Appendix C

Remarks on Computations

Many stat1st1cs books contain sections on computational methods,

the reader can best make his own choice among them. I found helpful
remarks in Scarborough [1950, Chapter 1], Cochran and Cox [1957;
3.31-3.34] and Snedecor [1956, 5.1-5.6]. I shall merely add a few hints
about sampling computations.
1. Finite summation, denoted by ~. is a basic tool explained in most
elementary statistics books; also by Hansen, Hurwitz, and Madow
[1953, ll, 2.2]. I have covered residual needs with detailed presentations
of individual formulas, and merely add a few reminders here. See also
Problem 1.14.
(a)
(Y; + x;) =

L Y; + L xi.

This illustrates the general rule that

in a rectangular matrix the order of summation is reversible:

m n

n m

L L Yii = L L Y;;
(b)

(LY;)

'

= 'LY/
'

+ -~Y;Y; =
ll'"")

'LY/
'

+ 2 L< _Y;Yi
t

Hence the square of

'

a sum does not equal the sum of squares. Similarly, for products

(tY;)(tx;) = tY;X; + ;{Y;X;.

LY;
(c) _;LX;
;

L Y;.
; X;
617

618

(d)

Appendix C

i;

[Y;- <I Y;)J2 =I [y/- 2y; I Y; + <z .~;)2]

n

=I Y/- 2 I

znY; + n (zn~;)

Y;

=I Y/- <I Y;)2.

n
This form occurs in all variance computations. It also illustrates
basic summation rules.
n

(e)

z(ay
j

+ b)2 =I (a 2 y/ + 2aby 1 + b2)

;

= a

Y/

(f)

(lOkx;

+ 2a b I

+ y 1) 2 = 10 I
2
,.

x/

Y;

+2 X

+ nb 2

10,.

I
j

x 1y 1

+I y/.
j

This form facilitates computing, with one operation on a desk

machine, the terms needed for variances of ratio means. On the
upper dial of the computer ~ (WA'x; + y1) = IOk x 1
Y; can
1
be simultaneously cumulated.
1
When adding or cumulating a long list of numbers, it is wise to
write down subtotals at reasonable intervals, say, every lOth or
50th number.

+I

2. When sample variables must be weighted, the weights enter similarly

into each sample moment. The weights w;' can be standardized so that
sum to unity: w1 = w/fi w;'; I w1 = I. Thus equal weights are
i

=I W;Y;. the

a special case of w;' = I and w; = lfn. The mean is fi

of squares is ~ w1y/, and the kth moment is

z w y/ = I
j

w;'y/'f!

Moments of deviations may be computed also as

w;(y; - y),..

example, note that~ :;g/ - y2 Similarly, ~ ';(Y; - a) 2 = ~ -'JY; 2

When grouped observations are used, 11';' denotes the frequency
the relative frequency of the jth group.
3. A few remarks on rounding may help readers un1 ..........--:,
statistical computations.
(a) Rounding may be safest and most convenient on raw
(Y;. x;). It is seldom worth maintaining these variables
precision than a standard deviation ( a~o.).