Portland Cement Association. Tz CONCRETE INFORMATION Small Concrete Gravity Retaining Walls Gravity retaining walls are relatively simple structures, ‘They can be buill with unskilled labor and local mate- fials, and are inherently solid and durable, requiring litle ‘or no upkeep. This publication presents sample designs for several small gravity retaining walls along with other information about the construction of these walls. Sample Designs ‘Tables 1 through 4 show sovoral small gravity retaining wall designs. These walls were designed using the cri- teria given in the Appendix and will assist the reader in choosing an appropriate design for local site conditions, ‘The two types of backfil used in the designs are in the idle range of the four types listed in the Appendix see Fig. 4), Type 2 bacxfll is a coarse-grained soil of low permeability due to blending with sill-size particles, Type 3 backfill is composed of fine silty sand, granular naterials with conspicuous clay content, and residual soil with stones. The tables give eight different wall dosigns for each of four cases, ** Level backiil with Type 2 soil Level backfil with Type 3 soil Sloping backtil with Type 2 soit * Sloping backill with Type 3 soil A surcharge, which is defined as a transient load on the surface of the ground, is included in each design ‘Tne surcharge is 200 pst (975 kg/m’) for level back ‘and 40% of that for sloping backfill, ‘The approximate soil pressures at toe and heel are also tabulated, These should be compared to the allow. ble soil pressure given in Table 5. 1 the sample designs, the concrete density used is 145 pet (2300 key) Construction Details The depth below gradeto the bottom ol thebaseisdeter mined by the depth of excavation necessary to reach soil with suitable bearing capacity. Bearing capacity of soil varies with the depih and frequency of frost. frost (© 1993 Portand Cament Association heave develops beneath a retaining wall, the conse- ‘quences are not as severe as they would be with a build- ing. Sil it fs recommendes that taller walls rest deeper in the ground, Constructing the base or footing with a level surface ‘oreates a working platform on which the wall forms can be set. The fresh concrete surface should only be struck off cough and keyed joints always installed. Any loose material should be removed betore concreting of the wall siem above begins. It is mportant to provide drainage from behind the wall (Fig. 1), elther by weepholes or by a back drain. Cost-in- place railing posts, socketed Graded filter system 2a" Bevolied key Fig. 1. Construction details. (1 in. = 25 mm)Table 1, Gravity Retaining Walls with Level Backfill of Type 2 Soi ‘Sliding retion Wal dimensions Overturning Soil pressure, | Volume of satoty | eyy | reer pat eonerste, a= pepe lf ot [Too [reer] ett ferore lps ravi ord] (evra le tae vee noan sl esol cew assole on go | iz |eo |i | 21 | a3 | 320 | 200] 90 | ia gor | ir | se |i | 21 | oso | 300 | 1800) 70 | tir ro | to | so | ie) 21 | os | 2% | a7] 50 | 09s wo | 'e fae | is: | 21 |asr | 20 | too] wo | ors so | & lao [se | 21 fas: | 210 | roo] 30 | oss to | re |e jax) 21 | om | iw | to] % | oss so | @ |ao ie | 22 Jos | v0 | tom io | om Table 2. Gravity Retaining Walls with Level Backfill of Type 3 Soil a ger | ume ene se h 2 b Go factor Toe | Heel yout ge | ase ae] a | oa | | 18 a | gy | ora] | oe 1) | oe Moa we large lac] 2p | os 1a | 83 | G3 | yougst ase tamm Table 3. Gravity Retaining Walls with Sloped Backfill of Type 2 Soil ‘Sing Wreton Wall dimensions Overtwning Sroar] So" exeesre | Volume of ssatety | gery | Smee | ‘pst eoncrate, ep pepe] sr pat [Toe | rea] av" vir] ae | eo |e] 2a | ozs | sav | 1200] 1100 | 165 wo" | i | eo] ie | 28 | 023 | ato | i700] 100 | iat ev | oa | se [ar] 28 | ozs | 200 | 1500] 200] 138 ro | i | so-}is-| 28 | 023 | 250 | 1400] 300) 096 ss | a |ae|is| 28 | 023 | 220 | 1900] 700] a7 sa | a faa se | 2a | oz | 190 | 1100] s00] oo as | [ae] is | 23 | o22 | 160 | soo] soo] ase se | o | so | x 28 | or | 130 | wo} s00| 03s Table 4. Gravity Retaining Walls with Sloped Backfill of Type 3 Soil Siang THeTON iat dimensions Overtutning Saar] Sol pressure, | Volume ot ‘ately wear | Oost eongrete, gate | wiv | stress yout ae on ae pst [Toe | ear 7957 2a 25 | ove | aio | 2000] noo | iar ie 24 2s | arr | 2e0 | 2100] ni00 | 135 16s" 2a 2¢ | arr | 250 | 1950 | woo | 331 8 be 26 | are | 220 | 1200] 900 | 308 Asal 138 24 28 | ars | 90 | 1800 | 200 | 089 a 12 ze | 27 | ors | 470 | 1500) 700 | om 100 pat 40 hfe 105" De 27 | ara | ao | 400] coo | oss i yeitaas atm ° 26 27 o13 | a0 | 1200] soo | ossTable 5. Allowable Bearing Pressures on Soils ‘Waxman pressure, Type of soil pet ‘Grganie som @ Filled ground or foam 00 Inorganic icompact 2500 Sand~sity and compact 3000 ‘Sand—compact and clean 5.000 Clay—very soft ‘500 Clay—soft 1.500 iay—atit 2.500 lay —tough 3.500 iny—very tough ‘4500 Clay—naee 000 Gravel 6.000 Nardpan +2000 Solid rock attoon 000 ps ~ 4880 kgm? Source: Aderence 1 ‘Table 6. Description of Bearing Soils ‘Oraanie Sol. Sai containing Significant percentage of partly Or \whally decomposed erganie matter. According othe character of the constituents, the term organic Cay, organics or peal is used, Tnorganic Sit, Cohesionvess aggregate of grains ranging fy size from 00002 mm to 0.66 mm. Aggrogate is nonplastic and consists of ‘rains "ot distinguishable by the naked eye, Deposits of inorganic Sillaro doscribod as loose or compact. Alump of the airdrieg mate has very hie fexstance to crushing “Sard. Conhesionless aggregate of rock fragmonts or grains ranging in size trom 0 06mm to in, Deposttgol sandaredescribed as o0se “Clay. Cohesive sol, plastic within wide range ot water content. Tro" consistency of a clay fs defined by the strength of a fairly undis, {urbee cylinder whose lengih is rom 1.50 2 mes its dlameter, 35 follows Consistency Fiols Uuneontined Identification compressive ‘strength pst Very sof | Easily penewated a couple of | Less than 700 inches by fist Solt Easily penetrated @ couple ot | 700 to 1,199 Inches by thumb suit Ponetrated several inches by | 1,200 to 1,099 thumb with mogerste effort, Tough Readily indented by thumb but | 2,000 to 3.909 penetrated only with great effort very tough | Reedy indented by thumbnail | 4,000 to 7,909 Herd indented with ditficuity by £8,000 to 16,000 thumbrail Gravel Cohesionless aggrogate of rounded to angular rock trag- rmonts ranging in size from "to & “Trardpan. Conesive or comented matoralinatoTiersgrealresislance To hand-excavating tools, “Solid Rack. Sound, unwesthered rook without vibe vows 1 in = 25 40004 ~ 4990 ye ‘Abiod somnolence Wand 1 Weepholes must be consiructed so that they will drain freely without allowing the sackfil to wash out. Suitabie weepholes are provided by 4-in, (100-mm) plastic pipe spaced about 10 ft (3 m) on centers, each pipe having a slight pitch for drainage. Al the back end of the weep- hoie a filter systom is needed. The back end of the pipe should be covered with a rusiproot, nonbiodegradable loth or insect screen, A heavier soreen or guard is, needed for protection during bacifiling, Behind the guardis a pocket of 2 cu tt (0.08 m!) of gravel ot stone, Covered on the top and sides with about 6 in, (150 mm} ‘of pea gravel. This is then covered and surrounded with 6 in, (150mm) of coarse sand. This system constitute gradad filler and should keop most back from erod- ing though the weeoholes. ‘Weepholes have two shortcomings: they fill with ic in cold climates, and they do not relieve the water pres Sure behind the wall to a sufficient depth, A 10-in -diam ‘ter (250-mm) conlinuous back Grain near the bottom ‘can be provided instead. The back drains pitched and connected to a sewer or a ditch. Many retaining walls require railings tor safety. Exam ples of concrete railings appear in Fig. 2 Fig. 2. Concrete railings. Where appearance is a consideration, control joints should be provided in the wall at about 15-ft (46-m) spacing. A control joint is a groove deep enough 10 allract cracking caused by drying shrinkage and tem- perature, thus reducing random, unsightly cracking Control joints are not needed in the base of the wall. AS a tule, the grooves should be built into one or both sides ‘of the wall oa otal depth of one-fourth of the wall thick- ness, A sealant or covering for the grooves will reduce seepage and staining on the face of the wallVertical construction bulkheads can also serve as control joints it bond is provented between successive congrete placements. This is done by applying paint, ol, ‘or another bandbreaker to the end of one section before: the next section of concrete is cast. Keyways snould be provided in vertical construction joints to kegp the wall sections in alignment. Consideration should be given to providing expansion joints in walls not naving a sealant In the control joints. Over a long period, sand and clay ‘might infiltrate cracked control joints, preventing expan- sion during hot weatner. An expansion or isolation joint is always recommended where a retaining wall mects a building or other structure, Reinforcing stee! dowels between the base and stem of the wall provide positive anchorage of the stemtothe base. The dowels are No. 4 vertical reinforcing bars 4 ft (1.20 m) long at 2-ft (0.6-m) intervals, placed 4 in. (100 mim) or so from the earth side of the wall Concrete Work Itis relatively easy to place concrete in a gravity retain ing wall, particularly in a footing bul in a trench without formwork, Concrete stump should be a maximum of Sin. (75 mm) if the concrete will be consolidated by hand- Fodding or spading. If mechanical vibration is used, @ 2-in, (S0-mm) maximum slump is recommended. Conerete strength is not an overriding consideration, but for the sake of quality control, minimum strength of ‘4000 psi (27.6 MPa) is suggested. To resist freezing and thawing or deicer chemicals, maximum water-cement ratio should be 0.53 (see Rei- erence 1*). Where sulfate exposure will occur, the ratio, should not exceed 0.45. Air entrainment is also neces sary il the concrete will be exposed to freezing and thawing. The mortar fraction (cement, sand, and water) of the concrete should contain about 9% ai Ifitis locally available, large coarse aggregate—say 4 in, (100 mm) maximum—can be used. With large coarse aggregate, the concrete may be more econorri- cal and have less heat of hydration and shrinkage, thereby reducing the potential for cracking. Further discussion of concrete mixtures and place- ‘ment appears in the Portland Cement Association pub- lication Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures (Ref- erence 2) Mass Concrete By their very nature, the larger concrete gravity retain- ing walls illustrated here constitute mass concrete, which the American Concrete Institute defines as any ‘yolume of conerete with dimensions large enough to require measures to cope with heat generation trom hydration of the cement and attendant volume change to minimize cracking (Reference 3), ‘A low cement content in the concrete will limit heat of hydration. Using ice in the mix will lower the maximum, temperature of the concrete, as will working on a cao! day oF starting work early in the morning, “Reerences are ston at tho end ofthis puteaton. Control joints have already been discussed. They will cause any shrinkage cracks to be formed in inconspic- uous places as the tomperature of the concrete drops. Heat ot hydration could cause a 50°F {28°C} heat rise, ccrealing an expansion of up to 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) in 154 (4.6 m); upon subsequent cooling, the contraction Cracks would be almost as wide, Such cracks are incon- spicuous within a contol joint I thare is @ 27°F (18°C) tomporature difference be- tween the surface and interior of the concrete, surface racking may occur. This will not have a significant ef- fect on the useful lite of the retaining wall. The differ- ‘ential temperature can be lowored during consiruction by recucing the temperature rise with the methods dis- cussed abave. In addition, if the forms are left on for ‘several days. the surface of the concrete will coo! more slowly as the interior of the conerete cools. In effect, this reduces internal stress in the concrete. A further discussion of mass concrete appears in Reference 4 and temperature effects are discussed in Reterences 6 and 6. Formwork Buoyancy ‘The formwork for the sloping face af a wall must be securely anchored to the dase to avoid flotation caused by the upward hydrostatic pressure of the fresh con- crete, if the anchorage is not rigid, the formwork wil it slighlly off the base and fresh conorete paste will leak Under the form. Analternate method of building the sloping face is to create siops with vertical forms. The steppad wall, as shown in Fig. 3, also has the advantage of providing 4 ©. 28d Ga4ay |-— Crowned top F Sloping foce | ~ stepped face Fig. 8. Stepped gravity walls with vertical faces make ‘concreting easier and avold buoyancy of sloping forms. (1in.= 25 mm, + = 0.3 m)several openings for placement ol 1e, The reads of the steps need not be formed, concrete with a low slump can be placed slowly so that itis not forced up and out al the steps, With the dimensions given in Fig. 3, the stepped walls have the same safety factors and bearing pressures as the sloped walls. Decorative Finishes Since retaining wallsare usually exposed to public view, Care in form construction is required to obtain an attrac tive appearance. Forms should be stiff to preven! bulg ing and tight to prevent leakage. Many surlace textures are available for concrete walls, For example, board-marked surfaces show the lines of rough oF dressed lumber in the forms. Narrow wood strips can be placed in the forms to create a wide variely of pallerns and designs. Form plywood and thin plywood iners are available in a variely of textures ‘smooth, striated, and sandblasted. Other materials and methods tor producing various wall texlures are de- scribed in References 7 and 8. APPENDIX Stability Design ‘Traditional retaining wall design is based onthe classic theories of Rankine and Coulomb, which use an angle Of internal friction to determine the active earth forces. For small projects, whore a soilinvestigation is not feas- ible, itis dificut to know which angle to use. thas there- fore Secome common to assume a conservative angle of 33°, the earth pressure is then determined by the classic theories using this angle of internal friction. ‘A more practical design method is the equivalent fluid theory presented in 1948 by Terzaghi and Pec (Reference 9) and modified in 1953 (Reference 10). Four broad types of sail are used (see Fig. 4), The fluid pressures are chosen from Fig. 4 depending on the slope of the backfil and the type of soil, pressures are then computed as illustrated in the figure. Pressures ‘or surcharge are computed as follows Convert the surcharge pressure, w, to an equivalent height of sol, s, by assuming a soil density of 125 pet (2000 kg/m’), Thus, s = w/ 125 Surcharge causes a uniform horizontal pressure for which the total force is Phs = Ansh. The total vertical force due to surcharge is Pys =kvShy sidered lobe acting direclly over the edge of For the general case of a wall having sloping backfill with argo, the total horizontal force ZH = Pp plus Pas. The total vertical force, ZV, includes P, plus Pye plus total weight of concrete plus weight of soil directly be- ween the wall and the end of the ne Value of ky .psf/tin. ft ey 40 20 a : @ Volue of ky ,pst/tin. ft wo 19 1 11 psfitt = 16 kg/m por meter) 20 ~ 60 | d a HO! 40 SF 20 — sil fea L al 50 6 20 2 30 35 40 Value of slope angle 5° ‘Type 1. Backlll of coarse-grained soil ‘without admoeture of fine Pantcles, very permeable, 9% Shean sand oF Gravel ‘Type. Ball of ne sity sand, ‘granular materials it Conspicuous clay content, and residual with stones. ‘Tipe Backlit ot very softorsattaay Drganie sil oF sity clay Fig. 4. Chart for estimating pressure of backfill against retaining walls supporting backfils with plane surfaces. Use of chart limited to walls no higher than about 20 ft (6.1 m). (Source: Reference 10)Safety Factors In keeping with common practice, satety against over turning has been determined by theratioot the rostoring mement to the overturning moment about the toe of the base. A minimum safety factor of two was used as the dosign criterion For overturning moments caused by lateral earth prossure, height of the wall above the center of the base ‘was used for simplicity of calculation. Horizontal pros- ‘sure below the center point ol the base creates a small restoring moment and is an additional safety factor. “The total herizantal force to the bottom of the base was used 19 determine the sliding resistance ofthe base. ‘According to Reference 10, the coetficient of friction for concrete cast on soil is 0.55 for coarse-grained soil without sil, 0.45 for coarse-grained soil with sill, and 10.35 for sit For the sample designs, the maximum ratio of sliding forces to normal torces was limited 10 0.32 and the calculated values are listed in the tables. Thus, the reader can determine whether the sample design would be safe for the actual soli at the site. For footings resting on clay, the shearing resistance against sliding is 50% of the unconfined compressive ‘strength of the soll (Reference 10). A tough clay might have an unconfined compressive strength of 2000 pst (96 kPa), Therofore, the shearing resistance would be 1000 psf (48 kPa), and the safe shearing stress would be 500 pst (24 kPa), The calculated sheer stresses of the sample designs are tabulated. A guide to uncon~ fined compressive strengths is gwen in Table 6 In the preliminary designs of retaining walls for this publication, level or horizontal footing bottoms were used, but safety against sliding was found to be insuffi- cient. Therefore, some improved method was needed to resist sliding friction and horizontal movement, Shear lugs were chosen to increase sliding resistance. “The soil may shear off on a line to the bottom of the lug, $0 10 increase the length of the shear plane, the lug is placed at the nee! of the base. Forces normal and parallel to the base are then determined using an ap- proximate profile shown in Fig. §, in which tan = a/b ‘The shear and overturning moments were chockes at the construction joints on the top of the base. In each ‘case the ratio of the restoring moment about the toe of the stem to the overturning moment exceeds 1.33. “The horizontal force on the construction joint some~ times exceeds 0.40 of the vertical force there. Thisisan allowable coefficient of friction for concrete-on-con- rete, Theretoro, keyways in the joint are always speci- fied. For wide walls, or where space permits, two longi- tudinal keyways should be used. References 4, Standard Specifications for Structural Goncrete for Buildings, ACI Committee 301 report, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1981. 2. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, Portland jon publication EBOO1T, 1979. y WisHtcoso-EVsinot éo Vy Vie BHsin c+ eos o¢ Fig, §. Norma forcas at the sloping base of a retaining wall. 3. Cement and Conerete Terminology, ACI Committee 16 Report, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1978. 4, Concrete for Massive Structures, Portland Cement ‘Association publication 1S128T, 1979. 5. Building Movements and Joints, Portland Cement Association publication FS086B, 1982. 6. AC Comrnitiee 207, "Mass Concrete for Dams and Other Massive Structures,” Journal of the American Concrete institute. April 1970, pages 270-309. 7 Bushhammering of Concreie Surtaces, Portland ‘Sement Association publication IS051A, 1972 8 Color and Texture in Architectural Concrete, Pont- land Gement Associalion publication SPO? 1/1980. 9. Terzaghi, Karl; and Peck, Ralph B., Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1948. 10.Peck, Ralph B.; Hanson, Walter E; and Thorburn, ‘Thomas H., Foundation Enginearing, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1953. 11. Municipal Code of Chicago Relating to Buildings, Chapter 70, 1980,NOTATION 1ummation of horizontal forces acting on the wall EV = summation of vertical forces acting on the wall plus weight of wall 1H’ = component of resultant force on base (mostly horizontal) P,, = horizontal component of total earth force Fag = horizontal component of total force due to surcharge PR, = vertical component of total earth force Ris = vertical component of total force due 10 wurcharge VY’ = component of resultant force on base (mostly vertical) a = depth of lug of b= width of bx c= width of top of sloped wall d =(b-c-1M) n hy =height of wall above base = vertical distance from bottom of hee! to inter- section with the surface of the earth above the heel of the base kn =herizontal component of equivalentfluid pressure of backlil or surcharge, s ky =vertical component of equivalent fluid pressure of backlil or surcharge, s surcharge height as an equivalent soil load surcharge pressure x =height of lower risers of stepped face y ~height of top riser of stepped face ‘a =slope angle of bottom of base B= slope angle of backfill The drawings in this publication are typical designs and should not be used as working drawings. They are intended to be helpful in the preparation of compote plans which should be adapted to local conditions and should conform with logal ‘requirements. Working drawings should be prepared and ap- proved by a qualifed engineer or architect.Other helpful references from the Portland Cement Association. . . Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures (EB00'T) Best-selling concrete manual discusses properties of corent-water | paste and hardened concrete with effects of component materials; procedures of concrete mix proportioning, batching, mixirg, transporting, handling, placing, and consolidation; curing procedures; ‘causes and methods of minimizing volume changes; special types of concrete. Outlines commonly used control tests for quality concrete. Building Movements and Joints (EB086B) Describes causes of movements and length changes in concrete buildings: tells how to design and locate joints to accommodate these movements and avoid costly maintenance and repairs due to cracking, leaking, and other troublesome problems. Also discusses behavior of masonry and composite walls, Bushhammering of Concrete Surfaces (IS051A) Describes techniques of bushhammering to obtain attractive surfaces; suggests specifications. Color and Texture in Architectural Concrete (SP021A) Discusses decorative surface finishes, describes and illustrates methods of obtaining attractive surfaces on both precast and cast-in-place concrete. Full color. Concrete tor Massive Structures (IS128T) Information on concrete used in dams, locks, large bridge peers or oaissons, ‘and foundations. Emphasizes economy in use of large volumes of concrete These publications are avialable for purchase from the Portland Cement Association. To order, write or call: Order Processing Portland Cement Association 5420 Old Orchard Road ‘Skokie, IL 60077-1083 (708) 966-6200, ext 564 “This publication Is intonded SOLELY for use by PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations ofthe information provided herein, and who will accept total responsiblity for the application ofthis information. The Portland Cement Association DISCLAIMS any and all RESPONSIBILITY and LIABILITY for the accuracy of and the application ofthe information contained in tis publication tothe full extent permitted by law, Portland Cement Association 5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie, Mfinois 60077-1083 ‘An organization of cement manufacturers to improve land extend the uses of poland cement and concrete thnough market development engineering researc teducation and pable alas work Printed in U.S.A, 18222.01T