OTH 95 489 LITERATURE REVIEW OF SE THE FRACTURE PROPERTIES Executive OF GRADE A SHIP PLATE Prepared by British Steel plc for the Health and Safety Executive Offshore Technology Report : Health and Safety ExecutiveOTH 95 489 LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE FRACTURE PROPERTIES OF GRADE A SHIP PLATE Prepared by British Steel ple Swinden Technology Centre Moorgate Rotherham S60 3AR HSE BOOKS Health and Safety Executive - Offshore Technology Report© Crown copyright 1997 Applications for reproduction should be made in writing to: Copyright Unit, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 18Q First published 1997 ISBN 0-7176-1339-9 All rights reserved. No part of this publication ‘may be reproduced, stored in a retrleval system, (or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise) without the prior \wrliten permission of the copyright owner. ‘This report is published by the Fiealth and Safety Executives partof a series of reports of work which has been supported by funds provided by the Executive, Neither the Executive, or the contractors concerned assume any liability for the report nor do they necessarily reflect the views or policy of the Executive, Results, including detaited evaluation and, where relevant, recommendations stemming from their research projects are published in the OTH series of reports. Backgroundinformationand dataarising from these research projects are published in the OTI series of reports. iiSUMMARY A literature review of the fracture properties of Grade A ship plate has been carried out for the Offshore Safety Division of the Health and Safety Executive. Merchant vessels are being used increasingly as offshore floating storage and production and storage units. ‘The work tas arisen principally as a result of current interest in the extension of service life of existing vessels, together with the possible change of use of such vessels and the structural integrity assessments therefore required. General trends in this area ate first described before a review of ship operating conditions is presented, Aspects of ship failures from 1960 to the present day are then addressed with particular emphasis on the fracture properties of stecls involved in ship failures. Various fracture control approaches for ships are summarised and the test methods used in these approaches, together with the subsequent material property requirements, described. The fracture properties of Grade A and other as-rolled ship steels are covered in three sections; Charpy impact energy, fracture initiation toughness and fracture afrest toughness. Typical values of these parameters for Grade A steels are defined and the factors affecting them addressed. Correlations between the various parameters are reviewed and the report concludes with a general commentary on the findings and the principal conclusions. Overall, itis highlighted that due to the distinct possibility of fracture initiation in a ship structure, both initiation and arrest toughness are required. The findings show that initiation toughness of Grade A plate is extremely variable but generally adequate; the crack arrest toughness of Grade A plate is less variable but likely to be inadequate for structural integrity to be guaranteed at a sufficient level of confidence in the event of initiation of a large fast running crack.2 3 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background and Reasons for Work 1,2 Historical Development 1.3 Objectives and Scope 1.4. Structure of Report FACTORS AFFECTING STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY OF SHIPS 2.1 Overview 2.2 Design arid Fabrication 2.3 Operating Temperatures 2.4 Stresses 2.5 Loading Rates 2.6 Defect Sizes REVIEW OF SHIP FAILURES 3.1 Overview 3.2 Damage Quantification 3.3 properties of Ship Plates invoived in Failures Overview Analysis of Brittle Behaviour in Ship Steels Prior to 1960 Analysis of Ship Fallures, 1960 to Present Day Pellini NDT of Mild Steel Plates Involved in Ship Failures Fracture Toughness of Mild Stee! Plates Involved in Ship Failures APPROACHES TO FRACTURE CONTROL IN WELDED STEEL SHIPS 4.1 Overview 4.2 UK Approaches. 4.3 US Approaches 4.4 Canadian Approach 4.5 Japanese Approach 4.6 IACS Approach CHARPY IMPACT BEHAVIOUR OF GRADE A SHIP PLATE 5.1. Introduction 5.2 Parent Material Charpy Impact Properties 5.2.1 Data from UK Sources 5.2.2 Data from European Publications: v Page ONNa + a ©0 © BNNNoaam 15 15 7 18 18 19 19Page 5.2.3 Data from US Publications. 5.2.4 Data from Canadian Sources 6.2.5 Data from Japanese Sources 5.3 Welded Plate Charpy Impact Properties 5.4 Relation of Charpy Impact Energy to Microstructure FRACTURE INITIATION TOUGHNESS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Parent Plate Results 6.2.1 Data from UK Sources 6.2.2 Data from US and Canadian Sources 6.2.3 Data from Japanese Sources 6.3 Welded Plate Data FRACTURE PROPAGATION AND ARREST 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Basic Concepts 7.3 Pellini NDTT Data 7.4 Dynamic Tear Test Data 7.5 Crack Arrest Stress Intensity Data 7.8 Large Scale Crack Arrest-Type Tests 7.6.1 Test Types Considered 7.6.2 Robertson Test Data 76.3 ESSO Test Data 7.6.4 Double Tension Test Data CORRELATIONS BETWEEN TOUGHNESS PARAMETERS, 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Composition and Microstructure 8.2.1 Compositional and Microstructural Effects on Charpy Impact Behaviour 8.2.2 Compositional and Microstructural Effects on Pellini NDTT 8.2.3 Compositional and Microstructural Effects on Crack Arrest Temperatures 8.3 Prediction of Fracture Initiation Toughness 8.3.1 General Aspects 8.3.2 Review of Applicable Charpy - Fracture Toughness Correlations from CvK®) 8.3.3 Correlations from Other Sources 8.4 Prediction of Crack Arrest Temperature 8.4.1 Concept 8.4.2 Prediction of Crack Arrest Temperature from Charpy Impact Energy 8.4.3 Prediction of Crack Arrest Temperature from Drop Weight ‘Tear Test (DWTT) Data 8.4.4 Prediction of Crack Arrest Temperature from Pellini NDTT 8.4.5 Crack Arrest Predictions Based on Stress Intensity Approaches vi 21 22 23 26 25 25 26. 27 S888 888 ae a 6 289. GENERAL COMMENTARY ON FINDINGS 9.1 General Trends 9.2 Review of Ship Operating Conditions 9.3 Review of Ship Failures 9.4 Fracture Control Approaches 9.5 Overview of Charpy Impact Properties. 9.6 Overview of Fracture Initiation Toughness 9.7 Overview of Fracture Arrest Data 9.8 Overview of Correlations Between Toughness Parameters 10. CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES TABLES FIGURES vii 51 53 59 751. INTRODUCTION 1.1. BACKGROUND AND REASONS FOR WORK The extension of service life of engineering structures is an area of great interest due to the large economic benefits such an approach can confer. This trend is particulasly evident in the shipping industry where many vessels are being used for periods extending, beyond their original intended service life, and in some circumstances, for applications for which the vessel was not originally intended, for example as offshore floating storage or production and storage units. Offshore structures are required to withstand severe Toads resulting from harsh environrnental conditions and therefore the fracture performance of construction materials is critical. The use of vessels as floating offshore structures is likely to increase and hence the purpose of this report is to review the fracture properties of their materials of construction. ‘The age of the world's fleet has increased steadily since 1980", as shown in Figure 1, and, as such, arguments of increased safety associated with new steels and moder welding processes are largely irrelevant when referring to the large proportion of ‘old’ ships in service today. Associated with this change in age distribution is the trend towards more efficient design in current vessels compared to those constructed 30 years ago or earlier, a fact which has consequently led to a dewnward trend in steel weight for tanker designs since the 1950s and, in particular, since the 1970s, (Figure 2). Consequently, current ships have loss steel in them, leading to potentially more significant fatigue damage and Jess material for corrosion wastage. A further consideration is the potentially reduced or minimised maintenance and repair schedutes arising from a depressed international shipping market. Consequently, two initially identical vessels operated by two different owners may be in a vastly different structural condition at the end of a 20 year service period", while one may have consistently exceeded minimum safety levels of a particular classification society and be readily able to continue service, the other may require major reconstruction and maintenance in order to continue service, ‘A further feature of present merchant ships is the high proportion of ‘normal grade' ship plate (mild steel) used in their construction. According to one survey®, the proportion of grade ‘A' ship plate, a grade with no toughness requirement, in large ships is 80-85% and up to 95% in small and intermediate sized vessels. The remaining material is usually B, D and AH32/36 or DH32/36 for higher stressed areas or crack arrest strakes, A typical breakdown of higher strength and normal strength grades in tanker construction is shown in Figure 3, Since the presence of fatigue cracks in ageing ship structures cannot realistically be completely avoided, appropriate lines of defence to prevent catastrophic hull fractures from these defects, and pre-existing fabrication flaws, must be ensured for an adequate safety level. The avoidance of fracture initiation by ensuring, amongst other things, an adequate level of fracture toughness is seen as the first line of defence while the ability to arrest a fast running crack is a widely accepted second line of defence. Such an objective can be achieved through the implementation of a well-formulated fracture control plan, one aspect of which is the quantification of a material's resistance to fracture initiation and propagation. Given the above situation it is evident that for the extension of service life, or change of use of a vessel, steps must be taken to ensure the continued structural integrity of the vessel. This can be achieved through a fracture control plan, one.aspect of which is the quantification of the toughness of the steels used in the hull construction. Since these are 2predominantly grade 'A' plates, an assessment of the fracture properties of grade ‘A’ plate is @ primary requirement of any fracture control plan for ship structures, 1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Derivation of fracture control plans for ship structures has largely been reactive, criteria usually being based on previous successful designs and amended on account of lessons learnt from failures. However, it has been claimed that over the last forty years few improvements have taken place and the criteria remain largely unchanged. This, it is claimed, can be attributed to the industry's inability to systematically collect and quantify data on ships' experience and the difficulty in distinguishing damage caused by the sea environment from that related to fabrication or structural inadequacies. ‘A number of woll known failures to early welded stec! ships led to the recognition of the danger of brittle fracture. Poor design details with material of poor weldability and poor workmanship in fabrication were identified as the main causes of fracture initiation. During the post war period, tic classification societies independently developed requirements for notch tough steels to minimise the risk of brittle fractures occurring in welded ships. The lack of a common approach for the definition of steel selection led to considerable inconvenience in both the steelmaking and shipbuilding industries”, In 1959, major progress was made with the introduction of the unified requirements for the various grades of ship steel. There are currently four grades of normal strength steel: GradeA = No Charpy Requirement GradeB = 273 at 0°C GradeD = 27S at-10°C GradeE - 273 at-40°C For Grade A plate it is suggested that although no Charpy value is specified, 27 J at +10°C is assumed. However, Grade A, by its very nature, can have vastly varying fracture properties, and hence the quantification of its fracture performance remains a difficult area. Such steels may perform well in one type of test but badly in others: empirical tests such as Charpy or Pellini are used as acceptance criteria whereas more quantitative parameters such as K, } or CTOD for fracture initiation and K,, for fracture arrest are used in fracture contro) plans. The assessment of the relative behaviour of grade A steel in cach of these test types is therefore essential for the quantification of likely overall fracture behaviour of these stecls. 1.3 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE ‘The principal objectives of this report are: (To review concepts of fracture control in ship structures. (i) To review the fracture properties of Grade A ship plate in terms of fracture initiation resistance, i.e. Charpy impact energy, fracture toughness, ii) To review the fracture properties of Grade A ship plate in terms of fracture propagation resistance i.e, Pellini NDTT (Nil Ductility Transition Temperature) crack arrest, DWTT (Drop Weight Tear Test). Gv) To provide recommendaiions on the fracture properties of Grade A ship plate and the potential for these properties to meet the minimum requirements of a variety of fracture control plans. In order to meet these objectives it was necessary to place limitations on the scope of the ‘work so that the report maintains its relevance. ‘The following guidelines were therefore followed whenever possible.(i) Priority was placed on references and data sources dating from 1970 onwards. Where appropriate, for example in the review of ship failure, references between 1950 and 1970 were also included. (li) Only the properties of steels equivalent to ‘normal’ shipbuilding grades (A, B,C) have been reviewed. Adhering only to Grade A would be unnecessarily restrictive since Grade A is often only an untested Grade 8 or C plate. Higher strength grades AH32 and AH36 have not been included, since they are heat treated, except in some general review aspects of crack arrest concepts. Gif) Where possible, the vintage, thickness, composition and test orientation of each plate in each data set has been included, (iv) A range of references and data from around the world represents the most relevant data set. However, because of the particular strengths of individual nations in the shipbuilding industry and formation of fracture control plans, the majority of references are from the UK, USA, Canada and Japan, (v) The data included in this report come from a number of different sources including journals, conference proceedings and British Stee) internal data and references, In addition, Metadex Searches were carried out under various headings including ‘ship plate’, ‘fracture’, ‘Grade A’ and 'fracture toughness’. 1.4 STRUCTURE OF REPORT In the following sections the results of this literature review are presented in nine chapters. In Chapter 2 the factors affecting the structural integrity of ships are reviewed including welding aspects, loading conditions, operating temperatures and typical defect sizes. This is followed in Chapter 3 by a review of published work on ship failures and, where available, the recommendations concerning material properties arising from the analysis of these failures, A review of the current concepts of fracture control in ships is given in Chapter 4, with emphasis on the necessity to define both material and operational factors. The fracture control approaches used in the UX, USA, Canada and Japan are reviewed. The analysis of material properties starts in Chapter 5, with a review of Charpy data and is followed in Chapter 6 with initiation fracture toughness data Data relating to fracture propagation aspects such as Pellini NDTT crack arrest measurement and wide plate testing are presented in Chapter 7 and correlations between small and large scale test methods are reviewed in Chapter 8 A general commentary on the findings is given in Chapter 9 followed by conclusions in Chapter 10.2. FACTORS AFFECTING STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY OF SHIPS 2.1. OVERVIEW The most important safety requirement for welded strictural steels in load beating applications is the avoidance of cleavage fracture”. ‘The factors influencing the risk of such fracture are: material properties, temperature, stress, loading rate, thickness and crack size, Table I shows the significance of these factors for submarines and ships. The interaction of these factors is of particular importance when assessing the condi and acceptance of old vessels for continued service. Recently, attention has shifted towards a rational approach to maintenance that more explicitly accounts for design, inspection and maintenance interactions. One such methodology is known as AIM (Assessment- Inspection - Maintenance), the principal steps of which are shown in Figure 4. With the median age of the world's fleet approaching 15 years and with fewer owners opting for new building, the importance of AIM has increased in recent years, Additionally, current trends toward a probabilistic approach for safety assessment require each variable affecting structural integrity be’ defined in a statistical manner which ean quantify the scatter in that value. Figures 5 and 6 summarise information available for reliability analysis on material property and geometry respectively. Of the areas where little or no data is available those of particular note are the fracture toughness of general (mild) steels (Kg and J,.). Also, the arrest of a running erack by crack arrest strakes has never been experimentally verified, As a basis for more accurate design of new ships, or assessment of existing ships, much effort has been devoted to establishing a statistical description of the ocean environment and hence ship loads, development of improved methods of design against fatigue cracking and brittic fracture, analysis of collapse modes of hull girders and the introduction of statistically-based reliability analysis". On the basis that the ‘avoidance of brittle fracture in any structure depends on the relative magnitudes of material toughness, defect size and stress, the significance of a particular level of material toughness can only assessed when operational factors are also taken into consideration, In this chapter the current knowledge on various factors affecting the structural integrity of ship structures is reviewed in five sections covering: + Design and fabrication + Operating temperatures + Stresses Loading rates + Defect sizes 2.2 DESIGN AND FABRICATION 221 Design Accurate design of ship's bull requires careful structural analysis with the aim of ensuring that excessive deformation does not occur and that direct and shear stresses at any point do not exceed permissible levels relative to specified fatigue, ductile and brittle failure criteria”. For initial design purposes, much of the necessary evaluation of stresses and deformations can be carried out using simple plate and beam formulae. At a later stage, ‘more elaborate processes such as finite element analysis may be used, Small scale models, sea trials and continual monitoring also play a major role in the development of a new design or modification of an old one. 5For the purposes of design against fatigue and fracture the following four point plan is usually followed”: (Prediction must be made of wave loading histograms: in the case of slender ships this should include assessment of slam-induced whipping and wave-excited vibration, ii) Stress analysis must be carried out with the aim of converting primary hull loads (bending moments, torsional moments etc) into stress. levels throughout the structure: analysis should be sufficiently refined to determine stress levels at the boundaries of standard details (welded joint) whose fatigue strength is defined by established endurance curves, ii) Great care must be taken in design of structural details, including careful Profiling of penetrations, removal of welds as far as possible from geometric discontinvities and use of the most fatigue-resistant class of welded joints in accordance with the S-N (stress-number of cycles) approach to the fatigue of welded joints, (iv) Use should be made of empirically based fatigue endurance curves, eg those of BS 5400 for steel structures, in conjunction with cumulative damage (Miner's Rule) failure criterion to estimate fatigue lives, ‘The use of vessels for floating production or storage vessels for oil production also leads to specific design requirements, notably the minimisation of vessél motion and particularly reqi the interaction of views between process engineers, used to stationary applications, and the ship designer who is familiar with incessant motion”, ‘Throughout the design process the problem of uncertainties is always present; they are usually treated probabilistically and individual failure modes assessed separately. 22.2 Fabrication Developments continue to take place in both materials and fabrication technology, Several factors, such as advances in automated and semi-automated fabrication processes, the employment of both fixed location and mobile robotic devices for both welding and painting, and the possible use of new joining techniques (including laser welding and soft-vacuum electron beam welding) create much potential for innovative structural design. To the ship operator such designs offer several potential operational benefits, for example much easier tank/cargo hold cleaning and repainting. To the designer such structural forms offer the potential of creating lighter more reliable structures, albeit at the same time creating new demands on analysis, However, such developments in ‘manufacturing technology also tend to lead to increased quality of structure, for example in terms of improved straightness and reduced levels of residual stresses, factors which all contribute to structural efficiency, both in strength and fatigue life terms. The percentage of welding by volume for two blocks of a bulk carrier is shown in Figure 7. Submerged arc welding accounts for ~50% of total weld volume in the mid-ship section but <5% at end sections due to the unsuitability of automated processes for welding curved shells. Flux-cored electrodes are mainly used on the basis of a claimed 50% reduction in welding costs, Joint types in ships are typically 70 - 80% fillet and 20 - 25% butt. Welding is often carried out in all positions and frequently with restricted access. Manual methods therefore account for ~80% of all welding. However, due to the economic advantages ‘of automatic or semi-automatic welding processes there is an effort worldwide to increase the amount of mechanised welding. ‘Typical weld types and their application inshipbuilding are shown in Figure 8. A comprehensive review of welding trends in ship construction is given in References 14, 15, 16. 2.3 OPERATING TEMPERATURES A survey of ships and their operating conditions” has shown that ships operate at temperatures less than O°C for only 3% of their life. The distribution of service temperatures derived by Hodgson and Boyd" is shown in Figure 9. Arctic service may give rise to lower temperatures but O°C is usually taken as the design temperature for conventional ships. 2.4 STRESSES ‘The design of ship hulls is primarily an empirical proportioning based on satisfactory past experience rather than a systematic analytical design and therefore calculated design stresses for specific sea states are rarely found”. Strain measurements on actual ships have indicated maximum vertical wave bending stress excursions (peak to trough) of 165 N/mm, Maximum bending stresses of 69 N/mm for cargo liners and 97 N/mm? for tankers and bulk carriers have also been recorded”. A value of 100 N/mm is suggested in Reference 7 for an assumed nominal stress, However, local siress concentrations may give rise to local stress far in excess of 100 Nimm?. Strain rates are often elevated and-can give enhanced loading such that ‘nominal loads of only $ YS can give rise to stress approaching the dynamic yield stress of the material. At present, there is no large body of stress histograms for different ship types, structures and trading patterns. However, the ship structures committee (USA) carried out strain gauging analysis of eight SL~7 class vessels and collected 53 000 readings over a period of 7 data years”, ‘These data are presented as 63 histograms in Reference 20, and an example of the readings from one gauge for one ‘ship data year’ is shown in Figure 10, ‘This shows a typical loading histogram for which the exponential distribution was found to give the best fit. Histograms for seven year summaries of Atlantic and Pacific service are shown in Figures 11 and 12°. Other researchers are more cautious in the definition of ‘typical stress’ levels, Pense'? suggests that since stresses equal to yield point are occasionally experienced it is realistic to take this as the reference stress for ship studies. This assumption is claimed necessary due to the possibility of yield point magnitude residual stress in welded ship plates which could contribute to brittle fracture initiation from these regions. 2.5 LOADING RATES ‘There is considerable debate on the appropriate loading rate to be assumed for ship structures. It is universally accepted that loading rates can be high, bul there is also widespread disagreement on the exact magnitude. Since the toughness of most steels varies with loading rate it is necessary to define the representative range of loading rates in ship structures, The determination of strain rates in ship hull structures is reported in Reference 22. Full scale instrumentation tests on a range of vessel types are also reported ‘and the determined strain rates given in Table 2. The principal factors affecting the strain rate were found to be: + Type of loading (slamming, whipping) + Wave encounter + Ship length/wave length ratio, + Route (ocean, latitude)Strain rate excursions were found to follow a typical exponential distribution also seen in other structures, that is high strains only occurred with a low strain rate, Estimates of strain rates and stress intensity rates are shown in Table 3 and are compared with strain rates in fracture toughness tests and other structures in Table 4. An extensive summary of strain rate measurements in ships is given in Table 5®. lt is claimed that fracture ‘toughness-type tests carried out at intermediate loading rates are the most appropriate for ship structures, Hull girder bending due to normal wave action produces strain rates of the order of 10% s", Slam impact at the bow of a ship excites vertical vibration modes known as hull whipping. The likely strain rate in the mid-ships section can be calculated from the fundamental frequency of the hull to be around 2 x 10? = 100 Nim? in 0.25 s@, Higher tensile strain rates may occur further forward in the structure, By extrapolating measured values it may be deduced that strain rates of around 2 x 10? s" might be achieved under extreme conditions in the deck near to the bows of the ship. It is suggested in Reference 24 that intermediate loading rates with K ~6.5 x 10° MPavm s" are the most appropriate for ship plate, testing. The increase in transition temperature when moving from static to intermediate rate is often less significant than that observed when moving from intermediate to impact loading rate? and it is therefore important that strain rates in tests are not excessively higher than those measured in actual ships. 2.6 DEFECT SIZES Information on defect sizes is limited. However, Antonion™ collated data on 25 652 cracks detected over an cight year period in 233 tankers, A log normal distribution was found to fit the data well, as shown in Figure 13. The three parameters for the log normal distribution were ¢ = 0.55, c= 5.44 and 6 = 40.5 mm. However, the significance of crack size must be considered in relation to the likely stress distribution, particularly in a welded joint where residual stresses are high and the likelihood of fracture initiation a distinct possibility. Experimental work” suggests that residual stresses in a ship's deck are tensile-and of yield stress magnitude for a distance of two plate thicknesses either side of a longitudinal frame centre line, (Figure 14). ‘The stress intensity for a through-thicknoss crack in the deck, centred at the stiffener and subjected to an applied tensile stress of 100 N/mm? is shown in Figure 1S. Since the peak value is ~125 MPaYm, this is a reasonable value of K, or Ky, to aim for in ship steels and their HAZs.3. REVIEW OF SHIP FAILURES 3.4 OVERVIEW With the experience of the well knowh casualties to early as-welded ships, such as US Liberty ships and T2 tankers, the ship building industry was one of the first to seriously recognise the practical importance of fracture problems, and in particular that of catastrophic brittle failure. ‘The combination of poor design detailing, poor quality matcrial, fatigue cracking and poor workmanship was found to be largely responsible for such failures. Improvements of these aspects has led to a significant reduction in the incidence of brittle fractures in ships although such failures do stil occur, The purpose of this section is therefore to review a number of recent ship failures in terms of nature of damage, seriousness of failure and how the material properties contributed to these failures. ‘The aim is to relate the incidence of failures to the fracture properties of the steels, A full review of the development of fracture control plans following the fracture problems with’the first all-welded ships is beyond the scope of this work and is reported elsewhere™, 3.2 DAMAGE QUANTIFICATION Ship failures are rarely caused by one single factor; more frequently they are due to combinations of factors as described above. A review of over 2000 vessel casualties”, not all of which were losses, compiled between 1969 and 1975 shows that only 7% are due to structural failures (Figure 16). While it is claimed that other data may show a higher proportion®” it is clearly evident that instances related to human and operational factors are typically an order of magnitude higher than structural failures. Frequency and type of damage occurring in ships also shows a strong dependency on age. An investigation on cracking iicidence in ship hulls carried out on 5376 NK class vessels between 1966 and 1985, showed a strong correlation between cracking incidence and presence of corrosion. Both ase time dependent processes, although corrosion may provide sites for fatigue crack initiation, thereby providing a link between the observed damage. Figure 17 shows the number of major cracking incidents and corrosion rates as functions of vessel age. Cracking with corrosion becomes significant after approximately 8 years service life, peaking at 13 years, the decrease in cracking after this age being due to repair or replacement of defective structural members. Other work has reinforced the rapid increase in observed damage after the 8 year life time”, and Jed to further sub-division of damage into ‘initial’ (weld defects, structural discontinuities) and operational (corrosion, fatigue). Figure 18° shows the results of vessel surveys of bulk cartiers of ages less than 8.5 years and greater than 8.5 years, carried out between 1973 and 1979, Of note is the increase with age of damage to top side tanks, deck beams and the high incidence of initial damage (weld defects) to side frames, bottom girders and bottom floors. A similar analysis of large tankers, Figure 19, shows relatively litle difference in type and quantity of damage in vessels aged less than or ‘greater than 8.5 years. The above surveys were carried out on vessels operating conventionally, ie port to port. However a report on vessel operation for tanker-based marginal field production? resents a survey of operating experience of seven installations operating at the time of the survey (1985), ‘This review highlights that although vessel damage can occur (eg fractured bulkheads and ‘webs) the downtime lost to vessel-related problems was very small, Where problems were 9found, they were predominantly due to design deficiencies such as inadequate radii at corners, The majority of down-time occurred during the first eighteen months of operation. Kaminski and Krekel" have presented a reliability analysis for fatigue and fracture risk of a floating production storage vessel. The vessel was a converted ten year old tanker and was recertified according to fixed offshore platform rules which require the demonstration of a remaining fatigue life of 20 years. ‘The vessel was constructed from A and AH36 grade plates, the latter being used only for central struts and bulk heads. It was concluded hat an inspection period of 6 years would maintain a satisfactory reliability index and that only when the Charpy impact energy was less than 6 J would the fracture risk be increased to an unacceptable evel, 3.3 PROPERTIES OF SHIP PLATES INVOLVED IN FAILURES 3.3.1 Overview ‘The assessment of properties of stecl plates taken from failed ships enables a unique approach to the specification of mechanical property requirements to be taken; viz that of defining the likely combination of mechanical properties below which fractures are a definite possibility. ‘The problem of defining required material toughness is both long-standing and complex and great benefit can be gained when the results of ship failures are included. Because of the high costs and high profiles associated with many ship failures such as MV Kurdistan®®, MV Tyne Bridge®” and MV World Concord, the reasons for the failures are often investigated in great detail. In the following sections the results of the ‘material property assessments carried out during the course of a number of ship failures are reviewed, ‘When riveted construction was superseded by welded construction in marine applications structures were no longer fail-safe since riveted joints, which could act as crack attesters, were no longer present. This had a disastrous effect on structural longevity, as evidenced by fractures in, and complete loss of, US Liberty ships and T2 tankers built during the 1940s. Subsequent investigations led to the definition of parent material toughness requirements in terms of a required Charpy impact energy at a specific temperature, An extensive review of ship fractures up to the mid-1950s was carried out by Williams" and included detailed assessments of material characteristics. More recent failures have been reviewed by Sumpter, while implications of failures in the US are documented by Rolfe et al and Hawthorne and Loss”. These references are reviewed in the following sections. 3.3.2 Analysis of Brittle Behaviour in Ship Steels Prior to 1960 Williams” presents extensive material property data obtained from tests on fractured mild steel ship plates taken from over 100 ship failures. ‘The reasons for such fractures are represented as an increased probability of failure as a result of lowered plate temperature, Figure 20. At the time of this publication, a 13 ft fo Charpy impact requirement was in force (20 J). Although a number of fractures started in defective welds, propagation was predominantly in the parent plate. The weld metal generally had superior fracture resistance to the parent plate such that the problem was principally one of welding, ‘workmanship, inspection and poor plate material, In Figure 21, Charpy transition curves for six plates in which fractures initiated and twelve plates in which fractures arrested are presented. The plates were between 11 and 18 mm 10thick. Where failure temperatures were known, these are indicated by the letter T, A further analysis of these and other data in terms of 15 ft Ib transition temperature is shown in Figure 22, ‘The difference in distribution of T 15 ft tb between ‘fracture source’, ‘fracture through’ and ‘fracture end’ plates is clearly evident. The following can be observed: + Only 10% of the fracture source plates had more than 10 ft 1b (14 J) of energy at the failure temperature; the highest value was only 11 ftlb (15 J). + For the ‘fracture through’ plates, the energy absorption was greater than 14 J in 33% of cases. + For the ‘fracture end! plates, the energy absorption was greater than 14 J in 734% of cases, ‘These differences are highlighted when comparing the properties of ‘fracture source’ and “fracture end! plates from the same ship, Figure 23. A conclusion of this work was that under the condition prevailing in a ship, fractures are not likely to initiate if the 15 ft Ib (20D) transition temperature is less than 20°F (10°C) higher than the lowest service temperature, Ina separate review by Smedley™ it is further emphasised that the occurrence of fracture ‘source’, ‘through’ and 'end’ is directly related to Charpy impact behaviour: ‘source’ and ‘through’ plates having energies in the range 4 J to 20 J at the casualty temperature and ‘end! plates having energies in the range 9 J to 27 J. A further observed feature was that although fractures often initiated from defective welds, the usual propagation path was through the parent plate and not through weld metal or Heat Affected Zone (HAZ). 21 J was subsequently selected as a required level of Charpy impact energy at this time. Comparing the 21 J transition temperatures with the three types of fracture plates source’, ‘through’ and ‘end’) showed the following results. + Fracture stress plate: 21 J transition temperature = 21°C to 65°C + Fracture through plates : 21 J transition temperature = 0°C to 43°C + Fracture end plates = 21 J transition temperature = -3°C to 32°C. In Britain, Hodgson and Boyd" reviewed the thinking regarding welded steel ships and through an assessment of the properties of mild steels involved in 182 ship casualties concluded that a Charpy impact energy of 47 J (minimum) at 0°C coupled with greater than 30% fibrosity on the fracture face should prevent occurrence of fracture. ‘The energy fequirement was more than twice that of the US code and led to some considerable criticism, 3.3.3 Analysis of Ship Failures, 1960 to Present Day ‘The choice of 1960 as the dividing date for ship failure assessments is arbitrary but was taken to represent the date when more sophisticated fracture control plans were introduced, or at least became available, for ship structures. It also represents the date beyond which some of Wells’ concepts of fracture avoidance became recognised. Furthermore, aithough the number of ship failures due to fracture decreased significantly ‘from the 1960's onwards, several significant and costly failures have occurred in the recent past”, Sumpter presents an extensive review of the fracture toughness properties of a number of plates taken from the more recent failures of MV Kurdistan, MV Tyne Bridge and MV World Concord. These data, shown in Figure 24, show the large variation in Charpy values for the failed plates; at O°C the Charpy values vary between 5 and 32 J. Further work® covers the properties of ship plates involved in cleavage fracture failures associated with collisions during fishery protection duties off Iceland. ‘The ships involved were constructed between 1960 and 1965. Such failures occurred in plates between W7.5 mn and 12 mm thickness and at temperature between +2 and +8°C; none of the plates. ame close to meeting the Hodgson and Boyd" acceptance criteria of 42 J and less than 70% crystallinity at O°C, A subsequent survey of the properties of mild steel ship plate was conducted in 1979, This involved 5 construction sites, 35 different plates and thicknesses in the range 5 to 12mm. The results of tests on pintes between 10 and 12 mm are shown in Figure 25. Approximately half the plates failed the Hodgson and Boyd criteria in the longitudinal orientation and ai] the transverse samples failed these criteria, A quarter of plates of 5 10 6mm thickness failed the criteria demonstrating that the avoidance of potentially brittle structural behaviour could not be guaranteed by use of mild steels, even in thin plates, Tests on 43A plate revealed Charpy properties down to 25 J and 60% crystallinity at +20°C and this was observed to constitute the likely lower bound for this grade, a claim that would seem a little overconfident, ‘This value is typical of, or slightly worse than, casualty plates from ships which have exhibited brittle fracture in service. Rolfe" shows similar data to Figure 25, but compares the results with test results from plates from failed ships, Figure 26. Only wo plates which meet the Hodgson and Boyd criteria (47 J, 30% fibrous) fell in quadrant II and could be classified as failure plates. The criteria were therefore thought to be satisfactory. More recently, property characterisation of ABS Grade B steel has been carried out’, In this work, material was taken from a 25 mm thick hull plate from the ‘Ingram Barge’, an 10S 3301 barge, which failed in a brittle manner in 1972. The Charpy transition curve for this material, determined using specimens taken longitudinally, is shown in Figure 27. At 0°C the Charpy impact energy is ~35 J. Furthermore, although Sumpter points out that the Charpy behaviour of Grade A or similar plate may be adequate in some instances, the steel has very limited sbility to arrest a running crack, It is this additional concern that has led more recently to interest in the crack attest properties of ship steels, and in’ particular the Pellini NDT of such steels as determined using ASTM A-208", 3.3.4 Pellini NDTT of Mild Steet Plates Involved In Ship Fallures Extensive work by Pense™” clearly indicates that the Pellini NDTT of mild steels of Grades A, B and C in the as-rolled condition are higher than the values for the same plates in the normalised condition. Figures 28 and 29 show that the median NDTT is shifted from 20°F (-6°C) to -20°F (-28°C) when a normalising heat treatment is included. The distribution of NDTT for this series of casts was from -20°F (-28°C) to +60°F (16°C) for the as-rolled condition. Guidelines published by Rolfe et al" specified a requirement of an NDTT of 0°F (-18°C) for steel used in primary load carrying members and 20°F (-6°C) for stee! used in secondary members. A survey of NDTT values" showed that for Grades A, B and C in longitudinal and transverse orientations the Rolfe requirements for primary ‘members were satisfied only for 8% of cases and the requirements for secondary members were satisfied for 78% of cases. Hawthorne and Loss” have compared Pellini NDIT data of a range of ship steels with the NDTT values obtained from material taken along the path of a brittle fracture failure in a ship, (Figure 32), The NDTTs of Grades A, B and C in the aserolled condition are of particular relevance. Grade A has consistently higher NDTT than the values obtained for the material from the fractured ship, Grades B and C showed little improvement in NDTT. and were similar in behaviour to the material from the failed ship. The material from the failed ship had NDTT signal to +10°F or higher; the Rolfe criteria of NDTT equal to 0°F of lower clearly seems to have some relevance to ship plate fracture avoidance. While it is 12recognised in Reference 41 that adoption of the 0°F (-18°C) NDTT maximum would result in a high number of rejections in non-heat treated steels for ship apptication this was ot seen to be @ major problem since the use of normalised grades would reduce the risk of fracture, 3.3.5 Fracture Toughness of Mild Steel Plates Involved in Ship Failures The review of references covering ship failure analyses did not generate any extensive data on fracture toughness properties of the steels involved. However, the stest from the failure of the ‘Ingram Barge’ was extensively tested, and included Charpy tests, shown in Figure 27 and CTOD tests, the transition curve for which is shown in Figure 31. The CTOD at 0°C is ~0.1 mm, determined on 25 mm thick B x 2B specimens. 13,u4, APPROACHES TO FRACTURE CONTROL IN WELDED STEEL SHIPS 4.1 OVERVIEW Specifications for fracture control in ships have been evolving for many years, The impetus for this comes from occasional but well publicised ship failures, development in materials and fabrication methods. enhanced assessment methods, changing trends in vessel types and usage and an increasing importance of fracture control strategy as a result of environmental pressures. Rolled stee! plates for hull use are graded by toughness in accordance with IACS rules and the rules of the ship classification society of each county, These requirements are defined as Charpy impact energies at a specific temperature and are summarised together with strongth properties in Tables 6 and 7. However, these requirements do not state which grade can be used at which thickness and ynder which set of operating conditions. For this purpose steel selection criteria, aimed at minimising the fracture risk, are used. Most fracture control plans for stec! ships use Charpy impact energy as the quantifying parameter, the general approach is shown in Figure 32. In recent years however it has been considered desirable to incorporate an element of crack arrest capability of the parent material. Overall plans therefore aim to ensure that firstly the external forces (stress, loading rate, temperature, defect size) do not exceed the resistance factors (yield strength, fracture toughness) of the material and that, secondly, in the event of such execedance, a fast running crack will be arrested by the parent material. It should be noted that sole reliance on the control of unstable fracture initiation places unduly stringent toughness and inspection/quality assurance demands on the weld zone, whereas sole reliance on arrest of long cracks requires special steci qualities. A combination of the approaches is therefore seen as the best compromise. In the following sections the approaches of the UK, USA, Canada, Japan and IACS for avoidance of brittle fracture in ships are reviewed. 4.2 UK APPROACHES ‘The UK rules ate those defined in the Lloyds Rules“®, and the material grade requirements are dependent on hull location. ‘The five different classes of material are shown as a function of structural member type in ‘Table 8(a) and the corresponding thickness limits for mild and higher strongih grades and cach structural class are shown in Table &(b). 15In addition to the long established Lloyds’ Rules, numerous workers have highlighted additional or more modern approaches; most notable are Sumpter" and Smedley, Sumpter” suggests that the generally satisfactory performance of ships built out of steel with poor toughness can be explained in terms of the low strain rate sensitivity of Grade A steel as revealed by dynamic CTOD testing at up to intermediate strain rates. The properties of Grade A plate were considered to be too uncertain for use in high integrity applications, and, in addition to the Charpy requirements of the Lloyds Rules, a Charpy 50% FATT of less than 0°C is recommended. This requirement is further subdivided as per the following details” for plate of thickness $25 mm, Avoidance of Fracture Initiation : 70% maximum Charpy crystallinity at 0°C Avoidance of Fracture initiation : $0% maximum Charpy crystallinity at 0°C and High Level of Crack Arrest Capability Crack Arrester Strakes + 0% maximum Charpy crystallinity at 0°C Itis suggested that these three levels of fracture resistance could be met only by Types C, D and E steels respectively, Sinedley follows the line of crack attest capability more strongly and claims” that the use of steels with crack arrest properties can greatly enhance safety. The Pellini NDTT test is quoted as being particularly suitable for quantifying crack arrest capability. In addition, it is suggested that steels should have at least 27 J Charpy impact energy at the operating temperature, Smedley is also clearly in favour of some aspect of crack arrest being incorporated into the UK codes, and the following extract supports this line of thinking: "Since perfect workmanship is impracticable, it must therefore be accepted that ‘unsuspected sources of fracture initiation will exist. ‘That this is a basic condition which must be tolerated in practical structures has sometimes been challenged, but from experience it is considered inescapable not only by shipbuilders but also by engineers responsible for land structures". - “Under the operational and structural conditions imposed (in ships), prevention of serious fracture must primarily depend upon the resistance of the steel, as buill into the structure, to the propagation of fractures”. Furthermore, Smedley claims the current ship rules are inadequate to guarantee fracture arrest at strosses of ~130 Némm* and below and that classification societies have not amended their rules to comply with the vast amount of experimental evidence. A Pellini test requirement is quoted as NDTT = 7°C below minimum operating temperature for 25 mm plate and 12°C below for 31 mm plate 1o provide necessary fracture resistance. 4.3 US APPROACHES Of all the national approaches of fracture control plans for ships, those from the USA are the most widely documented. The current US requirements incorporate Charpy, Pellini and Dynamic tear test procedures. The requirements stem from extensive work by Rolfe"; Rolfe, Rhea and Kuzmanonic”, Hawthorne and Loss”, Pense™” is the principal study on the subject and recognises that three primary factors affect the susceptibility of a welded structure to brittle fracture: (@ Material toughness at the particular service temperatures, loading rate and plate thickness, Gil) Size and type of flaw. i) Stress level, including stress concentrations and résidual stress, All three factors can be interrelated through concepts of fracture mechanics. ‘The US Approach recognises the following factors": 16@ Ship hulls can be subjected to dynamic yield point loading at 0°C. }) Undetected flaws will always exist in ship hulls. Gii) The complete avoidance of stress raisers in a ship hull is impossible. Gv) The only way to guarantee that a steel has achieved a certain level of toughness is to measure it using a fracture toughness test. ‘The derived maximum allowable thickness for ABS steels in accordance with the American National Standards Institute Guide for Steel Hull Welding” are given in Table 9 below for ordinary strength grades and high strength grade plates. In addition a Ky/o,, of 0.9 at 0°C is required (K,, = dynamic plane strain stress intensity, 344 = dynamic yield stress). This requirement does not have to be measured directly but can be’ inferred from Pellini and dynamic tear data provided the following levels are achieved: + Pellini NDTT :NDTT max =-18°C (primary members), °C (secondary members) 76 Nema? 45 Nimo? + Dynamic Tear Test Requirement : 340 J for YS (16 mm thick at 25°C) 390 for YS These requirements will not guarantee complete absence of brittle fracture but must be used in conjunction with properly designed crack srresters fabricated from steels with very high levels of notch toughness, ‘The necessity for good quality design, welding and inspection in all parts of the ship's structures is also emphasised, The US requirements are generally empirically based but incorporate a large amount of test data in their derivation. ‘The Charpy test forms only a small part of the requirements with Pellini NDTT and Dynamic tear tests forming the additional, but no less important, requirements. The latier two tests have varying requirements dependent on stress level (primarily or secondary) and plate type (hull or arrester). . 4.4 CANADIAN APPROACH Most of the attention in Canada has been focused on requirements for Arctic ships. The so-called CASPPR requirements (Canadian Arctic Safety and Pollution Prevention Regulations) have been extensively verified in a number of test programmes®™", The requirements incorporate Charpy, Pellini and Fracture toughness aspects. ‘The criterion suggested in Reference 23 is that if a steel exhibits a CTOD of 0.1 mm at the applicable intermediate stress intensity rate and the design temperature, then it should possess sufficient resistance against unstable fracture initiation from cracks up to 250 mm long in the midship region. The Canadian Standards Authority have taken the requirements of the various codes a step further and the background to these requirements is described in Reference 50. Although predominantly for arctic and cold marine structures, the basis of the requirements is applicable to any structure, A unique 3 x 3 matrix of requirements was developed which considers both the risk of fracture initiation and the consequence of failure, thus enabling the unification of requirements for all regions. The primary requirements for base steel are in terms of temperatures for no-break performance of the Pellini drop-weight NDT test while for HAZ and weld metals the requirements are in terms of crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) at the minimum design temperature and Charpy V-notch correlated ‘with CTOD for less critical applications,4.5 JAPANESE APPROACH In Japan, material requirements are specified in the NKK rules® in terms of the usual approach of specifying a Charpy impact value at a set temperature for each grade. The 100 J, Figure 50, clearly demonstrating the variability of Charpy energy in as-rolled plates. 5.2.3.4 Charpy Data from Other US Sources Investigations of the crack arrest properties of A36 steel in thicknesses of 25 and 50 mm. have included determination of Charpy transition curves”. The mechanical properties and chemical compositions of the plates studied are shown in Table 14, The mean Charpy transition curves for these two plates are shown in Figure 52. In the longitudinal orientation, the mean Charpy impact energy at +20°C is 30 J for the 50 mm plate and 75 J for the 25 mm plate: The corresponding values at O°C are 10 J and 38 J. The effect of orientation, investigated only on the 25 mm plate, was significant, with Charpy impact energies at +20°C and 0°C of 36 J and 18 J respectively for the transverse orientation. 5.2.4 Data from Canadian Sources The Canadian Metals Technology Laboratories (CANMET) have published a number of papers and reports on the subject of ship plate fracture performance and extensive Charpy data have been reported by Malik and Tomin®®. In this work, ship steels with Charpy behaviour near the specification minima were studied in terms of Charpy transition, Pellini NDTT, CTOD and Compact Crack Atrest performance. However, of the six steels studied only one was of normal strength grade and conformed closely t6 the ABS-B steel specification. This steel was as-rolled, with 0.18% C, and had a 0.2% proof stress of 281 Némm’. The Charpy impact transition curves of this steel in the longitudinal and transverse orientations are shown in Figure 53. ‘These data were also fitted statistically using a’ Weibull two parameter distribution” and the Sth, $0th and 95th percentile lines derived. These are shown in Figure 54(a) for longitudinal and Figure 54(b) for transverse orientations. ‘The high data scatter evident in the longitudinal orientation is not seen in the transverse data, 5.2.6 Data from Japanese Sources An extensive programme of work by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries on the criteria for material selection for ship hull plates has been reported by Yajima and Tada, In an attempt to generate a Charpy transition ‘master curve' for all ship steel grades an extensive amount of testing was carried out on all relevant grades, including Grade A, Charpy dala from six casts of Grade A plate in the as-rolled condition and in 25 mm thickness are shown in Figure 55. Although a large degree of scatter is present, the lower bound to these data suggest that minimum Charpy energy at 0°C and +20°C would be ~15 J and ~50 5 respectively. 5.3 WELDED PLATE CHARPY IMPACT PROPERTIES Charpy data for welded mild steel ship plate is limited. Where welded panels have been produced, investigations are usually concentrated on fracture toughness testing of pre-cracked specimens with fatigue pre-cracks sampling specific microstructures associated with the HAZ, Charpy testing of different locations of submerged arc welds in 225 mm thick ABS-B grade plate (0.18% C) have however been reported by Cook and Francis. Of the six steels they tested, the ABS-B steol gave the poorest Charpy performance in terms of both parent plate and weldment, ‘The Charpy transition curves for base material, weld metal and HAZ are shown in Figure 56, Triplicate test were carried out but these are shown as averaged points, In general, the weld metal shows higher values than the parent matetial until the upper shelf is reached where the results for parent material, weld metal and HAZ are comparable. The parent and HAZ upper shelf energies were significantly lower than those of normalised grades and the transition temperature significantly higher, Cook and Francis claim that the use of ordinary strength as-rolled ship plate in cold environments presents potential hazards from the feacture viewpoint. Definitions of cold and ‘potential’ are however not offered, 5.4 RELATION OF CHARPY IMPACT ENERGY TO MICROSTRUCTURE During this review two publications were found which contained structure-property relationships for mild steel ship plate, but neither of these are recent publications. Correlation between Charpy 27 J temperatures and ferrite grain size for St38 steel has bbeen presented previously as Figure 43°", In addition, investigations of the relationship between Charpy impact properties and microstructure for ABS-B, C and Egrades was also investigated some time ago, Figure 57 shows the relationship derived between Charpy impact energy 10 ft Ib transition temperature and grain size for these three grades, Relationships between Charpy impact transition temperatures and other microstructural parameters are also covered in Reference 60 but are nol presented here, 23246. FRACTURE INITIATION TOUGHNESS 61 INTRODUCTION Brittle fracture in stoels can be divided into three phases: initiation, propagation and, sometimes, arrest. Behaviour in each phase is governed by both the properties of the material and the external conditions such as stress level and temperature. The avoidance of fracture initiation in steels is economically attractive and can be achieved by assuming satisfactory toughness at the operating temperature coupled with careful design, good workmanship and reliable inspection. As with the review of the Charpy impact properties of Grade A ship plate, the review of the fracture toughness properties has been divided into the following sections. + Parent plate properties + Welded plate propertios Within each section, the data are presented according to the country of origin, The majority of results are from UK, US, Canadian or Japanese sources. Data in terms of K, J or CTOD initiation toughness are presented for a variety of loading rates from quasi-static 10 impact. 6.2 PARENT PLATE RESULTS 6.2.1 Data from UK Sources Internal British Steel CTOD data determined to BS 7448 for Grade A plate of 11-12 mm thickness are shown in Figure 58. ‘These data, determined on plates which had been in service for some time, show litle effect of orientation and temperature at the temperature range covered. Values at 0°C vary froin 0.151 to 0.295 mm, at conventional (slow) strain rates. Indeed, the lower shelf has not been reached, even at -20°C. Sumpter” reports a compilation of three point bend K, data for Grade A mild steel at O°C tested at a variety of Joading rates, Figure 59. The stee! used was, from the Charpy behaviour viewpoint, a particularly poor sample of Grade A plate, However, despite the poor Charpy performance of this plate, K,, was generally above the minimum requirement derived for conventional loading rates (125 MPa Vm). These data are for 12,5 mm plates; a significant increase in transition temperature would be expected for thicker plate due to both constraint and microstructural effects. ‘The effect of strain rate on the tensile and fracture properties of Grade A ship plate has also been reported in Reference 61. J-intergral tests on 13 mm thick CT specimens taken from a 25mm thick A grade plate were carried out al J ranges of 10° - 10° N/mm/s, ‘These rates corresponded to-displacement rates of between 0.75 mm/s and 7500 mnvs with J-Aa curves being determined at each incremental increase in order of magnitude of displacement rate. The resultant J-Aa curves are shown in Figure 60. A rapid decrease in applied J is observed when the displacement rate is increased from 7.5 mmv/s to 75 mm/s, with little effect being observed above this displacement rate. These data are shown in ‘Table 15. The effect of J on J, and Jy, is shown in Figure 61. Little effect of loading rate is observed beyond J = 10' N/mvs.6.2.2 Data from US and Canadian Sources Many of the Charpy (ransition curves reported in Section 5 also have equivalent fracture toughness transition curves, mainly in terms of CTOD, Fracture toughness tests of 25 and 50 mm thick A36 steel have been reported” and the initiation fracture toughness transition curves for these two thicknesses at slow and fast strain rates are shown in Figure 62. Corresponding critical defect sizes evaluated using LEFM are shown for the 25 mm. plate in Figure 63. It is interesting to note that these critical defects are large given that they were derived from cleavage initiation fracture toughness values”, Many US publications present fracture toughness transition curves in a ‘normalised’ form where the ratio (K,-/6,) is plotted against temperature. Such curves for ABS-C grade steel! are presented at slow (static) and fast (dynamic) loading rate in Figure 64!" CTOD data for conventional (stow) loading on 25 mm thick ASTM AISI steel B x 2B specimens have been shown previously in Figure 21", A steep transition at -15°C is evident, with CTOD at 0°C equating to ~0.15 mm. An extensive evaluation of initiation fracture toughness of ship steels as been carried out by Malik and Tomin®” under the auspices of CANMET and the Canadian coast-guard. 8 variety of normal and higher strength grades with Charpy impact behaviour near to the specification minima, were tested. Quasistatic and intermediate strain rates (€=5x 107s) were used, with the latler expected to be the highest, anticipated strain rate in the mid-ship region of large ships. Of the steels covered by this study, only one normal grade was included; this was an ABS-B plate of 25 mm thickness and with % C= 0.18, % Si = 0.23, % Mn = 0.96, % S = 0.013, % P= 0.013, The CTOD transition data for B x 2B Single Edge Notch Bend (SENB) specimens of this steel are shown for the two loading rates in Figure 65”, together with mean and lower bound curves for each data set. Using the lower bound curves for these data the, 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm CTOD transition temperatures both show an upward shift of ~ +50°C when loading rate increases from quasistatic to intermediate. Such sensitivity to loading rate in mild steels has also been observed for other mechanical parameters. ‘The increase in yield stress when moving from low to high displacement rates has been reported as typically 20% for modern normalised, or Q + T (Quenched and Tempered), stecls, but ~60% for an ‘old! (pre-1975) mild steel with 0.22% C and 0.025% S. Since itis the increase in yield stress with strain rate that leads to high localised crack tip stress and subsequent low toughness, the sensitivity of mild steels to such increase in dynamic yield stress is a clear indication that fracture toughness values for such steels determined at slow strain rates may give over-predictions of the relevant toughness parameter for ship applications. ‘The CTOD data for the ABS-B plate have also been analysed statistically using a two parameter Weibull distribution to determine 5%, 50% and 95% confidence intervals at each temperature. The curves for the ABS-B at intermediate loading rate are shown in Figure 66", An extremely large degree of scatter is evident from this statistical analysis. 6.2.3 Data from Japanese Sources An extensive programme of work on material selection of hull steel plates based on fracture toughness has been carried out and reported by Yajima and Tada. The majority of the report concerns Charpy impact behaviour. However, CTOD (6,) values are also reported although transition curves are not presented directly, The CTOD specimens had machined notches rather than fatigue cracked notches, although according to the report the ratio of fracture toughness from a cracked specimen to that of machined notch specimen is 0.68 for K and 0.34 for CTOD. COD data for 3 charges of Grade A ship plate, thickness = 25 mm, arc shown in Figure 67°. The line describing the Grade A data is given as:- 26where 8, = Machined notch CTOD ©, = Yield stress (kg/mm?) T, = Temperature () ‘The value of 8, must be multiplied by the factor 0.34 to derive an equivalent CTOD value for a fatigue cracked specimen. Additional data from 6 charges are presented in terms of K, data in Figure 68, The formula deseribing the K, data is: K, = 5556 exp (-562/Tk) where K, is in kg Ymmvmm? and is determined on a machined notch specimen. ‘The correction factor for fatigue cracked specimen is 0.68. Based on the above two formulae, and with yield-stress = 28 kg/mm’, the fracture toughness transition curves for equivalent fatigue cracked data are as given in Figure 69. Data for fusion line position of measured welds on Gride A ship plate are also given; These are described in the following section, 6.3 WELDED PLATE DATA The amount of data available for welded mild steel ship plate is limited. ‘However, weld CTOD data for some of the 12 mm plates shown in Figure 58 are available from British Steel internal work. Fusion line CTOD results at -25°C are shown for one of these BS 4360 Grade 43A plates in the form of a cumulative probability Weibull plot in Figure 70. A total of sixteen tests were cattied oul. The minimum CTOD at -25°C was 0.054 mm for the fusion line, whereas the parent plate gave 0.152 mm, ‘The mathematical expression for the Weibull plot shown in Figure 70 is:- cnt aC where 0.1752 is the scale parameter (63.2 percentile) and 3.09 the Weibull slope quantifying scatter. Using this expression the probabilities of achieving a CTOD greater than a specific value are as below: CTOD Value | Probability of Achieving (8, mm) CTOD s & (%) at -25°C 0,05 2d 0.10 16.2 O15 46.2 Data for manual metal are welds on Grade A plate of 25 mm thickness are presented in Figure 71°, The formula describing the variation of CTOD with temperature for the fusion line of welded Grade A plates is: $= 0.78 ( 7For the particular yield strength of the plates (27 kg/mm?) and correcting the data for equivalent fatigue cracked CTOD values, this formula gives the transition curve shown in Figure 69. 287. FRACTURE PROPAGATION AND ARREST 7.1. INTRODUCTION ‘The avoidance of crack initiation cannot be guaranteed in many large welded structures such as ships and storage tanks where weld flaws, locally embritiled regions, geometric, stress concentrations and welding residual stresses may combine to make crack initiation a distinct possibility. In addition, the amount of welding in structures such as ships means that 100% inspection is impossible and the presence of pre-existing defects such as fatigue cracks must be assumed. This has led to much interest in the area of crack arrest as applied to welded steel ships. Hence, while crack initiation toughness continues to be important in the weld and HAZ, the most important fracture property of the base metal in a ship is its ability to arrest a fast propagating crack that has initiated from the weld region. 7.2 BASIC CONCEPTS ‘The philosophy behind crack arrest is that if a crack initiates: from, for example, a pre-existing defect, it should be arrested in the surrounding material without unduly affecting structural integrity, Although it may be possible, through good design and the appropriate choice of material, to ensure the arrest of a propagating crack, there are 8 years, the age at which the accumulation of corrosion and fatigne damage typically starts 10 become significant. 43Most ship failures occur due to unfortunate combinations of poor material properties, poor detailing and poor workmanship. These include low Charpy energy, poor crack arrest Properties, sharp corners, weld defects, low temperatures and high loading rates. The risk of ship failure due to fracture increases rapidly after the vessel has been in service for approximately 8 years due to the significant development of fracture initiation sites fatigue cracks, corrosion damage) after this time period, Charpy impact energies £15 J are generally insufficient for preventing fracture initiation and values significantly higher would be necessary to prevent an initiated fracture from propagating (eg 47 J). Charpy impact properties of fractured ship plates have been extensively measured and include values up to 35 J at 0°C. Even though Charpy behaviour may be adequate, the crack arrest capability of Grade A plate is minimal. Mean Pellini NDTT values for Grade A plate are usually ~-5°C. This does not satisly the Rolfe criteria of NDTT = -18°C or lower, deemed necessary for primary structures in ships. 94 FRACTURE CONTROL APPROACHES Fracture control approaches for welded steel ships involve consideration of the materials’ resistance (Charpy, Pellini) and the factors contributing to fracture (stress, loading rate, defect size). Most fracture control plans are based on a Charpy requirement although the importance of crack arrest, as indicated by Pellini NDT performance, is becoming more widely recognised. ‘Most codes define allowable combinations of steel grade, thickness, operating temperature and stress level: limiting thickness for Grade A plate at ‘medium’ stress levels at 0°C is typically 20 - 30 mm depending on code. ‘The UK (Lloyds) approach is based solely on Charpy energy although suggestions for attaining a ceriain % of duotile fracture appearance have been made. Pellini NDTT does not form part of the Lloyds Rules, US approaches incorporate Charpy, Pellini and Dynamic Tear Test requirements depending on code; they are empirically based but incorporate large amounts of test data from well-formulated research programmes. Canadian approaches are focused mainly on low temperature (Arctic) applications: a matrix of requirements is used which considers the risk of fracture initiation and consequences of failure. The main test requirements are Pellini NDTT for parent plate and. Charpy/CTOD for weld metal and HAZs. Tapanese approaches place high emphasis on reliability of the Charpy-Fracture Toughness Correlation and both K and CTOD are used to derive Charpy requirements as a function of operating conditions. The derived limiting thicknesses of most National approaches are generally less restrictive than the IACS rules which are largely based on consensus agreement between individual classification societies and are conservative, 9.8 OVERVIEW OF CHARPY IMPACT PROPERTIES. The principal features af the Charpy impact properties of mild steel ship plate, and in particular Grade A, are:- + Variability + The existence of some low upper shelf energies + The existence of some high transition temperatures + The fact that the Charpy properties are in all cases significantly inferior to those ‘of normalised plates. + A pronounced orientation effect, but less effect of parent plate thickness. 44Production data suggests that Charpy values are normally distributed. ‘The parameters of each distribution will however depend on steel composition, finish roll temperature, thickness, orientation, supplier and date of supply. Figure 91 illustrates the amount of variability inherent in the Charpy behaviour of the plates reviewed in this report, Values as low as 10 J at +20°C with 80% crystallinity have been observed for Grade A equivalents. Orientation is consistently found to have a significant effect on Charpy behaviour. The properties of Grade A and Grade B plate are usually very similar since Grade A is often untested Grade B. HAZ properties can be superior to the base material properties when the lalter has Low upper shelf energy ancl a high transition temperature, ‘The most promising Charpy energy-microstructure relationships have been between Charpy transition temperature (Tp, or Tyg y) and ferrite grain size. This highlights the significant effect of this microstructural parameter on Charpy behaviour in as-rolled mild steel! ship plates. Since this in turn depends on the thermal history of each plate, and considering the number of combinations of supplier, plate thickness and finish roll temperature, it-is not surprising that these steels demonstrate the variable Charpy impact behaviour shown in Figure 122. 9.6 OVERVIEW OF FRACTURE INITIATION TOUGHNESS The fracture toughness of Grade A ship plate is generally not as poor as the Charpy data would suggest. This may be due to generally low constraint in specimens of ship plate which are typically 10 - 25 mm in thickness. CTOD values at conventional loading rates are typically 0.15 - 0.30 mm at 0°C although a value of 0.1 mm has been reported for material taken from a failed barge. The effect of loading rate can however be significant on CTOD and K, although it is reported that dynamic loading is inappropriate for ship structures and that the more appropriate intermediate loading rate gives stifl adequate fracture toughness even when Charpy energy is low. The effect of loading rate on J-Aa R-curve behaviour was however significant for Grade A ship plate, Figure 70. A cumulative probability plot of HAZ CTOD data at -25°C for welded Grade A plate shows that the probability of achieving a value less than 0.1 mm at -25°C is 16%, Figure 70. ‘Most US publications quantify dynamic fracture toughness transition curves in terms of Kc / 6,9) where c,, is the dynamic yield stress. Shifts in transitions of +30°C when moving from quasistatic to intermediate loading rates have been reported but CTOD toughness at 0°C remained 20.1 mm. 9.7 OVERVIEW OF FRACTURE ARREST DATA Since the probability of fracture initiation in ships cannot be reduced to zero, the possibility of a fast running crack and the subsequent ability of the steel to arrest it must be considered. Crack arrest data in terms of transition temperature ‘approaches, stress intensity approaches, ‘go-no go' criteria and large scale test approaches have been assessed. Peliini NDTT values for as-rolled ship plate are generally high and are probably insufficient to arrest running cracks in ship strucuures. NDTTs for 5, 50 and 95% confidence levels in Grade A plate are typically -25°C, -5°C and +10°C; US ship rules suggest a maximum NDTT of -18°C. Using the most recent correlations between NDTT and CAT (crack arrest temperature), required NDTTs to give a predicted crack arrest situation have been determined as a function of applied stress and plate thickness; for any 45‘stress greater than 0.5 YS the required NDTT is significantly below the mean measured value of -5°C. Dynamic Tear Test data for Grades A and B plate suggest that these grades just meet the requirements for secondary hull plates but fall far short of those for arrester plates. Only a normalising heat treatment will improve this property significantly. Crack arrest stress intensity data for Grade A steels is variable; values typically 30-60 MPa vm at temperatures between -10 and +30°C have been measured. Cleavage fracture can be observed at temperatures considerably above Pellini NDTT. Robertson Test Impact Crack Arrest Temperatures (ICATs) vary from -30°C to +30°C for as-rolled mild steels, Correlation with Charpy data shows that crystallinity of less than 50% at 0°C will give adequate ICATs for 25 mm plate. Collation of ESSO test data gave ESSO brittle temperatures of between -23°C and +21°C for as-rolled steels, with average yalue =0°C. A review in Japan of ESSO tests on 200 steels shows that as-rolled mild steels have the least desirable combination of highest ESSO brittle temperature and lowest crack arrest toughness of all the steels tested. 9.8 OVERVIEW OF CORRELATIONS BETWEEN TOUGHNESS PARAMETERS ‘The ability to predict fracture initiation and fracture arrest properties of ship plates is beneficial from a cost perspective and can, in the absence of extensive data or in cases of limited material availability, be the only method of predicting behaviour. Numerous correlations between the various test methods have been derived, Correlations between compositional/microstructural features and Charpy impact energy have been derived by multipie regression analysis, For ‘old’ mild steels, Charpy FATT. increases with carbon content whereas Si gives the reverse trend, A pronounced effect of ‘grain size is widely reported with a reduction of T,,, of 60°C for a reduction in grain size from 30 pm to 16 j1m being reported. ‘The only metallurgical parameter correlated with Pellini NDT is grain size, where NDTT decreases proportionally to (grain size)", ‘The dependence of crack arrest temperature in large scale tests on grain size has been shown to be strong, reduced grain size having a beneficial effect, Numerous Charpy-fracture toughness correlations have been derived which are applicable to as-rolled ship steels. Correlations involving Charpy energy usually take the form Kj¢= A (CVNE)” where A and B are constants and CVNE the Charpy V-notch energy. Correlations between transition temperatures such as T,, , and 50% FATT have also proved satisfactory. Based on these, a Charpy 50% FATT below 0°C is recommended in some references for thin ship plate, Extensive data exists on correlations between small and large scale test methods for the prediction of crack arrest temperatures. Such a predictive ability is extremely beneficial from a cost perspective on account of the time, cost and material requirements of large-scale crack arrest tests. Correlation between Charpy 25%, 50% FATTs and CAT have proved successful as a general guideline although a high degree of scatter is present. A similar trend is evident for DWTT transition temperatures corelated, with CAT. The most promising method for predicting CAT is the Pellini NDTT and this small scale test has seen much attention recently, Extensive data sets and correlations have been discussed. A conservative estimate is CAT = NDTT +40°C although more refined expressions are also available, The plate thickness and applied stress remain the principle aspects affecting crack arrest behaviour. Using the most developed correlation and based 46on the cumulative probability distribution of Pelliai NDITs for mild stee! ship plate, the probability of an arrest situation at °C for an applied stress of 0.5 YS is 95% for 10. mm plate but only 20% for 25 mm plate, Prediction of crack arrest behaviour based on stress intensity can be made when K,, is normalised with the dynamic yield stress and referenced to the Pellini NDTT and operating temperature, Such an approach suggests that Grade A ship plate may have adequate arrest toughness only at temperatures above the conventional ship operating temperature of O°C. a74B10. CONCLUSIONS The extension of service life of existing ships for use as floating offshore structures requires an assessment of the structural integrity of the vessel and from a brittle fracture. ‘viewpoint this assessment will involve the quantification of potential material behaviour, ‘The principal aims of this current work were therefore to review the concepts of fracture control in ship structures and to assess the fracture properties of Grade A ship plate in terms of fracture i ation and arrest toughness. A total of 92 references have been extensively reviewed, together with data from internal British Steel work. ‘The principal conclusions are as follows: lL The proportion of Grade A plate, with no toughness requirement, in commercial ships is typically 80 - 95%. The principal thickness range is 10 - 25 mm. The age of the world's fleet is increasing as vessel life is extended as a cost effective alternative to the building of new vessels, ‘A number of well publicised past ship failures have demonstrated that while poor steel toughness contributes to such failures, this is always in combination ‘with poor design detail, poor weld quality, low temperature and high strain rate. Concerning ship operating conditions; most ships operate predominantly at or above 0°C, with nominal stress in the range 100 - 150 N/mm?, toading rates up to ‘intermediate! ( = 10°? - 10 s'), Residual stresses must also be considered. Defect lengths follow log normal distributions; median length from one survey was ~250 mm, Plates involved in ship failures had typically $15 J Charpy impact energy at operating temperature and Pellini NDTT 20°C. The probability of ship failure increases rapidly after ~8 years life due to fatigue and corrosion damage accumulation. ‘Most fracture control approaches acknowledge that fracture initiation will occur in ships and therefore consideration of both fracture initiation and arrest toughness is required. Most codes have various combinations of Charpy, Pellini, Dynamic Tear Test and CTOD test requirements. ‘Tho resultant requirements are usually defined in terms of allowable combinations of steel grade, thickness, stress lovel and operating temperature, ‘The principal features of the Charpy impact properties of Grade A and other as-rolied ship plate are variability, low upper shelf energy, high transition temperatures and a pronounced otientation effect. Charpy energy at 0°C is typically 10 - 25 J with up to 80% crystallinity. The Charpy behaviour of HAZ segions of welds is in general similar to that of the parent plate, Correlations between Charpy impact energy and grain size show reasonable agreement in as-rolled plates, The fracture toughness of Grade A plate is also extremely variable but not as low as would be expected from the Charpy data, ‘Typical CTOD at 0°C and conventional strain rates are 0.15 - 0.30 mm, with 0.1 mm representing a probable lower bound. Intermediate loading rates are however mote appropriate for ships; contradictory claims have been made over the effect of this loading rate on the fracture toughness transition behaviour of Grade A plate, Shifts in CTOD transitions of +50°C have been reported when moving from low to 49intermediate strain rates while litte effect on K,. stress intensity rates between 10° and 10° MPa Ym s". A cumulative probability plot of HAZ data for welded Grade A plate showed that the probability of obtaining a CTOD value of less than 0.1 num at -25°C for the particular sample was 16%. ‘An assessment of fracture arrest-type test data was made for the various test types, Pellini NDT values for Grade A plate have a mean of -5°C. This is significantly higher than a claimed requirement for ships” of -18°C and will not give any appreciable crack arrest ability in the steel at 0°C, Dynamic Tear ‘Test data show barely adequate properties for hull plates and inadequate properties for arrester plates. Crack arrest stress intensity values for Grade A plate are typically 30 - 60 MPa ¥m at temperatures between -10°C and +30°C, Robertson Impact Crack Arrest Temperatures are usually between -30 and +30°C, ESSO test data for as-rolled steels shows these steels to have an unfavourable combination of high ESSO brittle temperatures and low crack arrest toughness. Correlations between smiall and large scale test methods show that Charpy impact energy and Pellini NDT are the most suitable parameters for predicting fracture initiation toughness and crack arrest temperature respectively. In both cases, Charpy 50% FATT is a useful parameter as many predictions are based on this value. ). The prevention of unstable fracture in a ship structure depends on a multitude of factors, If avoidance of fracture initiation cannot be assumed by a combination of adequate design, material choice and avoidance of defects then the arrest properties of the steel must be considered. Based on the findings of this review it would appear that fracture initiation toughness of as-rolled steels, such as. Grade A, may often be sufficient for the particular set of operating conditions experienced by a ship. The principal concem is therefore the ability of Grade A plate to arrest an initiated and fast-running crack. The reviewed literature suggests that the crack arrest ability of Grade A plate is poor and probably inadequate for most ship applications. In the event of a fracture initiating, this factor will greatly contribute to the overall risk of subsequent vessel failure. AC Bannister Investigator SE Webster Manager Engineering Metallurgy Department DJ Price Research Manager General Steel Products, 50ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ‘The author would like to thank Mrs $ Jackson of Swinden Technology Centre Library for her help in obtaining the majority of the references reviewed in this report. 51n10. M1. 12. 1B. 14. 1s, REFERENCES 'S Bengston and P O Brett: ‘Classification Services to Help Maintain an Ageing Fleet’, Veritas Forum, No 10, Det Norske Veritas, Summer, 1989, ‘Report of Committee V3; Service Experience-Ships', Proceedings of the Tenth International Ship Structures Congress, Lyngby, Denmark, 1988. 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[Minimum [Normally taken as -5°C, [Normatly taken as 0°C, lservice (Conservative estimate of but air temperature may ltemperature minimum sea water be as low as -30°C under temperature). ice conditions, [Material [Specially developed, high Various grades of mild toughness, quenched and steel (BS 4360 43A, 43D) tempered Navy steel QIN, Admiralty 8 quality in |(UK version of HY80). warships. Yield stress 550 to 650 MPa, [Fabrication | Welded cylinder with ring (Complex welded structure frame stiffeners, [with longitudinal and transverse stiffening [Structural [Approximately 50mm. Typically 10 to 15 mm sickness warship decks and bottom. Stresses Predominately compressive [Stresses due to hull bending. Jdue to external pressure, [Maximum tensile stress away [Small areas of the pressure _|from stress concentrations null may experience tensile around 100 MPa. stresses. Maximum [compressive stress 400 MPa. [Maximum tensile stress 250 MPa. [Defects Welding defects and fatigue | Most likely cause is fatigue [growth from welding defects [cracking at poorly designed in plate butts. Fatigue cracks | structural details, at the toes of ring frame stiffeners. JStrain rate [A good-ability to withstand | Wave induced slamming and effects lunderwater shock is required. [collision loading may give jenhanced strain rate. 39Table 2 Estimates of Strain Rates from Measurements on Mild Steel Ships”? [Collation Information Strain Rate [Containership Whipping, 50’ seas, hove-to it x10" sL-7) [Forward hatch corner, wave-induced | 3.0.x 10" 50’ seas, hove-to [Tanker | Wave-Induced, following swell 5.0.x 10° (UNIVERSE IRELAND) [Ocean Bulk Carrier Whipping 9.0.x 10" (FOTINIL) Springing 26x10" |Great Lakes Ore Carrier [Springing S.A x 10" (STEWARTJCORT) _|3'head seas Table 3 Estimates of Strain Rates and Stress Intensity Rates, for Varlous Ship Loading Conditions? ISpecimen Dynamic fracture toughness test (Ky test) | Timeto | Stress Intensity Loading Condition Sain reset | Rae K ws) () MPa Jit /s: [Hull girder bonding under wave action | _10* 5 3 [Slamming (midships deck) 210° | 250.10° 10 |Slamming (forward deck) 2.107 | 25.10% Ww [Slamming (local hull plate) 6.10" 10? 3.10! [Collision (local hull plate) 2 | 250.10 10° [Shock (whipping) 20 | 25.10° 10° Table 4 Strain Rates in Different Steel Structures®” Ttem ‘Order of Strain Rate (s") [Static fracture toughness test 10%. 10% Steet [Strctore Deck or bottom of ship hull due to wave induced loading | 107 Inner hull of ship due to sloshing or slamming 10° Offshore structure at the collision of a drift ice 10? (Offshore structure at the collision of a supply vessel 107 Icebreaking vessel at the collision of an iceberg 10" Bridge 10°Table 5 Summary of Strain Rates Measured In Ships Ship Location ‘Strain Rate ‘Comments Reference [Sealand McLean | Midship Bx 0* 3.2.x 10° if yield strain “Determination \sL-? 50’ seas; reached in 44 cycle of whipping Rates in Ship |Containership | whipping) (1.25 eyclests) Hull Structure; A. [Universe Midship — ]5x 10" Feasibility Study" heeland Wave {(Tanker) Induced) {Fotini L Ocean |Midship [9 x 10 [Bulk Carrier __| (Whipping) [Stewart Gost [Midship [5.x 10" [GrLake Ore | Springing) (Currier IModel Tests ~ [32x10 [Modelesting of collisions [PY Chong: MARAD . Repor P5-284 506 | Referred to above \Containership . 6.x 10? | Analytical estimates based on | K A Reckling: collapse time of 0.18.5 ina Overall structural colision Response ofa Ship Struck in Collision’ SSC-SNAME, ST-14, 1981 - Midship —[1" Smallest toad rise time [S8C-307, estimated: 10ms, Assume AW Pence: ‘Evaluation eorcesponding increase in| of Fracture Criteria for sess: 30 ks Ship Steels and Weldments‘™”) IB sive, Bow exio > max measured during ice | Kajela & Risk [Baltic ‘impact Evaluation of Some Icebreaker 10"t0 |- based on extreme strain sate | Factors Influencing 1.4% 10" disteibution estimates: | Matetials Selection for 10" }- suggested to be used for Arctic Vessels’, Ottawa, analys 1983 Ikiigoriak - sx 10% cebreaking operation |Ghonein and Johanssor mcture Toughness Requirements for Artic steels in Stato and Dynamic Applications’ ottawa, 1983 [Arctic Hell 7.3 x 10* Iee ramming. |Bakala and Kivisaa: SMV Artic Ramming Tests Trials Report’ Tech, Res Centre of Finland Rpt LAL-539B-04 [Kigoriak ~ — |sxiott — |Icoramming [Letter Tue-Fee to Jon [Robert Lodteur 2x 10° MeCaliam (1983) |Kigoriak [Deck 2x10? max co ramming, Letter to A. Murray of (VAnctic [Deck 7 10 max Feet Technology IKigoriak Bow Plate {3.2.x 10? max (author unknown) WV Arctic [Bow Plate 5x 10° max IKigorink Bow Frame 41.3 x 10? max IMV Arctic Bow Frame |2.5 x 107 max IMS Attis: Bow 3.8 x 10" Sea slamming. | Nibbering (1983) 6x tot 25 m aft across the bulkhead | Ottawa Conf. : = [5x10 [Stamening Francis (1978) 61ve ve ve Te $e we ve ww Ana +E cs ¥E ie ew x4 ‘x4 x4 sav e ve ve ve DOr W) | Do0e-) | (07) | or We) | (D0) | O.0F) | O.0r- 7) | O.0r) | 9.0%) gena | oeHa | oeHv } cena | zeHa | ZeHV a q a sammy ape {semor u) sieaig diug 20) syuauasnbey ssauyBnoy AdreyD wn Zee, SSE SSE ssc | Sle sie Ste Sez SSE Sse ‘se SIE ste ste Ed co 09¢ Ca STE Sie Sie se sens | ocna | ocnv | cena | tena | ZeHV a Cc pep ‘SAIS Tus 20) swewarnbey ybuens Pre, wun gare. 62Table 8 ‘Structural Classification and Thickness Limits of Lloyds Rules (@) Structural Classification Material Class Between Outside 04% 0.4L and 0.6L) 0.6L Amidships|_Amidships _| Amidships ‘Structural Member [Where L > 250 m: [Shearstrake or rounded gunwale v rig a [Stringer plate at strength deck [Where L250 m: [Shearstrake or rounded gunwale VV mW q Stringer plate at strength deck pitt w ilge strake * Vv I I “1 [Deck strake in way of longitudinal bulkhead [Strength deck plating [Bottom plating including keel tinuous longitudinal members above strength deck lupper strake of longitudinal bulkhead Ipper strake of topside tank [Deck plating, other than above, exposed to weather Side plaiing Lower strake of longitudinal bulkhead [external plating of rudder horn - : Til ISternframe Hinternal components of rudder horn IRudder [Shaft bracket (b) Thickness Limits Class Thickness, t 1 0 mr wv v (mm) | Mild} HT | Mild). HT | Mild] Br | Mild | HT | Mild] HT Steel | Steet | Steet | Steet | Steet | Steel | Steel | Stecl | Stee! | Steel wis | A | ad] A | ad| A | an] A | aH | D | DH Iscesz0_ | A | AH | A | AH| A | AH | B | AM] E | DH 2octs2s | A | aH] A | aH| B | an] D | DH| B | BH 2s sy mensueo] —"amerduuonssuen] soa scours amoeid sunoods payou ey wn soya SBsa0g| ping en aiNg| oad somELLGN| “La tea 104 - ans] puaq ud ¢ 01 pore Gay -souodsd oj pasa 1 asieg| se dieys se rou Ainoe dy yoion | ~Jo vomruyep SHOT ‘vopysuen é@zsn0 4a ssngpop| peorsqueuq| 391 uml ‘Paar Jo wapraynadaieno wae saonisod 1 ampnns jo ufisapioxe oF 2p arbor snsas Anypgedes sau rep onde re panoyd ‘99 vanamoy pino> sm “payRy aney] jo sistteue peonsTag u8rsp ‘your pue Joao] ssans} -auyod anaoesy ou, “Suppeoy s8p2] aca pur 11s wiog insu jo seq} on aygeayee Soar rou sssans| —uawaq uosyedmos] sume, ym urBep soeduyyAquomegm] seu. asauy luo paisap soimonns 70 soque 389e7] pe sane aay {Dap splay sunmerdain assang] 98) amizey poaiog| pesD uosr=qoy] ‘angen sags aedddn Jo e=pi| sesodsnd yonve> Aygenb oj] ow sonig “S101 pO Uo 36 pasn uzyo “sampocasd siseue| — pasiasp sydaou0a puso “(7 LGN soe aumessary sepmsucuende| ——CLLGN)| (@v20] 8809 apriaxd sizouco] —_ uoewp0) sires mot o} vane we eam aedivoppeomug] io fp 21869 S7OHEd PUE LIAN] s9u2pudopm jo se snorae] eae Sprnb pes} Zeaqouena,| yews] —e}vonenm ye] daxa wo 1418800 LEGN pue SonsatonH (ra) soneysou “aimed rere ‘amoay yp Suara} aioe 0 ygnoydde 3 540 = ue 5 OVERALL STEELWEIGHT | aT < & 2 0 “Fp — WEIGHT OF HSS {Ws g oe feet | $ ——_____Jy 8D 2000080) Toner 0001 wr Figure 3 Use of Normal and Higher Strength Grade Steels 75Figure 4 Assessment - Inspection - Maintenance Plans!” Little to no Date Found Some Data Found, More Needed for Analysis Data avaliable for Rstimate of cov — (RR bate avaltanie for onptcee Ansty (EEE) oy Wrangeh Tongro Teacture Tout Much of Analysis is Alceady Conplecec (I reesgue uty conees Figure § Plate Thickness Plate Out-of-Planene! Flange Width Thickness Web Wideh & Thickness Ship Length Ship Depth Bulkhead Spacing Feane Spacing stiffener Spacing Figure 6 Little to no Dees Found ——J Some Data Found, More Needed for analysis Date Available for [yay Batinate of coy Date available cor | para Complete Analysis Much of Analysis is f mm Aleoady Completed Design Data Availability for Ships” 76MID-SHIPS. AFT END SAW-BUTTS El SAW-FILLETS EI MMA-BUTTS. Figure 7 Proportion of Different Welding Processes Used in Ship Construction Procedure Flux copper back Flux asbestos back! GMAW or SMAW one side GMAW Electro gas (simpl.) Gravity Electro gas Combined yae-oaogs Figure 8 Locations of Different Welding Processes"? 1 PERCENTAGE OF SAMS LIFE AT TEARS. selon THAT IMDKCATED BY HORE. SEALE ees 8 8 ‘TEWMUATUEE OIG. €, ° eo Figure 9 Distribution of Ship Operating Temperatures” 77Market ~ Sibd Figure 10 38L-7'5 , 8 Dole Years os «© & 2 & % a5 40 Mousum Pe te Tough rats Figure 11 Stress Readings from Five Ship Data Years (Atiantic)” aire Sree 210~ Postic Sect ‘SSL7'S, Boma Years rr Mesum Plas to Tough Sves=Ks 40 Figure 12 Stress Readings from Five Ship Data Years (Pacitic)”” 78PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION. 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 ° — 0 400 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 CRACK SIZE, mm Figure 13 Lognormat Distribution of Defect Sizes from 233 Tankers 4 eas saean G++ 350MPa = +350 HPa LONGITUDINAL FRAME SPACING $0t «600mm Figure 14 oo 100 ‘sea 100d 1620 TAL AINSTO OF CBAC Figure 15 Stress Intensity as a Function of Crack Length” 79@ COLLISION &@ GROUNDING CONTACT MACHINERY @ FIRE/BLAST & MOORING G STRUCTURAL & STABILITY @ OTHER Figure 16 Vossel Casualty Statistics, 1989-1975 No. INCIDENTSINo. VESSELS (X 1000) CORROSION RATE, mmiyear 16 2 14 CORROSION 18 42 FREQUENCY OF RAE. 16 OCCURRENCES: aia 10 1.2 8 1 6 408 ‘ 406 04 2 02 ° 7 9 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 «16 «18 «620 SHIP AGE Figure T Corrosion Incidence and Rate.as a Function of Ship Age™* SIDE FRAME OD BOTTOM GIRDER @ BOTTOM FLOOR @ TOP SIDE TANK @ WEB FRAME @ SIDE GIRDER § DECK BEAM WEB FRAME BILGE OTHER AGE<8 YEARS AGE> 8 YEARS Figure 18 Damage Location Statistics for Bulk Carriers 80BOTTOM TRANS. CT.B GIRDER wes SIDE TRANS. WI STIFFENER GSIDE GIRDER 1 DECK TRANS. AGE<8 YEARS AGE>8 YEARS | & OTHER Figure 19 Damage Location Statistics for Large Tankers™ re A Plote rue ot Failure tor 90 Serious Heavy Weather Cosvotties. of Faiture nea) 40 Temperature, deg Fahr Figure 20 Probability of Failure as a Function of Plate Temperature™ al6 Piates Containing Source of Fracture 8 15 Foot-Pound: Energy Absorbed, 3 8 & 8 i a : i 15 Foot-Foundg——- | 3 12 Plotes Containing Eng of Froctures 70 720) Bo 100 Temperature of Test, deg Fone Figure 21 Charpy Transition Curves for "Fracture Source’ and ‘Fracture Eng! Plates 8238 Plates Contoining Source of Frocture é a Standard obvietion of TT \ Ruative Proportion, com: rad to oe cant of Thru" Plates in each Interval 40 Plotes Containing End of Fracture or Ne Fracture The ¢, Theu, or End Plates in Each 10 F Interval ot Tronsition Tamperetures 2 25 & 20 20 & ye 6 sk z 0 8 os 3 lou 60 60 00 120 1S (tele Transition Temperatures, deg Fat (chorpy V-Neten 140160 jacimens} Figure 22 Diatrioutions of Charpy 15 ft tb Transition Temperatures. for Steels Involved in Ship Fatlures"™ z 4 6 @ 10 12 16 Energy Absorbed ot Foilure Tempercture, ft Ib 0 20 +40. +60 66 100 120 140 160 18 tt-1b Tronsition Tem Figure 23 Charpy Properties of ‘Fracture Source’ and ‘Fracture End’ Plates™ 83or \ CHARPY ENERGY VOLES) S440 434 PLATE UseD FOR Ornanic To Tests “00 a0 ae BO Temperature °¢ Figure 24 Charpy impact Curves tbr Steels Involved in Recent Ship Failures) ‘E egies carsatunity at ok te ee ae soars tntacr at of s0uus — gre 28 ~ _ Comparison of Properties of As-Rolled Ship Plates from Five Construction Sites with Hodgson and Boyd Criterion® (© Phaton from hulls thet felled in service 1% Plates irom hulls with bederbine perfarmonce | ‘© Mota from bulls with sccm! performance] sesesusz asd * CHARPY FT-LB AT (CASUALTY TEMPERATURE ova ao © oO wm Figure 26 Charpy Properties of Various ‘Failed ‘Borderline’ and ‘Suecessfut' Performance Plates! 84 ‘CHARPY % FIDLOUS AT CASUALTY TEMPERATUREol lo Aso Tae Try 2. 30 108 Tehimcrarune (8) Figure 27 Charpy Transition Curve for Steel from Failed Barge AsRollee Semikilea C-Mn Steels 36, 420100 eae \ a 8 Frequency No.of Heals 6 Figure 28 F ited @ Normans CMe Stoo (92201, 056.0557 cin, 5,06 fH Figure 29 Distribution of Pellini NDTT for Various Normalised Ship Steets” a5Figure 30 DESIGN AND OPERATIONAL ASPECTS CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY JOINT TYPES, CRITICALITY, STEEL REQUIREMENTS REDUNDANCY, STRESS CONCn. STRESSES: APPLIED & RESIDUAL DEFECTS: SIZE & POSITION VESSEL OPERATNG TEMP. ALLOWABLE COMBINATION OF THICKNESS, GRADE, STRESS, TEMPERATURE Figure 82 Generalised Procedure tor Selection of Steel for Ships 86LIMITING THICKNESS, mm ~40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 DESIGN TEMPERATURE, °C. Figure 33 Limiting Thickness for A and B Grades According to lACS™ LIMITING THICKNESS, mm 60 50 40 30 20 10 oO LLOYDS ABS. NK Heel 25. 20. oO IMED 30 20 30 Low Ea 40 20 50. Comparison of Limiting Thicknesses for A Grade for Three Stress Level LIMITING THICKNESS, mm 60 50 40 30 20 10 a LLOYDS. ‘ABS NKK tAcs HiGHE| 20 25 0 15 MED [a] 35. 25 50, 25 Low fl 50 25 | 50 40 igure Comparison of Limiting Thicknesses for B Grade for Three Stress Levels 87: a 10 we OVLEn & «200 Indl Suze Figure 36 Distribution of Charpy Impact Energies at 0°C for egg m* aM sd Shane Frequency) ¥ ue ww aye ze 299 gt Olstribution of Charpy Impact Energies at 0°C for British Steel Plates (16 mm Figure 64 Effect of Grain Size on Pellini NDTT™® see 25 rom hk Haat im teh ow caro. bgh iam et rmanganete "ohut nornaseed on om 0 am 028 032 Lorbon.% Figure 85 Effect of % Carbon on BSSO Brittle Temperature” ‘Stee! DIN St §2-9, 20mm thick 1D Becher (1970) © Hagedorn (1973) 'Y Hagedorn (1973) ° 76 20 30 rr 0 7 Figure 86 Effect of Grain Size on Crack Arrest Temperature in C-Mn SteeI"7™*") 104© TMCP, FCs cooling rte © TMCP, 05s cooting ate A Normalised 4 S010 70°C Tammparature for K, 200MP2 © Fos cr Average grain ire, um 5 Figure 87 Dependence of ESSO Crack Arrest Temperatura on Grain Size" oo Figure 68 Charpy « Fracture Toughness Correlation According to Barsom'?*> Figure 89 Charpy - Fracture Toughness Correlation Normalised by Yield Stress According to Barsom"?™> 105.Figure 90 Charpy - Fracture Toughness Corralation According fo Girenka!™“ Figure ot ‘Charpy - Fracture Toughness Correlation According to Priest at al” Figure 92 Charpy - Fracture Toughness (CTOD) Correlations According to Oda" 106.Figure 93 Charpy - Fracture Toughness Data for Grade A Ship Plate Tested at Various Strain Rates? Figure 94 Figure 95 ‘Comparison of Barsom™ and Roberts™ Correlations with A131 Mild Stee! Data 107© Static rate =100 lat. rae -120 7120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 9 20 TTeyy (°C) Figure 86 Comparison of Charpy and CTOD Transition Temperatures.:¢. for Ship Plates (A = Mild Steel)" ~ 2 “ é 2 & i 26 v26 eT) CHARPY FRACTURE APPEARANCE TRANSITION TEMP °% Figure 87 Comparison of TK, = 125 MPa ym and Charpy 50% FATT for 10 mm Thick Ship Plate® eGR ance Migs wo ar ove s TEMP FOR My, + 175 HPO: $ ~60 20 20 “0 CHARPY _477, TRANSITION TEMPERATURE °C Figure 98 Comparison of TK,, = 125 MPa Ym and Charpy Ta, for 10 mm Thick Ship Plate 1080.4 mm CTOD TRANSITION TEMPERATURE, °C. NORMALISED PLATES AS-ROLLED SECTIONS THICKNESS = 15-75 mm THICKNESS = 11-43 mm a 100 “80 80 40 =20 0 20 27, CHARPY TRANSITION TEMPERATURE, °C Figure 99) Comparigon of 0.1 mm CTOD and 27 J Charpy Transition Temperatures for As-Rolied and Normalised Steels NORMALISED PLATES AS-ROLLED SECTIONS THICKNESS = 15-75 mm THICKNESS = 11-43 mm al ~400 -80 -80 -40 -20 0 20 40) GHARPY TRANSITION TEMPERATURE, ‘C Figure 100 Comparison of 0.25 mm CTOD and 40 J Charpy Transition Temperatures for As-Rotled and Normalised Steets Figure 101 Comparison of (a) 0.3 mm CTOD and (b) 0.5 mm CTOD ‘Temperatures with Pellini NDTT 109= : E j : i F : i Figure 102 Charpy % Crystallinity Correlated with Robertson Crack Arrest Temperature™ Figure 103 Charpy 25% FATT Correlated with Crack Arrest Temperature” Figure 104 Charpy 26% FATT Correlated with ISO Crack Arrest Temperature”? 110Figure 105 Crack Arrest Temperatures Correlated with Various Charpy Tranaition Temperatures HARPY 50 Figure 107 ~ 180 Crack Arrest Temperatures Predicted from Charpy 50% FATT According to Various Correlations") ViDYNAMIC TEAR ENERGY, J 4,800 ‘SPECIMEN THICKNESS = 16 min 1,400 7] TEST TEMPERATURES = 0-24°C 1,200 800 600 400 200 %9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 CHARPY IMPACT ENERGY, J Figure 108 Correlation Between Dynamic Tear Energy and Charpy impact Energy 40 20 OWT 20% FATT, °C Figure 108 Crack Arrest Temperature v OWTT 20% Shear FATT™ © Wisenar oo. 7993) "& Abjyanna tal (1985) Taniguchi (09771 (gradient E580 tests} - Figure 110 ‘Comparison of DWTT 80% FATT and Crack Arrest Temperature from Large - Seale Tests™ 12Figure 117 Correiation Between Pellini NDTT and Crack Arrest Temperatura!" Figure 112 Correlation Between Pellini NDTT and Crack Arrest Temperatures” 150 200 Thickness, mm Figure 113 ‘Thickness Correction Factor for Crack Arrest Temperature? 13a REQUIRED PELLININDTT, C es oe 8 8 8 PREDIC s aces 970) rate ond Legget {1979 ‘Somtomes “eee 10711 100 150 200 250 300 350 stress, MPa Figure 114 Applled Stress Correction Factor for Crack Arrest Temperature? o ° ¥ “re car 100 Watanabe (1986) ‘Nippon Kotan (1986) Kewaguch! and Wiaughby (1986) Brito! and De Koning (1886) Figure 115 Crack Arrest Temperature v Pallin! NDT for Structural Steels (20 - 40 mm Thickness)" ° 0.2 04 06 0.8 APPLIED STRESS/VIELD STRESS igure 176 Predicted Pellin! NDTT Requirements for Crack Arrest Using Formula with Thickness and Stress Correction Factors (Temp. = 0°C) 1450 T-NDTT, *C Figure 117 Crack Arrest Stress Intensity Data Against Pellini NDT for Various Stee!s®*" K./oy. , fm 100 «810 20 30 40 «50 60 «70 T-NOTT, °C Figure 118 Comparison of Graville™ Data Band with Results trom Modern Steeis™ tog{(K/¥Sa) X1000) 2.2 +8 46 14 V2 1 ° Lo “4599 -180 -160 -140 -120 -100 -80 60 40 -20 0 20 40 T-NOTT,C. Figure 119° Correlation of Kyaqesr With T-NDTT for ‘Old’ As-Rolled Steels 1155 i 2 £ i 4 3 z I i Figure 120 Crack Arrest Stress Intensity Data for Three Ship Steals™ ‘Crack Anest Toughness, MPa vn +80 +80 40 2000-0) OD (Test Temperature ~ NOT) °C Figure 121 Compact Crack Arrest Results for Various Ship Plates (Stee! A = Grade A)*” ‘CHARPY IMPACT ENERGY, J 0 © 060806 00 © @0 0000 Bl Meo woo “20 “10 0 40 ‘TEMPERATURE, °C Figure 122 Scatter in Charpy Impact Data for alt Steels Ass Printed and published by the Health and Safety Executive C2 297Et HSE BOOKS MAIL ORDER HSE priced and free publications are available from: HSE Books PO Box 1999 Sudbury Suffolk CO10 6FS Tel: 03787 881165 Fax; 01787 313995 RETAIL HSE priced publications are available from ‘good booksellers HEALTH AND SAFETY ENQUIRIES HSE InfoLine Tel: 0541 545500 or write to; HSE information Centre Broad Lane Sheffield $3 7H0 £30.00 net ISBN 0-7176-1339-9 80717 "613397 ">