Controlled source seismology:

Seismic refraction

Reading: Fowler p119-130

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Seismic methods and scale

Global seismology (earthquakes)
Provides information on global earth
structure and large scale velocity
anomalies (100s to 1000s km)
Difficult to image smaller scale
structure, particularly away from
earthquake source regions
Controlled source seismology
Allows higher resolution studies
(meters to 100s km)
Can carry out experiments away
from tectonic regions

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Controlled source seismology

refraction

Set out a line or array of

geophones
Input a pulse of energy into the
ground
Record the arrival times to
interpret velocity structure
Seismic refraction
Used to study large scale crustal
layering: thickness and velocity
Seismic reflection
reflection

Imaging of subsurface reflectors

Difficult to determine accurate
velocities and depths

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Reflection and refraction

Seismic rays obey Snells Law

(just like in optics)

The angle of incidence equals the

angle of reflection, and the angle of
transmission is related to the angle of
incidence through the velocity ratio.

sin i

sin e1

sin e2

Note: the transmitted energy is refracted

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Reflection and refraction

Seismic rays obey Snells Law

(just like in optics)

The angle of incidence equals the

angle of reflection, and the angle of
transmission is related to the angle of
incidence through the velocity ratio.

1 1

But a conversion from P to S or vice

versa can also occur. Still, the angles
are determined by the velocity ratios.

2 2

sin i

sin e1

sin e2

sin f1

sin f 2

=p

where p is the ray parameter and is constant along each ray.

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Reflection and refraction

You can see:

a direct wave, reflected and transmitted waves, plus multiples

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Critical incidence
sin i

sin e2

when 2 > 1, e2 > i

we can increase iP until e2 = 90

When e2 = 90 i = iC the critical angle

sin iC =

1
2

The critically refracted energy travels along the

velocity interface at 2 continually refracting energy
back into the upper medium at an angle iC
a head wave
Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Head wave

Occurs due to a low to high velocity interface

Energy travels along the boundary at the higher velocity
Energy is continually refracted back into the upper medium at an angle iC
Provides constraints on the boundary depth e.g. Moho depth

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Head wave

You can see:

a head wave, trapped surface wave, diving body wave

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Two-layered model
Energy from the source can reach
the receiver via several paths:

1. Direct wave
Energy traveling through the top layer,
traveltime:

t=

A straight line passing through the origin

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Two-layered model
1. Direct wave
S

2. Reflected wave

Energy reflecting off the velocity interface,

traveltime:

SC

t=

CR

where

SC = CR = z12 +

x2
4

so

t=
or

z12 +

x2
4

12t 2 = 4 z12 + x 2
The equation of a hyperbolae
Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Two-layered model
1. Direct wave
S

2. Reflected wave

3. Head wave or refracted wave

Energy refracting across the interface, traveling
along the underside and then back up to the
surface, traveltime:

t=
with some algebra

t=

SA

1
2 z1

AB

1
1

BR

12 x
+
22 2

ie. the equation of a straight line

t = a + bx
where the slope of the line is 1 2
and the intercept is

2 z1

12
22
Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Two-layered model
S

Determining model parameters

1 determined from the slope of the

direct arrival (straight line passing
through the origin)

2 determined from the slope of the

head wave (straight line first arrival
beyond xcross)

Layer thickness z1 determined from

the intercept of the head wave
(already knowing 1 and 2)

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Multiple-layered models
For multiple layered models we
can apply the same process to
determine layer thickness and
velocity sequentially from the top
layer to the bottom
Head wave from base of layer 2:

t=

2 z1

12 x
+
22 2

Head wave from base of layer 3:

t=

2 z1

12 2 z 2
2 x
+
1 22 +
2
3 2
3 3

Head wave from

base of layer m:

m 1 2 z
2j x
j
t =
1 2 +

m m
j =1 j

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Some problems
This analysis works for horizontal flat layers each of which
produces a head wave with first arrivals in some distance window

This is not the case for:

Hidden layers do not
produce first arrivals
Low velocity layers
do not produce a head
wave (need a velocity
increase)
Non-horizontal
layers?

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Dipping layers

Dipping layers still produce head

waves but the traveltimes are
affected by the dip
Shooting up-dip: the velocity
appears greater
Shooting down-dip: the
velocity is reduced

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Reversing lines

shooting to a line of geophones from both ends

For dipping layers layer velocities appear
different for each end the dip and true
velocity can be determined from the updip and down-dip velocities

For horizontal layers the traveltime

curves are symmetrical

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Real Earth flat layers

Although the interfaces between
real Earth layers are not perfectly
flat, head waves still travel along
them
Analysis methods:
Best-fit straight line through
the points provides an average
layer thickness and velocity
Model the data by creating a
velocity model and calculating
the arrival times: Forward
modeling
Trade-off between layer
thickness and velocity variations
Ambiguity!

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Crustal structure of the Alps

Fowler Fig 9.20

Reduced
traveltime
Pg PmP Pn

crust
mantle

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Amplitudes reflected and transmitted

The amplitude of the reflected, transmitted and converted phases can be
calculated as a function of the incidence angle using Zoeppritzs equations.

Reflection and transmission coefficients

for a specific impedance contrast

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

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Summary
Controlled source seismology
Provides for high resolution studies (crustal and smaller scale)
Possible is non-tectonic region
Reflection and refraction seismic techniques
Reflection and refraction at an interface
Snells Law allows calculation of ray trajectories
The ray parameter is constant along a ray
Incidence at the critical angle results in a head wave
Refraction (Wide-angle) studies
Provide layer velocity and thickness crustal structure

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

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