relation)

x = y and y = z then x = z
cyG. SjShofii x =
y.

ssSj'v^o

(possible states)
either y

^ x

$&

y ^ not

x.

y = not x

x s y y = not
j

D(

vy = x

x<

Hence x = not

x.

>

A-B

6oo. A-B,
Q
a

CD

05
"All are equal in
in

the society but

^Scfo "All are equa|

more equal than others."

the society"

some

d'o

are

ijo^

53"n
65coif3

^So^nS^or

><

es?6o( >tj'e

(inconsistant)

(proof by contradicion)
(reductio ad absurdum)

(method of

indirect proof)

eb

^o

e9o&r=o.

'^pSo

o3rcoS)t3a&3ff'

67

sj<3

65
2J

oJ

C'-

SS' ^COD^PC. ^cicco^

tJ

a.g'dS

oidBo&iS:cdjCa.

:P

&

P.

C3

es.^doo

co

(Rama

is tall)
'3ji?

esf

(specify)

3.

8J

5 s3>Dotoofi<3_"

Anything must be either

T>

An/thng must be

or

itself

negation"

its

(domain)

(complement)

PV

(-P)rv

^_^
.

A-B

&Kb'oc3 SS. A

^odJ'cxo.

'AB

A-B

'A
o
6

'

(A

is

older than

brother B'

not older than his brother

B)^

B'3

'A

^><5<S

[SSSs'53

i>

ga)l

is

'A

younger than

is

his

(symbolic logic)

(Propositional logic)

'and', 'or',

1.

'if..

.then

7
,

'if

S^g^j*^ IjSSsf

and only

e
S7

'Not"

if-

S'gex)(Contradictory

propositions)
'not' ftf^&O CJ^D*S
is

not the case that' ^tfS&o

t-j

0^

53^?^
o

(jSSS'53 g'gO

ST'C?^^
&

-sr>^3^^ 'The wind

J&oO

l'

C?OCPS'^)
is

blowing'

\&*oy=s<>&-\
a <=L
u E^

S5:?6o

^00<^)

'it

71

"The wind

is

that the

wind

not

blowing'
is

?OI

'It

e|p

The

blowing'.

is

the

not

wind

case

blowing'

is

wb
^o p

(viceversa)

&

True (T)

False

L
(table)

2.

(Conjunction)

'and'
'but'

yo

'The

wind

is

blowing',

'it

is

hot outside

e>

'the wind

is

6ci.

blowing and

P and

it

is

hot outside'

&&

&Q

P and

rr

oi

3.

(Disjunction)

'or'

s53odjdo.

o
hot outside'

The wind

Saj'fflS'o

3^>o<3.

Q^
,

is

blowing,

'The wind

P,Qe

is

c3o&

'It

jjoSa^sy

f6o^^a^ab. &&&* P

S<3jesS'^E ?3^SfrS3)dbo(3.

P.

is

hot outside'

blowing',

rrfe

Qoo

'or

it

is

73

P,Q

CO

4.

(Conditional)

jf ......

then

(antecedent)'
:-

(consequent)
it

is

hot outside"
'o

ing"
P,

then

"it

^
is

io5Se

io

53

''if

'3'eor

the

wind

"if the

blowing

is

wind

is

blow-

hot outside"

"If

Q"

only
is
is

if

a sufficient
a necessary

condition

for

condition for

Q
P.

74

eos5?5o

co

>-Q

Q
T
F

T
T

jj6Ssr

535

T)

ge>si)

"If

and only

if

-Q
0(3

P, ,Q

If

P then

Q, p
p,

Q and

if

then P

75

Q
T

T
P,

2)

{6#<j&S&&oa.

p,

03
eo

o5

-,

A, V, ~+,

(parenthesis),

AQ
Q

V
T, F,

'

j-R

--

..

R,
P, Q,

76'

A Q

(<

>)

-RV

(Q-+-R)

)'8

o.

p,

Q,

R,

V
T
T

iss
o

(-PAQ) v (PV-Q)

P,

(Implication)

i.

e.

PA (P-^-Q)
PA (P-*Q)

implies

-^Q

(equivalence)
A,

78

2j

uw4 on

(cases)

U.

E)

(Consequence)
B

L-S'^3
iSidfi'sa'S'eo

A., A,, A,... A

A
06

= B

79

is

the consequence of P,R,QAP >-R

-do-do-

PAQ->R

<&

P,P_>R,R

QAP~-R,-QP-R

(Derivation of consequence)

p,

BI

a?

oc^

a,o'

is

a prenube)

esi

^Sac. (These are formulae

;DO&*^ &ojo#5j|

preceding

BI

which

is

consequence of

the

C|C 2 ...

preceding

formula).

AVB

cpSe^oSx)

CVD ^^

LojrSo

A-+C, B-+D
[1]

(1)

A->C

[1]

(2)

AVB-*CVB

[3]

(3)

B-^D

[3]

(4)

CVB->CVD

[1,3]

(5)

AVB->CVD

[6]

(6)

AVB

[1,3,6]

(7)

CVD

(D->2)

'

(3)

-(4)

;(2)A(4)-^5)
>

5)V(6)-^7)

(designates)
(brackets)

(correspond)

aoc

(3),

(i),

(e)7v

(Indirect proof)

jic ip:

A,,

Ai,A2

...

A meo

A2

...

Sdi^no ono ^riB B

(The formula
a derivation having 'Ai,

formula C

we

CA

have,

A2

...

is

justified

in

Am

as premises

the

consequence of Ai,A 3/ A m ).

is

if

for

some

0(3

(theorem)

[1]

(1)

>B

^B,

B^

>C,

(3)

-CVD

(4)

-A-^p

(5)

-D

(2)

[3]

[4]
[5]

D
[4,5]

(6)

[1,2]

(7)

[1,2,4,5]

(8)
(9)

"
r

A
A-^C

.,

CVD, A->D

B->C

[2]

[3,5]

,C

-C

[1.2,3.4,5]

(10)

CA-C

[1,2.34,5]

(11)

t
t,
t,

4 5
1,2

6,7

t,

3,5

89

ip5,'lO

81

(Consistency)

(denial)

as^o^^ (inconsistency)

F teo

(theorem}:
'

^'<'S3ix!

Ai,

A2

...

Am

CA-C

wcoD^sSj.^

&>sF

'C'
fon^o^spS'qo
O

S&P^

Ai,

CVD,~A-D,

A2

...

Dl =

(Rule of Syllogism)

From A^-B
and

we

get

B->C
A >C

A (B->C)->A->C
(Rules of contraposition)
(1)

A->B,

B->-A

Am

z ......

Am

2)03^5

gci

33^7^5

&o

&oc5& Ai, A2

.........

-#*

(oD^l

J6^c6o^

Sofl

5J"G5K>^

esccodi)

^c

^odora

L,

G, C, S,

(Italics)

O*

>G) A (CS A G->H

-LV C

LV

Seo^5

(L->G),

C->S)

&otoo<3.

ex>

3<^5

&O&POM.

Sea>

ijStSprvoKo (^Ss^o

&:03r5 B

&

LV

1.

P-^(PVQ)

2.

5.

PAQ-^-P
P-^(P->Q)
P~>(Q-*P)
P-xQ)^
^(-Q-^P)
(

6.

[(P

7.

(P->Q)^

8.

(P--Q)

9.

(PA-(QVR)^

10,

(PVCQAR)<

3.
4.

>-Q)

A (-Q-^P)]->(P->
*-(PA-Q)
9-(Q~>~P)

I,

>(PAQ) A (PVR)
>(PVQ) A (PVR)

I->CVS, S-^U,-CA~

zT'^oar

26=64

63

A-j-B, C->D, AVCl =

'SosSCTtn'iVo^o H

BAD

T
T

(Predicate logic)

&Do5Fr\

"Every
is a

citizen,

(Theory of inference)

Rama
citizen has certain rights and duties.
therefore he has certain rights and duties"

(terms)

(predicates),

cpoov

(quantifiers)
.

3
Co.

S^ec^fioo ssQAofl. e*a

e.

rob i&odxoa.

(X

x2

X=

12

^o"ls^ ^tf^-oS* x 2

<^3

SSSfeS'^ES'o^

''"

X^oiJ'

(individual variables) ^ogp^spaVoSo (proper*

names)

fe'oci

cx5;>_^

fecp^

(individual constants)

85

_S (function)

(supplement)

&nr

'real
go

>

tfesigo

is a real

number' S$c&o.

numbers^ x

3&s&S^

S)s$.ci&xo.

n*

^SorfsS^.
SjSjNi^o

iSSSafs^^o
L

g>

cSag'^.

(jS

oS)^xio<3.

2,9,101.

101

(property)

(x

Pxy n

c3x>S/_")
.

(binary relation)

53

lo^KS

(universal quantifiers"

'all'

quantifiers).

13

(existential

'every'

'each'

'Same' 'one',

all x

Every one

For every

yx

x,

is

is

student"

Student"
(x

is.a

student

\'

ej

"There are some students"

t3jfo;5orr>
(jjj

man

"Every

man then x

is

cs

s,4i^Sou>i,o^sSj:
is

stong"rp

gS'^

^^

e^&y&i
men are storng''

"For same

^SD^C

S^fT^o.

esa

is

strong'^S

x,

is

man

and

^o'lSS'on 3x (MxASx) w^abofi.

for

f6^Qotfo&o<3sbdx>lsb

then x

"For evry x

&>

strong",

"Some

es^^ofi.

(MX >Sx)
x

is

Sj^rT'dJ1'!) .-

essys ^^^

yo&SjoSr'fiGfi
if

sT^

'

strong

is

'jf

j$zi$&.

same

is

xgS,

if

man then

is
is

man

strong'

c)

is a

man

as well as strong

men

All

Some men
c>

yx (Mx >S X )

are strong

(iii)

(iv)

o's'o

are strong BX

S)Qso3 B 5
>-

1>

oe3?S>

(MxASx

^Kx>r

.ep

(v)

Everything has property

(vi)

Something has property

A = yxAx
A = Ax gx A x
c vx (-Ax)
A c g x (-Ax)

(vii)

Nothirvg-has property

(viii)

Something does not have

viii

spg'(?^o
),

go

iJSSSs'o&Si
L.

vii

c^i"(?iSxi

eo^
'

Vx (-Vx) ?6o^_g oj-sS&^'ixp&i.

eso^j "it

case that nothfng has property A' i-e sometning

the property A'

vi

is

3x Ax

not the

does

have

87

A,E,J,0

(ix)

(x)
(xi)
(xii)

x
men are intelligent Vx (Mx
)
No men are intelligent vx (Mx>--l x )
Some men are intelligent 3* (MxA x )
Some men are not intelligent 3* (Mx A-lx)

All

(modify)
es3 cy^S

5s

j^&oSf* sS^cCb^a &}pgo.

Rx &sjdir'AoO

V xR x' ^

'

o^tfesgo

es^sSati

''It

'x is real'
is

not the

case that everything is real" e3jy= something is not real

w^daoS. e5ca^ 'VX (-Rx)' e^ o^) 55^53=^^0 'Everything is
unreal'

"In

the set of real

operation

numbers

& yx Ay yz (X+y)

For every x there

is

a y

addition

is

X + (Y +Z)

n-

such that x^-y

an associative
^|_^o
=3-

-x"

G&J6: Sj

dii

(first order)!

(scope)

(bound)

"
(individuals
"

so&e>

domain) ^odjCo.

A &
T

^sSS

E^-l 5 #tf^

8o"

c^SS

ftsaorSsSjlS

&sfcaooa

jj^sSje8S's5bo&p03.

(TA)

If

(DT)

If

(FS)

is

tantologus then 1 =
... A then

A-^B and

A and A

is

A
1

= B

free for substitution

of x by x then

A
= A->B then

(GA)

If

(GC)

If

(PA)

If 1

=
-

(PC) If1 =

...

>B and x
*B and x

A
A->B

then

yx (A-^B)

is

not free

in A,

is

not free

in

A->3x

B.

...

(x/y)

then

B,then

1
-

>v* B
B

gx-^-A

_AxA

1.

_A->-A ................................................... T A

2.

3.

_A->Ex-A
(_A-Ex A)-K-3X-A->A
_ 3X_A_>A
_3x_A->vxA G C, v; x

4.

1 =

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

A-vyx A)->(
vxA->3X A
A->A
Ax A->A

ax

PC,

TA
DT, 2,3.
is

not free

Ax A->3X-A)

in

gx-A
TA

DT, 5,6.

TA
GA 8
'

10.

11.

12.

- Ex

TA

(AxA->A)->(-A-*-Ax A)
A-> Ax A

A->vxA

DT, 9,1 0.

PA,11,xisnot

free

in-AxA
1

14.

15.

13.

(vx

A->ax-A)-(C Ex-A-vx A)->

(-AxA

p,

t,

(3

x-A-*-vx A)->(-Ax

AxA

>-Ex

A-<

^Ex-A)

>Ex-A

DT,12,14.

cp ss>

1.

Giverv

Px
Ex

Ox
Dxy

(a)

P7

(b)

E2AP2

is

is
is

(C)

(D)
(e)

3x(Ex A Dxb)
Ex -

Vx(

yx(Ex

(f)

2.

a prime
even

odd.

x divides y

y-

ie

TA

DT, 7,13.

is

divisible

by

x.

All judges are lawyers (Jx Lx)

Some lawyers are shy (Sx)

are politicians are congressmen (Px Cx)

lawyers are judges
All women who are lawyers admire some judge (wy, Axy)
Some women are both lawyers and congressmen.

Some lawyers who

Not

all

3x

VxJx

>xLx)

v* (Lx K/X)
Vx (Wx ALx)-*3y (Jy
Bca SSaSral^tf iS$s$tfc3o& ^

g.

Parents love their children

Everyone is indebted to sameone

Everyone who is healthly can do all kinds of work.
There are triangles which are not similar.
Everyone should help his neighbours, or his neighbours
will not help him.

Some people are not admired by everyone.

is some one who protects
every person

There

in

this.

organisation.

There

is

someone who

SoSa-fiff

4.

In

^Qaa

the universe of

Ixy

Fxy

Lxy

Axy

Bxy

dislikes no one.

all

tfo'&f

tf&gzF^szr? $3&>&oo&

people,

let

x invites y
x and y are friends
x has y with whom he shares his laisure hours.
x agrees with y.
x and y may become friends.

(a)

3Wx(lxx)

(b)

Vx (3y CFxy-^Lxy)
Vy 3x (Axy) A 3X Ay (Axy)
gx 3 Y (Axy A-Fxy)
V x VY (C Lyy A AxyH-Bxy)

(c)

(d)
(e)

ro
(dilemma)

2.
O

^-

CX

&&fs&o<3

(affirms)

(denies),

(Constructive dilemma) eso^Co. 5SQsorr'RK

S^^^sS^ [destructive

dilemma]

3.

1.

POJ

If

you

tell

the truth,

man

But you must either

Hence

either

man

or

tell

will hate you;

gods

dilemma^

you

tell lies,

will hate you.

&PQO&O
(rfthuthina

if

the gods will hate you

the truth or tell lies

S^^b

(>)

S g$

^tf-o

92

If

the truth, the gods will love me;

tell

men

will love

**

If

tell

lies

me.

must either tell the truth or tell lies

Hence either men or the gods will love me.

But

(puzzling) ^tf
(material truth)

fSee>>^

&

iita$r>E83'rf

2.

you work hard, you are not intelligent

you were hard, you will be successful
Either you are intelligent or not successful.
Hence you shall not work hard.

If

If

(fallacy)

Aoioofi.

the question

es

^
logical

ver bal
.

(i

sfa-oSjrfwjss-tf

material

oa
America

Hence

is

a rich country.

America

is

a great country,

a rich country is a great country.

93

ii

is

older than B.

is

older than C. Hence B

is

older

than C.

83

esoe! 5*0

x).

3j
a, "I

?'a3
o

(I)

35

"That

is a

Chinese restaurant"

"^^BoiS"

es

f6s$&o<S.

3^6*
"Dr

&fS-\3
0^'

"3o^>

>

/*&ea.

si>8cJ5o

a jain scholar".

is

(II)

"Soldiers are strong"

l\?3Sb<s>

sooorv

o
<&*sSt)o

"The parliament
"supreme"

e5^

is

supreme"

ssc'S

es
'

s5S

es

"You eat what you brought from the market you

(Ill)
brought raw vegetables. So you must eat raw vegetables."

<|&

650DDF3

"raw vegetebles"

SSrt&^CxST

&j6>i

ftSfe^.Qg"

94

B,

i'

SPC^^CO

(arguing

(infallible)

Ooep^

in a circle):
^dao&r>K)

eas^fib

j&l

L
65

ss

es

S5?

oL

>

'o

Lewis carrolls "Alice

in

wonderland"

"After a few minutes, Alice found herself talking to

everybody just as if they were old friends, She even had
a long argument with the Lory, who became a little angry.
must know
He sai d to Alice
am older than you and so
'

more than you."

how

"Well

old are

you?" asked

Alice,

The Lory would

not say, so there was nothing more to be said.

"Well,

I've

often seen a cat without a smile'', thought

without a cat .'it's the strongest thing

Alice, "but a smile

I

ever

saw

in

my

Let

life."

C stand

for 'cat'

and S

for 'Smile'

Then cat without a smile = C-S ...... (a)

and smile without a cat = S-C ...... (b)
...
Contradiction of (C) =
-(C-S)

-C+S
S-C
(b)
55

Stfcn*

3J B <>.&'&0

ifCSpotfdoo

esQAoS.

C/ smile

51

'without'

e5o"^)

^^

minus

wtfofl*

[paradoxes]

o
1.

"All

"All

Romans

Romans

?6e^&?6c>*^
(II)

2.

(1)
v/

All

are liars" eaassb

are liars"

^s

[j5^^?5

Romans

are liars

"This sentence

is

false

a.g'

97

(2}
V,

[zeno's paradox]
S

r ^ d'or

65,

[puzzle]
,

do&o3.

55

53

E3e5csr*

o'-

c6 w^cdorv

^cr

a,S'

^bo^eo

[Russell's paradox]

"o.

?oc
"J

[it is

set of

all

&0
''x

sets

which are not

^po^g'orf P(x)

does not contain

.

P(x) f6o^%

itself as

S5a^

P(x)

yEy
p(y) holds) esooi^

93

&$

sscco^

members

iSSSs'Aj's'pon

&

a-

an element"

c6^bco5*
a

Ao&ooS.

essSjifc

Scp^?5
$3

J5^

^o ^C3o. $5
o
CF)

?6&8 y

&&S

P(y) es^^boa.

= [x: P(x)]

(if

yEy then

^a yy &! fe&er&g
o. yEy 8*
o"o$o> y

a^orr es&D^o^ f6S^a ^-o^&o

1

SsVij^go

j6gdBoon

sj8

about the

of themselves].

&*"&

KoAd^p

55^

as

C36

is

a
'

"oi
.

63

s.^
L _e^rv

-^8

Su^CxS

&&&*&

Aodaaofi.

0(5

"For we assumed that the world had no beginn(1)

ing in time then an eternity must have elapsed upto every
and therefore an infinite series of given point of time.
successive states of things must have passed in the world.
The infinity of series, however, consists in this, that
i

never can be completed by means of successive synthes

Hence an infinite past seriss of worlds is impossible,
the beginning of the world is a necessary condition c
'

existnee" (Kant).

100

[time]

&cS
&ofl.

ss^

sStf&ioa.

'ajfl

a,g"

s&o$fc6

[premitive]

Sie^^^^.

&

S&co)^ time

zs-o*

oSsSot^^

^^a.g'

time^

(prima facie)
53

sS^ofi*

&
B'oiS"

s*

(II) "The party system has a double effect.

If encourages
and almost demands that each party should
misrepresent
the other.
But the mere fact of debate is a check on

misrepresentation.
discredits

its

If

authors.

it

goes too

far,

it

exposes

itself

and

The

dictator on the other hand can

lie almost without
limit; he lies to a silent people; no voice
is raised in
protest or criticism, he is free to delude his nation

and in the end may delude himself.

Politics would not
probably agree with Socrates that the uncriticised life is not
worth living, but
parliamentary government saves them
from that life, and they and we are
better

fit

for it."

101

S'sSr'

(curb)?

^|

sS

(antithesis)

(delusion)

"There

(III)

the thousand

all

you

will

is

only one universal passion fear Of

a man may have, the only one
!

qualities

find as certainly in the youugest drummer boy

in me is fear. It is fear that makes men fight

my. army as

in
:

it

makes them run away fear is the mainHas fear even held back
spring of war. ..well what of that
a man from anything he really wanted ? Never/'
is

difference that

eS>

.-es^

c&o.

69cdi2fo.

(hunger)

s&3

(sex)

&

^s^s"

I.,

oJ

(IV)

his

530^0

pupils

"One Sophist who charged a fee for teaching

"how to make the worse cause appear better,'

brought a pupil into Court for non-payment of fees. The

argued that he need not pay whichever way the

pupil

went for if he won, that was that But if he lost, he

had not been properly taught. The Sophist replied
that he ought anyhow to receive his fee for if he won, that
was that but if he lost, he clearly taught his pupil what he
to
teach.
The judge found a decision
professed
verdict

clearly

impossible."
-\2i

S'tfow

&&'

Se^gp^p

,S/cj

fe)

A
A

(semiparadox) cs^o
esoeb

es

53

1.

108

5P?6 6-0 a.

is no living culture without a living tradition.

India is beloved and cherished among the 'elite' of

''There
If

the west, it is on account of her traditional culture.

And this culture is embedded above all in the treasures of

lnda are inseparably

Sanskrit. Sanskrit and

connected

in

spite

of

the transitary,

all

harangness

of the politicians."

2.

"What

"why should
it is

"It tells the day of

what time it is !''
Does your watch tell you what year

a funny watch." she said,

the month, and

it ?

doesn't

The Hatter quickly

tell

replied.

"Ofcourse not" said Alice.

"Well, that

is

jusr the

same with mine,"

Alice didn't understand at

"Have some more

March Hare said to Alice,

tea," the

have had nothing yet," Alice replied

rather loud voice," So
can't take any more."

very seriously.
in a

said the Hatter.

all.

"I

"You mean you

can't take less," said the Hatter. "If

is

very easy to take more than nothing"

4.

"Take off your hat," the King said

"It isn't

"Then

it

to the Hatter.

mine," said the Hatter.

must be stolen" shouted the King The Jury

men immediately wrote

it

down

in

their books.

104

"I keep

to sell," The Hatter

them

added as an expla-

nation.
''I've

none

of

my own.

I'm a Hatter"

(Alice in wonderland)
5.

You say you don't believe in miracles? Why there is

evidence of them around us every day. Wireless and
;

are

television

flower

is

functioning

6.

miracles,

of

way

the

produced from

a tiny

the intricate

that a magnificent
is a mircle. The

seed

mechanism

of the

human

body is a miracle, and for that matter life is a miracle.

It would also be easy enough to attack the fallacy upon
the facts.
Everybody who has any real experience
knows that good writing should not necessarily come
from people with many experiences. Some of the art
which Is closest to life has been produced under
marked limitations of living. Its prestige has generally
the splash made by sensational
Jane Austen has already survived
Georges Sand, the French woman novelist. Even the
most modern critic, if he is really a critic, will admit
that Jan Austen is really realistic in a sense in which
Georges Sand is only romantic.
lasted longer than

social

7.

figures.

Everyone has a right to his

own

opinions. But

woman

has a right to

wrong opinions. There cannot be any

right in wrong opinions.
You have no right to an
opinion unless it is founded upon that which is
universal in man, his reason.
You cannot claim this
right on behalf of your subjective impressions, and
irrational whims.
To do so is to make the mistake of
the Sophists.
8.

(W. T. Stace)

There are some metaphysical ideas so abstract, so

it is almost
imposible to express them
without the use of figures of. speech. Language

abstruse, that
at all

was mode by common men

for

common

purposes, and

105

this fact often forces the philosopher to use terms

which he knows only figure forth his meaning without
accurately expressing, it. Perhaps every philosophy in
the world finds itself sometimes under this necessity,

and was thereby technically

it
is no
wonder, and
involves no serious blame upon him (W.T,
jStace).
and,

if

9.

did so

Aristotle

inconsistant

with

Man and woman

himself,

are of equal rank

but they are

not

They are a peerless pair being supplementary to one another; each helps the other, so that
without the one the existence of the other cannot be
conceived, and therefore, it follows as a necessary
corollary from these facts that anything that will
identical.

impair the status of either of them will involve the

In framing any
scheme of
equal ruin of both.
women's education this cardinal truth must be

constantly kept
10.

On

in

the whole,

mind (Mahatma Gandhi

scientific

methods are

at

important as any other result of research

least

for

it

as
is

upon the insight into method that the scientific spirit

depends and if these methods were lost, then all the
results of science could not prevent a renewed triumph
of superstition and nonsense. Telever people may learn
as much as they wish of the results of science-still
:

one

will

especially
scientific

always notice
in

their

spirit...

in their conversation, and

hypotheses, that they lack the
They are content to find any

all concerning some matter; then they

and flame for it and think that is enongh.

hypothesis at
are

all fire

To have an opinion means

it

for

and thenceforth to press

them
it

to

to fanatacize for
their

hearts as a

reason everyone should now

then
study at least one science from the bottom up
he will know what method means and how importan
conviction...

For

that

is

the utmost circumspection (Nietzsche).

106

11.

The schools have no more important task than to

teach rigorous thinking, cautious judgement and
consistent inference; therefore, they should have alone
whatever is not suitable for these operations: religion,
example, of course, they cannot be sure that latter
on man s fogginess, habit, and need will not slacken

for

the

hold

of rigorus thinking.

But as far as the

Influence of the schools reaches, they should enforce

what is essential and distinctive in man "reason and
:

science,
least,
1 2.

man's very highest power"

so

Goethe,

at

judges (Nietzsche)

The more you argue, the farther you may get from the
stop here.

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