Genes and the control of development Gene expression In Chapter 2, we discussed the role of DNA of the chromosomes in instructing the cell to make specific proteins. Within these extremely long molecules, the relatively short lengths of DNA that code for single proteins are called genes. Proteins are very variable in size (and so, too, are genes), but most proteins contain several hundred amino acids condensed together in a linear series. The prelude to production of a protein is the transcription of the code of a gene into mRNA (page 77). Some of the genes in a cell’s chromosomes are actively transcribed throughout the life of the cell, but others are activated (we say they are expressed) only at a particular stage in the life of the cell, or when the substance they act on (their substrate molecule) is present. Very many of our genes have to be deliberately activated, as required. Obviously the genes concerned with development of the organism from the zygote are some of the first to be expressed, but most probably for a limited period only.How are individual genes switched on? One activating mechanism that has been found to operate in bacteria (prokaryotes) is the lactose operon mechanism (Figure 3:30). This is worth looking into because it gives us an idea of, how the issue of genes being switched on was resolved in one organism, at least. This mechanism consists of a regulator gene and an operator gene, close to the genes that are regulated (known as a structural gene ~ in this case, coding for a lactose-metabolising enzyme). The regulator gene codes for a repressor protein which binds to the operator gene site. The repressor protein prevents transcription of the structural gene. However, if lactose is present (For example, it might become available in the medium in which the bacteria are growing), then the lactose molecule reaets with the regulator protein, preventing it from binding with the operator gene. As a result, the lactose-metabolising-enzyme gene is transcribed, and lactose is metabolised. Once all the lactose has been used up, the repressor molecule blocks transcription again. 1 when lactose is absent: Tactore operate ‘ere regulatory gene coding RNA palymerose structural gene coding fr lactasewretzoclsing evaye ferrepesor pois enzyne port of bacterial enromesome PIP DI PIII PIS TITY 3 {pressor proven Blocks _s no wanscrption by KNA polymerase cecurs ita cosine fr A \ hing ste ‘enressor protein SS Prenat repressor prote fernec FQ. 2 when lactose is present: ‘re nresence ofthe lactose switches o” Eee tanita teenion poets Annee LDN Lransciption of maa for lactosenetatolsing enayres repressofactost complex ‘ormed with shape that does otf ont binding $0) lacase-mstaalsing enzyes formed (ery ectose 3 presen Figure 3.30 ‘Operon’ gene regulation, Of course, this basic type of mechanism occurs in prokaryotes (bacteria and cyanobacteria) only. In eukaryotes, che regulator-gene mechanisms are more complicated. (They are briefly summarised in Figure 3.31.) However, the principle is the same, in that transcription of many structural genes is regulated according to the needs of the cell.Figure 3.31 Contiolof In thenucleus gene expression in 1 RNA polymerase reas eukaryotes 2 summary.” parc cular Vasa onal Fiat fators0 fncton iis the chit way tot utanyere gem expesron Feortabed mary gees coxtan so ent ENA possce hrorene (egies of aes ase ioncieioy ofthe saber o coke newton Ce Flomatorel give oftwegene) ies more 2 nv cess ey ronson ae ‘Mrs re sera RNA srlerg pens eee, NA ee, ce‘ out ote macictett van CONES cn 3 Movernertt of mRNA through a isan active, selective process: “ Sone geese [Sestpiaeaae ma \ XQ ‘mature miNA passes out he mucus ‘va saves inthe nuclear eran ‘pore in nuclear memiorane — - teribosomes tthe otonkssry In the cytoplasm 4 Postavansoptoral rnosomes mawng mana niotiteat on may emarge slong rRNA oftplasm and'so nfluence geve erorenon. Root, “I~ ‘tbosome ‘ — tren sronioa schioet de os post ransanonut ‘mecircaton ay enya: “ protein active, eguasor eye™ Extension: How development is controlled ‘We know that every nucleus holds a complete copy of the genome of the whole organism. In human embryos up to the cight-cell stage of embryological development the cells are toripotent. (Cells of that embryo can be derached and form another complete embryo.) But after this stage in development most cells of the embryo become progressively and irreversibly committed to development into a particular tissue (and eventually, a particular organ) of the adult organism. At this point onwards, in differentiating cells some of the genes relating to the structure and function of other types of cell of the organism will remain ‘switched off’. The challenge is to understand how both the environment within these early cells and the cell’s positions within the tiny embryo influence the path of development. Te appears that cells now manufacture tissue-specific proteins in a sequence that directs maturation into particular tissues and organs. How this ‘determinism’ is controlled is outside the scope of this book. Suffice to say the phenomenon is studied in detail and understood in part.