NASA

SP-367

INTRODUCtiON
TO THE AERODYNAMICS
OF FLIGHT

Theodore
Langley

A. Talay

Research

Center

Prepared at Langley Research Center

Scientific and Technical Information

NATIONAL
AERONAUTICS

O_ce
AND

1975
SPACE

ADMINISTRATION
Washington,

D.C.

For sale by the National Technical

Springfield, Virginia 22161
Price - $7.00

Information

Service

CONTENTS

FOREWORD

......................................

I. A SHORT

HISTORY

II. BACKGROUND
The

The

OF FLIGHT

INFORMATION

Atmosphere

Winds

..........................

..........................

..................................

and Turbulence

Airplane

III. FLUID

lit

...............................

10

....................................

FLOW

13

...................................

25

The

Fluid

......................................

9.5

The

Flow

......................................

9.5

Ideal

Fluid

Flow

..................................

31

Real

Fluid

Flow

..................................

39

IV. SUBSONIC
Airfoils

FLOW

EFFECTS

and Wings

Aerodynamic

...........................

.................................

59

...............................

84

of Airplane

...............................

91

Propellers

and Rotors

...............................

96

V. TRANSONIC

FLOW

Total

Drag

Devices

59

VI. SUPERSONIC
The

FLOW

103

...............................

119

SST .......................................

Sonic

Boom

VII. BEYOND
Hypersonic
Lifting
Space
VIII.

................................

.....................................
THE
Flight

Bodies
Shuttle

127

SUPERSONIC

...........................

.................................

131

....................................

133

................................

of an Airplane

131
131

...................................

PERFORMANCE

Motions

123

137

...............................

137

Class

1 Motion

...................................

137

Class

2 Motion

...................................

149

Class

3 Motion-Hovering

IX. STABILITY

Flight

AND CONTROL

..........................
...........................

147
151

Stability

.......................................

151

Control

.......................................

169

APPENDIX

A -

APPENDIX

B - DIMENSIONS

APPENDIX

C - COORDINATE

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NOMENCLATURE

AERONAUTICAL
AND

UNITS

SYSTEMS

................

.....................
......................

...................................

vi

181
187
193
197

FOREWORD

nings

The

science

but,

remarkably,

powered

airplane

decades

have

and no letup
passing

of aerodynamics

ductory

the

subject

The

result

various

volume

was

modified

A thorough

the

reader's

interest

of these

as presented
to pursue

objectives

herein.
more

first

moon

to its

begin-

heavier-than-air

landing.

science

and technology

an interest,

the task

The

last

of aerodynamics

of education

Specialization

encom-

is indicated

of the author's

more

courses

set of notes

which,

of an intro-

at the NASA

Langley

a layman's

treatment

than

individual

teaching

on the

college

through

level.

the teaching

better.

with considerable
It is hoped

specialized

aerodynamics.

111

few

education.

to provide

in many

notes

the

and technicians

illustrated
the

of years

separated
manned

semesters

was

as taught

to fulfill

revision

in the text

faced

thousands

is staggering.
of any

to apprentices

qualitative,

first

in the

subject

of several

problem

but not the detail

is a highly

the

has

who possess

of the

in aerodynamics
The

from

is an essential

is a result

back

span

growth

those

aspects

knowledge

Center.

process,

resulted

For

life

Hawk

phenomenal

is in sight.

course

Research

at Kitty

witnessed

all the

This

only one human

flight

but a background

can be traced

that

education

up-to-date
this

volume

in the

many

material
will

has

stimulate

topics

of

of

I. A SHORT

The

theory

It probably
through

began

the air.

to his gods
What

is this

that

air

has

is a gas,

is the

culmination

with

man's

desire

man,
to fly.

substance

called

weight

and

around

Through

influenced
As a result
intended

of these

to copy

But these

and the

the

designs

first

helicopter

ry man

did not imitate

ple and

took the

the two Montgolfier

popular
Gradually,

his

remained

correctly

the drawing

a parachute.

it was

hot-air

from

1.)

balloon.

into the atmosphere.

Although

designs

lighter-than-air

mercy

of the winds

acquired

aerostat

small

proved

of

that

the

shape

air

of things

and designs

of the wing
to fly.

machines
being

designs

first

that

by man.

included

those

machine

to car-

in 1783

distinction

ballooning

became

not fly where

steering

Heavier-than-air

devices,

flight

by

of initiating

thereafter

and could
and

princi-

Constructed
the

were

supplied

flying

2.)

holds

that

movement

on the lighter-than-air

engines

devices.

other

(See fig.

the balloon

at the

principle

lift necessary
-

The

based

France,

man was

the
the

power

His

fig.

the notion

a basic

foresaw

it was

the muscle

(See

to question:

Pascal

ornithopters

board.

Instead

of a large

balloon

wing

and fly

attributed

conceived

and

produced

several

began

the principles

that

that

bird

with altitude.

came

concluded

of a bird's

of the

formed

da Vinci)

flight

individuals.

himself,

Aristotle

Bacon,

(Leonardo

he designed

the birds.

of man

Roger

reaction

actions

bodies

decreases

of bird

the

of many

philosophers

of floating

Galileo,

resulting

brothers

pastime,

law

studies

and

form

ascent

fly in it?

did not leave

for the

first

can man

and

works

into the heavens

air

man

action

to copy

to soar
Greek

1500 one

studies,

of the

serious

pressure

Da Vinci

to the air

FLIGHT

But the

and its

his avid

others.

relative

unable

Men like

is compressible,

to come.

being

Archimedes'

vehicles.

In the years

the

prehistoric

ability

lighter-than-air

OF

of aerodynamics

Early

the

HISTORY

he willed.
but they

was

still

years

as the

father

away.
Sir George
of modern

Cayley

aerodynamics.

glider

with a wing

of the

wing

flat
cept

ones.

once

in his
very

of inventors

tried

Meanwhile,

Lilienthal

was

successful

flights

before
proved

which

and that
designs

the basic
flew

curved
came

is generally

of his

servants

to use

surfaces
with

the

flying
crashing
the

would
use

engine

to his
concept

acting

on a wing

produce

of dihedral

that

he built
their

century,

death

in 1896.

and

built

lift force

an important

the

late

glider
1800's

and had

a German

named

flight.

He recorded
3 shows
Today,

than
con-

airplanes

Figure

importance

a man-carrying

of his own design.

of heavier-than-air

the

more
-

During

to power

end of the nineteenth

in gliders

recognized

He realized

as a passenger.

a steam

the

forces

successfully.

In 1853 it is believed

toward

successfully

Lilienthal

unit

day:

with one

success.

designs.

a tail

of attack

to this

flew

number

angle

(1773-1857)

He understood

and

Stability

used

which

of England

little
Otto

over

2000

one of his
this

form

of

Helicopter

Parachute

Figure

Figure
2

2.-

Montgolfier

1.- Designs

balloon

(1783).

of Leonardo

Figure

da Vinci.

3.-

Lilienthal

glider

(1896).

flying,
are

now called

various

hang-gliding,

claims

Russians),

Americans

are

At the Smithsonian
was

designing

wing

span

small

tandem

two propellers,
Congress

1903.

flew

gear

On December

machine

improving

designs.

and

numerous

commonplace

propulsion

Samuel

spurred

have

II (1945)

of transonic,
The

plane's

design.

pointed

both the

at Langley

Research

supersonic,

following

War

material

fitted

with a steam

Backed

to carry

during

October
success

success

rapidly

1903.

in the airplane.

research

and hypersonic
shed

future.

civilian

the

some

since

and German

light

a pilot.

Unfortu-

and December

Two world

of

swept

pushed

lifting

wars

combat

concepts
wings

of aviation.

is being

transports,

from

Aerial

advanced
Soon

sectors

driving

lay in continually

developed

I (1918),

engine

in a gasoline-

(1903).

advances

Langley

a 5-meter

by a grant

achieved

Their

was

"Aerodrome"

and

there

or the

Pierpont

successful

Langley's

Center

will

Samuel

most

twice

the way to the

military

Dr.

airplane

brothers

own design.

limited

dominated

shuttle.

it to crash

have

wars

His
in 1896.

the Wright

Although

the Germans,

D.C.,

Aerodrome,"

and aerodynamics

War

Today
areas

4.-

comeback.

French,

credit.

of the same

caused

by the end of World

end of World

"the

version

of their

Figure

the

1 kilometer

17, 1903,

engine-powered

Aviation

given

(the

airplanes.

over

failure

first

in Washington,

(fig. 4),

a full-scale

launching

their

generally

steam-powered

which

a substantial

flew

Institution

biplane

he built

nately,

is enjoying

as to who really

at the

and jet

(See fig.
forward

bodies,

was

5.)

in the

and the

on the how and why of an air-

space

World

War

I (1918)

P-51
World

War

D
II

(1945)

Modern

(1974)

Figure 5.- Designs showing advance of aeronautics.

II. BACKGROUND

As a background
material

presented

required

background

for the
in the

nomenclature

descriptions

of aircraft

this

A general

paper.

included.
craft's
aid

Appendix
motion

This

discussions

the Earth's

in locating

surface.

further

Nature

of the

namely

air.

Air

ing the

Earth

imately
keep
dry

90 km,
the

makes

vapor,

estimated
together
position
air

up the

fluctuating

mixed

dust

near

the

sea

particles,

represent

total

can be made

to vary

problem

has

brought

other

TABLE

I.- NORMAL

DRY

ATMOSPHERIC

gas

(Ne),

although
nitrogen
the

areas

OF
SEA

That

to light

in recent

by

(He),
ethane

ozone

_O3) , sulfur
(NH3),

krypton
(CH4)

dioxide
carbon

(Kr),
, nitrogen
(SO2'.,

monoxide

hydrogen

(H2)

oxide
nitrogen
(CO),

(N20),
dioxide
and

iodine

(NO2)
(12)

a total
of 0.003
Traces
of each
gas

for

local
times

comby

than

volume

.031

taken

higher

markedly

percent

is

mon-

CLEAN,

Content,

are

of carbon

1962]

(CO2)

helium

the

LEVEL

formula

of clean,

variable,

and oxygen

the percentages

COMPOSITION

atmosphere,

highly

are

of approx-

in the table

gases.

pollutants

NEAR

composition

.934

(Xe) ....

ammonia

normal

fluid,

in all directions

20.948

xenon

will

surround-

Up to altitudes

78.084

dioxide

an airpaper

one

envelope

vapor,

(Ar)

Carbon

gaseous

dramatically

AIR

about

Not included

(02\

Argon

end of the

I.

of all

harmful

Standard

and

in

is also

to define

turbulence

(N2)

Oxygen

Neon

volume

in industrialized

Constituent

as used

presented.

gases.

Interestingly,

[U.S.

Nitrogen

Water

total

oxide,
sulfur
dioxide,
and numerous
in nonindustrialized
areas.

the

The

in table

etc.

been

used

at the

atmospheric

is given

volume.

where

proportions.

of the

units

motion

is concerned

of several

general

same

level

99 percent

systems

atmosphere

bacteria,

at 0.41-percent

coordinate

aerodynamicist

and

and

and

Atmosphere

Earth's

winds

dimensions

bibliography

the

A contains

definitions

on the materials

a mixture

in nearly
air

pollution

The

and represents

atmospheric

water

the

air

atmosphere.-

Appendix

and relative

The

The

paper.

scalars,

information

to examine

and represents

aeronautical

B discusses

the various

is urged

is basic

this

general

of vectors,

C describes

reader

information

both

Appendix

discussion

the

throughout

concerning
types.

above

the reader

presented,

appendixes.

for the

aeronautical

material

INFORMATION

Above

about

to their

respective

oxygen,

helium,
Based

"shells."

90 km,

and

then

homosphere.
the heterosphere.
most

common

are

the

troposphere,

ure

6 shows

the

temperature

man

lives

harmful
ionosphere,
outwards.
spheric

also.

the

the

gravitation.

500 km),

the solar

becomes

a dominant

The
aircraft

and

The

rocket

cal distribution
sound
lar

time

atmosphere.-

Since

or place,

a hypothetical

may be expected.

This

model

to be devoid

with

is assumed
respect
The

Europe

to the
first

and the

ciled

and

Civil

Aviation

cially
The

Earth

standard
United

States.

Organization
by NACA

extended

(that

solar

from

wind,

that

of dust,

moisture,

model

(ICAO).

This

and forms

5 km below

and,

of course,

indefinitely

region

subject

only to

the

extends

knowledge

the

of the

and

constant

speed

atmosphere.

vertiof

at any particu-

as an approximation
The

vapor

Sun)
all

calibrations,

density,

and water

than

small.

altimeter

remains

of the

(greater
from

which

The

of the atmo-

altitudes

so forth,

standard

absorbing

to what
air

in the

and to be at rest

or turbulence).

models

accepted

in 1952

7 shows

extends

is negligibly

be employed

as the

slight

and

never

is known

The

Fig-

developed.

of plasma

temperature,

must

here

orbits

at these

of pressure

design,

no winds

in free

however,

purposes

model

is,

order

to aeronau-

the outer

an "atmosphere"

atmosphere

atmospheric

an internationally

accepted
tables

model

or layers,

layer

and

represents

particles

one has

as pressure,

the real

is called

Figure

of one or more

can move

and their

quantities

is the

exosphere.

not have

mesosphere

exosphere
to note

For

performance

shell

in the stratosphere

ionization

of high-energy

of the

shell

In ascending

occurs

layer

in the

particles

so that

density

of such

is required.

The

(streams

or

shells

atmospheric

weather

ozone

It is interesting

influence

the

and

as we know it would

in which

atmospheric

wind

standard

Most

begins

is significant.

the

Sun.

life

region

the

shells.

important

the beneficial

It represents

constant

thermosphere,

most

region.

layer,

of

shells.

is the

radiation,
known

where

to the

in the various

Without

layers,

distribution.

and temperature-defined

ultraviolet

strata,

is one way of distinguishing

composition-

out according
concentrations

the gases.

with altitude,

mesosphere,

fly in this

constituents

varies

is the temperature

aircraft

atmosphere

way

composition

stratosphere,

a popularly

Earth's

is essentially

which

here
solar

of all

the composition

troposphere

most

find high

two atmospheric

used

variation

It is the

or separate

are

composition

criterion

to settle
one would

is the lightest

there

90 km where

both the

begin
order

which

then,

Although

the

since

hydrogen

90 km where

Above

gases

In ascending

on composition,
Below

tics

the different

densities.

were

developed

differences
was

between

introduced

new ICAO
the basis

to 20 km above

in the
the

models

Atmosphere

of tables
sea

in NACA
level.

in both
were

in 1952 by the

Standard
mean

1920's

recon-

International
was

report

offi1235.

With increased knowledgesince 1952becauseof the large scale use of highaltitude soundingrockets andsatellites, extendedtables above 20 km were published.
Finally in 1962,the U.S. StandardAtmosphere (1962)was publishedto take into
account

this

new data.

(1962)

is in agreement

range

but extends

able

data

For

all practical

with the ICAO

to 700 kin.

purposes,
Standard

Uncertainty

the U.S.

Atmosphere

in values

Standard
over

increased

Atmosphere

their

common

with altitude

as avail-

decreased.

Exos

}here

?,
Satellites
:

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Thermosphere

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Mesopause

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weather

North
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,/_l_

tSeaSea

Equator

Figure

6.-

Atmospheric

structure.

level

altitude

Geometric

altitude

pressure,

density,

U.S.

Standard

vs.

temperature,

speed

of

Atmosphere

sound
1962

100 ///
9O

8O
,Mesopause
70

@
o

6O

"

\\\

5O
--Stratopause
_J

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4O

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e_

30
d

2O

Tropopause

10
f

150

200

250

300

K(temp)
I

0
l
200

.5
I
250

N/m2(pressure)

kg/m
3_

m/sec

Figure

(density)

(speed

7.- Atmospheric

(Based
1962 .)

on U.S.

10

15 [:104

1.0
I
300

1.5
l
350

of sound)

properties

Standard

variation.

Atmosphere,

Troposphere

With the expansionof this nation's spaceprogram requirements, a needwas

generatedfor information on the variability of atmospheric structure that would be
used in the design of second-generationscientific andmilitary aerospacevehicles.
Systematic variations in the troposphere due to seasonandlatitude had been
knownto exist andthus a neweffort was begunto take those variations into account.
The result was the publication of the most up-to-date standard atmospheres - the
U.S. StandardAtmosphereSupplements(1966). Essentially there are two sets of
tables - one set for altitudes below 120km andone for altitudes, 120km to 1000kin.
The model atmospheresbelow 120km are given for every 15 of latitude for 15 N to
75 N and in most cases for January andJuly (or winter and summer). Above 120kin,
models are presented to take into accountvarying solar activity. The older 1962model
is classified in the 1966supplementsas an average mid-latitude (30 N to 60 N)
spring/fall model.
The 1962U.S. StandardAtmosphere is the more general model andit is useful to
list the standard sea level conditions:
Pressure, Po =
Density,

Po = 1.225

Temperature,

Figure
from

sea

level

these

parameters.
In the

is seen
first
shows

with

altitude.

the lift

responded

type

(from

of continents

m/sec2

density,

merely

sea

level

linearly

217 K before

of variation.

Both
curve

is directly

atmosphere.-

It would
atmospheric

and oceans,

to indicate

and the

with

general

shells

are

altitude.

increasing

the

density

again.

Earth's

In the
The

speed
variation

also

importance

of

included.

atmosphere),

it

stratosphere
speed

are

of sound

seen
since,

it

of sound
to decrease
as will be

on the density.

be fortunate
model

standard

and pressure

is of particular

dependent

and

the

to 10 to 20 km in the

at about

density

temperature,

atmospheric

decreases

The

to a standard

of pressure,

temperature-defined

on an airfoil

real

go = 9.807

It is intended

temperature

constant

a similar

The

ence

the

remains

rapidly
seen,

to 100 km.
The

K (15 C)

a o = 340.294m/sec

a multiplot

troposphere

that

kg/m 3

of gravity,

of sound,

7 gives

N/m2

T o = 288.15

Acceleration
Speed

101 325.0

if the

but thermal
rotation

Earth's

real

atmosphere

effects

of the

Sun, the

all

combine

to stir

corpres-

up the

atmosphereinto a nonuniform, nonstandardmass of gasesin motion. Although a

standard atmosphere provides the criteria
necessary
for design of an aircraft,
it is
essential

that

"nonstandard"

performance

This nonstandard
performance
cussed
in this section.

shows

in the real
up in numerous

Winds
Unquestionably,

the

considerable

attention

the

standard

atmosphere

that

the air

respect

mass

to the

is exceedingly
motions
winds)
one

and
affect

most

of late,

through

surface

of the

complex.
(2) small-scale
the

navigation

an airplane
Its

motion

motion

and the

of which

some

effect,

also.

are

flies

motion

to the

is constantly
is variable

performance

both in time

in

it is known

in a state

into two classes:

Large-scale

Although

Earth,

of motion
and

with

space

and

(1) large-scale

motions

of the atmosphere

of an aircraft.

Figure

(or

8 illustrates

effect.

(a) Aircraft

heading

parallel

to AB.

Wind

drift

causes

to account

actual

flight

path

(b) Aircraft

yawed

into wind
Figure

10

dis-

and one receiving

of the atmosphere.

with respect

may be divided

motions.

ways,

atmospheric

is motionless

Earth.

The

real

is the relative

which

be anticipated

and Turbulence

important

the air

atmosphere

with
8.-

angle
Effect

of winds.

for wind

drift.

AC.

In figure 8(a) the pilot is attempting to fly his aircraft

He sets
motion

his heading

and flies

of the atmosphere

flight

path.

After

point

B if there

were

not taken

the winds,

into

the

pilot

in figure

8(b).

course.

Compensation

and the wind

This

velocity

Statistical
been

wind

and

typical

velocity

should

flight

path.

should

the

had

change

with

drift

represent

In the
consult

him

the aircraft

more

airports

at point

C.

to his intended
the pilot

The

In order

out any

knowledge

wind

or less

drifting

to

winds,

which

to compensate

into the wind

of both

and

drift

speed

a standard

Again,

time

local

brought

B.

large-scale

crosswise

have

slightly

canceled

A to point

for

as illustrated

of the aircraft

the aircraft's

off

velocity

to the ground.

curve.

of wind

himself

point

(representing

blowing

would

off course.

of horizontal

case

are

which

finds

requires

values

statistical

pilot

have

respect

B but winds

ground)

pointed

would

for

point

time

forced

have

at any particular

cal average.
pilot

flight

no winds,
account,

for

to the

required

average

calculated

one such

relative

the

were

directly

from

curve.

in the case
place

then,

for wind

than

conditions

of altitude

Figure

of a real

will vary
rather

as a function

9 represents

atmosphere,

considerably
use

from

a statistical

and forecasts

have

the
the

real
statisti-

curve,

along

the

his intended

3O

2C

10
J

I
100

50
Maximum

Figure

9.-

A typical
USAF

wind speeds, m/see

statistical
Handbook

maximum

wind

speed

curve.

of Geophysics.
11

The small-scale motion of the atmosphereis called turbulence (or gustiness).

The responseof an aircraft to turbulence is an important matter. In passengeraircraft, turbulence may cause minor problems such as spilled coffee and in extreme
cases injuries if seat belts are not fastened. Excessive shaking or vibration may render the pilot unableto read instruments. In casesof precision flying such as air-toair refueling, bombing, andgunnery, or aerial photography,turbulence-induced
motions of the aircraft are a nuisance. Turbulence-inducedstresses and strains over
a long period may causefatigue in the airframe andin extreme cases a particular
heavy turbulence may causethe loss of control of an aircraft or evenimmediate
structural failure.
There are several causesof turbulence. The unequalheating of the Earth's
surface by the Sunwill causeconvective currents to rise and make the plane's motion
through such unequalcurrents rough. On a clear day the turbulence is not visible but
will be felt; hence,the name "clear air turbulence (CAT)." Turbulence also occurs
becauseof winds blowing over irregular terrain or, by different magnitudeor direction, winds blowing side by side andproducing a shearing effect.
In the case of the thunderstorm, one has oneof the most violent of all turbulences where strong updrafts anddowndrafts exist side by side. The severity of the
aircraft motion causedby the turbulence will dependupon the magnitudeof the updrafts
anddowndrafts and their directions. Many private aircraft have beenlost to thunderstorm turbulence becauseof structural failure or loss of control. Commercial
airliners

generally
Figure

lences

fly around
10 illustrates

liquid

will

real

flight

atmospheric

or vapor

affect

cipitation

form,

an aircraft
that

for the

path

comfort

and

of an aircraft

less

dense

than

dry

air

less

dense

than

dry

air.

safety

through

Air

density

of an aircraft
standard
is important

air

degrees.

and

physical

depends

atmosphere

does

a pilot

consequently

in the

of their

passengers.

the various

upon

humid

the

pure

dry

turbu-

true

such

caused

air

(air

in the air,

standard
with

and

the forms

of pre-

on the wings,

Water

containing

requires

atmosphere

as icing

by hail.

in either

vapor

water

a longer

is

vapor)

will

take-off

dis-

be

air.
in the lift,

temperature

a local

dry

is familiar

an aircraft

factor

not indicate

to contact

damage

dense

important

Water

performance

of this,

more

in the

Everyone

aircraft

Because

is a very

and

for

than

and

of moisture.

for

affect

in fog or snow,

in humid

is that

is not accounted

in varying

visibility

tance

effect

can adversely

zero

12

the

storms

described.
Another

its

such

and
conditions

airport

drag,

pressure

and

engine

locally.

at a particular

for the

local

power
Since

time

atmospheric

output
the

and place,
conditions.

it

.,i..t..,.

;i? iL !iLk
?

Ii
ii

71 ii iiii

?iii?iiiii!i!i
iiiiii j'iiiiiN

iiiiiii!!iii!iii!_!:i:i_i:!:i:i:i:i:i:i:i_i:!:i:i:i!iiiiiiii!iiii!ii!i!iii!i!i!iiiii!:i:i:!:i:!:i
Figure I0.- Flight path of an aircraft through various forms of turbulence.
Relatively stable air exists above thunderstorms.
From

the

hence,

must

local

temperature

take-off
The

local

zero

his

standard

and

distance
pressure

altimeter

pressure

readings,

power

is important

pressure

sea-level

pressure

and engine

output

density

in aircraft

to local

using

measured

if he is to obtain

may

be obtained

and,

may be determined.
pressure

altimeters.

sea-level

accurate

altitude

A pilot

pressure

rather

readings

above

than

to

sea

level.
Although
nonstandard
still

the preceding
atmosphere

remains

discussion

on aircraft

as a primary

considers

design

reference

in the

The
Basic
known

airplane.-

as airplanes.

its application
physical

makeup

several

surfaces,
considered

basic
landing
later

Fuselage.the

controls

attention

Before

it would

of a typical

gear,

preliminary

the
design

many

standard
stage

effects

of a

atmosphere

of an aircraft.

Airplane
be centered

into any
be well

mainly

discussion

on that

class

of aerodynamic

to consider

in some

detail

view

an airplane

of aircraft
theory

and

the overall

airplane.

11 demonstrates
components

will

proceeding

to airplanes,

As figure
into

Our

only a few of the

and performance,

in exploded
as follows:

and powerplant(s).

form,

fuselage,
The

wing,

tail

aerodynamics

may be resolved

assembly
of these

and control
components

are

in the discussion.
The

necessary

body
for

of an airplane

is called

operating

controlling

and

the

fuselage.

the

airplane.

It houses
It may

the

crew

provide

and
space

13

_Controt

ge3.r

Figure
cargo

engine
ture

and passengers

may be housed
of the

generally
mission

airplane

since

the

many

provides

sectional

shape

of the wing

planform

shape

of the wing,

airplane
Figure

mission
13 illustrates
Tail

the

assembly

collection

(1) the vertical

and
pitch.

14

and

(2) the

Figure

of the

is known

compromise

the shapes
control

stabilizer

(fin) and

stabilizer

with

force

airfoil

numerous

forms

to the

air.

overall

struc-

to it.

It is

with the

in figure

12.

Lift is
The cross-

The airfoil

in the

section
depend

airplane

shape,
upon the
design.

used.
assembly

provide

(appendage)

The tail

a tail

represents

assembly

directional

provide
that

vary

on the fuselage

airplane.

which

attached

Designs

section.

often

which

are

an

the basic

of an airplane.

respect

The tail

rudder

In addition,

as illustrated

of the wing

of the

and elevator
the

endless,

necessary

surfaces.rear

drag.

lifting

and placements

at the

14 illustrates

as the

components

to reduce
are

sorts.

is, in one sense,

large

wing

and placement

of structures

horizontal

of various

the principal

the best

and

other

variations

action

components.

The fuselage

as possible

and the

dynamic

airplane

armaments

of the

as much

The wing

from

Basic

in the fuselage.

to be performed

obtained

11.-

and carry

streamlined

Wing.-

_n

for

assem

longitudinal
assembly

consists

stability

in yaw,

stability
may

of

take.

in

B-26B

Twin-engine

bomber

WWII

P -47N

Albatross

Flying

boat
j/_-

- /

(+

Long

Figure

range

8-engine

12.- Various

B-52G

bomber

fuselage

designs.

15

Wing

Wright

P-36

(Subsonic)

F-51

(Subsonic)

F-104

(a)Examples

Brothers

(Supersonic)

of airfoilshapes.

Figure 13.- Wing shapes and placements.

16

Rectangular
straight
wing

Tapered

straight

Rounded
or
straight

Slightly

elliptical
wing

swept

Moderately

Highly

wing

wing

swept

swept

wing

Simple

Complex

(b) Examples
Figure

of wing
13.-

wing

delta

delta

wing

wing

planform.

Continued.
17

High-wing

Mid-willg

Low

(c) Examples

of wing

Figure

13.-

Elevator

H orizo
Rightfinnal

. '

Fin

,vertical

_ [t,l'lZdlntitl

Nl:t|)lltZ_l"

evatlw
-

fin

tail

V-butl(,r

Figure
18

stabiliz(,ri

//

__'_._.._._

s ta hi, i zter -

Twin

placements.

Concluded.

Rudder
--_

14.-

-wing

Tail

assembly

fl}:-t._il

forms.

Included
used
or

for

attitude,

right)

trol

is

the

provided

heavy,

small

pilot

and

ailerons

wing

or

ailerons

lift

Spoilers

operating

at
are

of roll

control.

a simple

aileron

large

airliner.

jet

it is at

rest

may

fixed

be

absorbing

or

gear

arrester
modern-day

installation

The

landing
or

include
are

attitude

and

a more

or

in water,

use

oil

or

skis

for

snow

Figure

they

may

control

of most

to

cushion

and

floats

17 shows

for

blow

the

and

takeBy

alternate

form

and

figure

16 shows
used

on

airplane

landing.

while
The

attached

gear

to shock-

Special

carrier

gear

used

an

of landing.
For

wing

quickly.

the

are

rudder,

of the

wing

and

the

surfaces.

arrangement

of the

nose

without

landing

surfaces

water.

several

left)

wing.

elevators,

provide

_tirplanes

the

the

for

take-off

or

rudder,

wishes

supports

the

of the

edges

complicated

during

edge

to move

an airplane

undercarriage,

and

wheels

air

wing,

right

pilot

trailing

generally

to the

(2) to maintain

primarily

on

are

con-

if it is too

move

necessary

used

lift

the

gear,

The

used.

the

of the

airplane

the

Pitch

elevator,

condition,

and/or

are

the

left

types

of

landings,

arrangements

found

on

airplanes.

or

power

propeller,

With
plant

(or

turbojet,

turboprop,

engine's

rotating

and

piston

on an

in unaccelerated

face

forces.

exceptions

some

Body

forces

force

or

and

the

a thrust

of the

many

force
varied

are

two

flight.
on

plant

the

Surface

engines

They
body

from

forces

general

termed

because

engine

types

the

ram

(and

are

jet,

the

pulse

jet,

of a reciprocating
by

placements

a distance.
act

as

energy

types
be

a thrust-producing
of the

engine

accomplished

engine

may

main
such

the
is

possess
consists

The

Converting

into

act

must

power

reaction

engine.

steady

airplane

accessories.

There

weight.

The

related

airplane.or

an

flight.

rocket

crankshaft

body

gravitational

the

type),

and

18 illustrates
Forces

few

to sustain

if present),

reciprocating

Figure

flap

ground

Power_plants.device

to reduce

15 illustrates

on

(3) to help

leading
They

sides

inserts

setting

effort

fin.

wing

trailing

the

to the

which

the

cruise

controls,
of the

to the

outer

(1) to balance

of the

on both

surface

particular

pilot

parts

the

airplane

elevators

(rolling

in a stable

on the

used

that

hooks

are

whatever

the

retractable.

struts

landing

at

devices

the

control

to fly

airspeeds.

gear.on

hinged

reduced

and

Landing

near

of an airplane

the

attached

by the

generally

heavy

Figure

provided

located

pivoted

independently

is

surfaces

(turning

generally

control

relieve

or

is

down)

moving

control

which

functions

or

thus

Yaw

Roll

whose

hinged

to increase

or

those

stabilizer.

pressures

and

are

up

all

control.

auxiliary

maintairting

are

rudder

ailerons

rudder,

the

off.

the

heavy,

elevator,

drag

by the

surfaces

tail

Flaps

and

airplane

are

aileron

surfaces

horizontal

by

tabs

and

lift,

to the

Trim

control

provided

(nosing

attached
is

in the

the

propeller.

possible.

of forces
as
For

that

body

forces

the

airplane

of contact

may

between

act
and
this

on

suris

the

the

19

RuddE
Elevator

(all-movir

Spoiler

-- Flaps

Spoiler
Flaps

(a) Control

Rudder

surfaces

Side

on F-4B

Phantom.

view

_-T_\
Rudder

-_

Aileron

\_

.-_

Aileron

_
tab

_
"_

AHeron-_

Figure

2O

15.-

surfaces
Main

Speed---,I 'el

trim

(b) Control

control

on T-28B.
surfaces.

aJleron

Left

Right

(a) Simp/e
Outboard

Outboard

Inboard

aileron

flap arrangement.

aileron

flap

aileron

/
Inboard

flap

(b)Jet airlineraileron and flap assembly on Wing.

Figure 16.- Flaps and ailerons.

2!

gear

Arrester
hook

Main
gear

(a) Tricycle

gear

nose

wheel,

two main

wheels.

(b) Conventional

gear

tail

wheel,

two main

wheels.

Skids

(c) Unconventional
Figure

29.

gear
17.-

skis,

Landing-gear

skids,
forms.

or floats.

_Tail
wheel

Reciprocating
or
turbo-engine
propeliors

Jet

engine

Starfighter

Single
engine
F-104

Phantom

Twin
engine

Three
engines

F-4

Trident

Four
engines

Multi
engine

Figure

18.-

Power-plant

placements.

Lift

Thrust

=-

Weight

Figure 19.- Forces on an airplane in normal flight.

23

medium

and the body,

and thrust,
Basically,

the

other

the

four

Weight:
fuel

Thrust:
propeller,
along

Drag:
the

the wing.

In the

this

of the

at a uniform

velocity.

conditions.

To maintain

equals

They

generally

drag

arise

are

because

concern

arise.

This

all

thrust,

the

surface

lift,

payload,

decreases.

propulsive

so forth,

Weight

drag,
forces.

and drag.

and the

It represents

situation

this

system

fuel.

acts

Since

in a direc-

is used,

engine

It may

be taken

is the thrust.

(except

for

vertical

of air
the

from

the

aerodynamic

take-off

around

of the

driven
to act

airplanes).

the airplane,

component

Weight

force

the

flight

along

or can be easily

of the

dynamic

are

the

travel

disposition

around
line

the

major

resultant

aerody-

airplane

but is

physical

of flight.

in straight

of the

the lift

the

four

equals

attributes

forces

controlled.

of the

airplane

through

now in some

in which
detail.

the

lift and

level
under

flight
these

and the

of an airplane.

and

manner

and

the weight,

determined

movement
is the

will

situation,

and thrust

known

is considered

flow of air

an airplane

19 shows
basic

of aerodynamics
subject

weight,

itself,

by the flow

arises

Figure

the drag.

major

24

force

flight

are

Lift,

of flight.

resultant

simplest

thrust

line

and

airplane

from

Again,

component

engine,
of the

to the

are

the weight

of whatever

is generated

normal

on an airplane,

airplane

flies,

force

resulting
force

the

force

axis

acting

surface.

Earth.

rocket

the longitudinal

and the airplane

on an airplane

airplane

driving

jet engine,

portion
namic

includes

of the

the air

forces

weight

center

This

main
acting

The

Lift:

between

forces

as the

the

is,

three

The

is consumed

tion toward

that

But lift and

the air.
drag

forces

The

III. FLUID FLOW

The Fluid
Viscosity.- There are basically three states of matter - solid, liquid, andgas.
H20 is commonly called "ice" in the solid state, "water" in the liquid state, and "water
vapor" in the gaseousstate. Assume onehas a piece of ice andside forces are
applied to it (called shearing forces). Very large forces are neededto deform or
break it. The solid has a very high internal friction or resistance
to shearing.
The
word

for internal
Liquids

a solid.
ers,
air

friction

and gases

Imagine

faster

that a shear
force
internal
friction.
under

have

extremely

gory

of fluids,

mary

interest

But it will be shown

important

effects

that

with

speeds

involved

150 m/sec,
throughout
into

motion

air

another

Even
not great.

may

be treated

the flow).

air.

one that
small

in terms
are

extent,

may

For

be treated

subsonic

as incompressible

At higher

speeds

the

effects

the

Air,

cate-

of pritheories,

friction)

has

drag.
is, density

generally

increases

highly

over

an airplane

(that

is,

under

incompressible

as incompressible

flow

air.

solids

or is "inviscid."

(or internal

(that
are

possess

than

and in some

viscosity

compressible
but liquids

also

viscous

gases.

viscosity

of air

of lift and

they

Under

zero

viscosity

the fact

low viscosities.
than

lay-

with the

However,
that

from

to these

in general,

small

has

applied

more

large.

differently

that,

viscosities

a relatively

very

of the layers

times

higher

provided
below

no change

the

flow

about

in density

of compressibility

must

be taken

account.

The
Pathlines
ways

fifty

One concludes

possess

are

indicates

have

gases

are

fluids

fluids

this

to some

the

behave

layers.

whereas

fluid
even

the water

is about

than

All fluids

gases.

than

to deform

has

on an airplane

pressure)

compared

relative

generally

Compressibility.increasing

sustained

one

is generally

they

and

viscous

as a perfect

since

forces

in aerodynamics,

it is described

value

If shear

high viscosities
liquids

to be fluids

temperatures,

more

its

or air.

be applied

normal

Ice is 5 1016 times

for a solid

of water

over

must

and

considered

a substantial

sliding

Water,

are

two layers

one discovers
layers

is viscosity

the

and

streamlines.-

Lagrangian

approach

standpoint,

one particle

is chosen

time.

line

The

traced

ple is a transmitting

out by that
ocean

buoy

A fluid
and the

Flow

flow may
Eulerian

and it is followed
one particle
shown

in figure

be described
approach.

in two different
From

as it moves

is called
20(a).

Lagrangian

through

a particle
Its

the

position

space

pathline.
has

been

with
An exammarked

at

25

6-hour intervals over a period of several days. The path observed is the particle
pathline.
In order to obtain a clearer idea of the flow field at a particular instant, a
Eulerian approachis adopted. One is looking at a "photograph" of the flow. Figure 20(b) showsthe surface oceancurrents at a particular fixed time. The entire flow
field is easily visualized. The lines comprising this flow field are called streamlines.
,'_ + 48

hrs

f
/

t_t+
Particle
pathline

_-_._

42

hrs

it+

36 hrs

]
., _1+ 30 hrs
2_i

Coast

+ 24

Buoy position at
6 hour
intervals

hrs

/_+ 18 hrs
!
+ 12

hrs

_/+

6 hrs

0 hrs

(a) Particle

pathline.

Streamlines

Flow

at + 6 hours

Coast

(b) Streamlines.
Figure

26

20.-

Particle

pathline

and

streamlines.

It is
line.

important

A pathline

streamline

presents

of whether

particle

Stsady
fluid

calls

direction
or

if its

velocity

does

not

house
of time

time.

wind

and

consider
a windy
later.

pattern

If,

this
day
One

sees

is different;

however,

at
the

figure
instant

each

21(a)

that

this

flow

the

streamlines

is

Particle pathlines and streamlines

(a)

it blows

constantly

speed

direction

flow

or

of a fluid

in the
the

presents
and

is

There

changing

their

On

a windy

from

the

day

the

many

and

is

this

fluid.

about

flow

an instant

areas

position

in the

(of air)

wind

is steady

constant

the

same

object

points

flow

are

question

in understanding

an

shows

next.

changes,

all

fluid

21(b)

The

considered

remains
at

a streamwhereas

time.

about

flow

same
the

figure

unsteady.
are

same

flow."

be

of time

the

of a "steady

point

velocity

ever

and
space

a fixed

importance

the
the

at

and

Of basic

stands

manner

that

further,
at one

concept
he

direction)

require

are

pathline

in time

particles

flow.-

the

if where

In a similar

(speed

of many

unsteady

a particle

particle

streamlines

is

speed.

necessarily

on

and

between

of a single

of motion

with

steady

unsteady.

To

differences

trace

an object

at a constant

"gusty"

flow

compared
about

the

line

pathlines

flow

the

to the
the

movements

person

to note
refers

where
shape

the
with

for this flow are not equivalent.

Streamlines

at

time

t 0.

(b) Streamlines
Figure

21.-

Unsteady

flow

at time

t 1.

of air

about

a house.
27

Figure
house)

22 shows

in a wind

At time

t1

develops

further

flow appears
through

the

a nicely

tunnel.

At time

tunnel

tO

is started

at time

unchanged

an unsteady

"streamlined"

t2

and

transient

not the

same.

From

appear

fixed

in position

with

t3

downstream

line

at time

t 5.

The

moves

particle

t3

pathline

time

that

is,

onwards

respect

a steady

along
with

the

and no air
the body;

pattern

When

the

pathlines

streamline

the flow

starts,

and

A particle

is flowing.

at time

flow

t 3.

The

it passes

streamlines

flow is established.

body.
that

to the bluff-shaped

about

a constant
t 5.

particle

to the

coincides

flowing

reaches

and

(as opposed

is not running

begins

finally
t4

state;

time

the tunnel

and air

at time

body

are

Streamlines

shown

as shown

on a stream-

at times

t4

and

streamline.

====2,.i

Tunnel

at

time

t o

Tunnel

at

t 1

Tunnel

at

t 2

Tunnel

......

flow:

Figure

are

equivalent

for

flow visualization.
Rotational

the

28

elements

and

the

means

that

Lagrangian

at each

Particle

22.-

and irrotational
of fluid

:,:::

'_:"

_'_

Tunnel at t 5

Steady

this

t 3

.........

Tunnel at t4

Summarizing,

at

Unsteady

point

of view

Fluid

Streamline

and steady

for a steady

flow.point

pathline

flow
is the

flow

in the flow have

flow.

a particle
same

as the

can be rotational
no net

pathline

angular

and

Eulerian

streamline
approach

or irrotational.
(spin)

velocity

If
about

constant velocity.

It is irrotational.

remains

irrotational

limited

to a small

flow may

still

if zero
region

near

be treated

basic

streamlines
fluid
nent.

ideas

along

Taken

Fluid

flows

locity

varies

with

the

as shown

24(c).

uniform

at each

stated,

tube,

distance

they

airfoil

One

section,

effects

it

are

Most

of the

flows

the

tube

temperature,

section

for the

the

convey

laws

the

flow to be one

that

stream

value
since

are

velocuniform

as indicated
it varies

made.

flow properties

tube.

The ve-

streamline

dimensional"

arise,
of mass

and

is perma-

or channel.

varying

since

only

In addition

must

also

be

dimensional.

forces

mass

tube

larger

of

tube

an "average"

observations

of conservation

facts

individual

imagine

and other

how aerodynamic

an even

actual

a bundle

stream

to the

"one

where

the

a pipe

the

shows

of as a stream

through

can easily

to aid in under-

24(a)

flow,

comprise

to represent

density,

are

tubes

is considered

along

employed

Figure

of steady

according

24(b).

then

velocity

They

the

viscosity

can be thought

water

in general,

in figure

to understand

be considered.
Simply

for example,

The

cross

streamline

of stream

often

flow.

In the case

section

pressure,

In order

Each

at the cross

the particular

about
life,

and in its wake.

argument

of a one-dimensional

flow.

it as,

across

passes
In real

of the airfoil

A simplifying

the bundle

through

to velocity,

surface

it as if in a tube.

of velocity

in figure

is that

together,

ity variation,
value

flow.-

of a simple

flows

the

airflow

is assumed.

as irrotational.

One-dimensional
standing

As the

viscosity

energy

two basic
and

principles

conservation

can neither

must

of energy.

be created

nor

destroyed.
For
sidered
ered

introductory

purposes,

to be inviscid
steady

simplifying

and incompressible

assumptions
(and hence,

are

made.

"perfect").

The

The

Fluid

Many

infinitesimal

form

thickne_
Fluid
velocity

duct

Stream.tube

boundary)

(outside

streamlines

t/
in

(a) Stream
Figure
30

velocity
out

streamlines

(actually

24.-

Stream

tubes

tubes.
and one-dimensional

flow.

is con-

flow is consid-

and one dimensional.

__.,__

fluid

the points, the fluid flow is said to be irrotational.

wheel

immersed

rotating,
figure

the
23(b),

in a moving
motion

fluid

as in figure

is irrotational.

the flow

If the

One can imagine a small paddle

23(a).

wheel

If the wheel

rotates

translates

in a flow,

without

as illustrated

in

is rotational.

(a) Irrotational

(b) Rotational

flow.

flow.

Ik

(c) Inviscid,
Figure

According
initially
the

airfoil

to a theorem

irrotational,
section

23.-

flow about

Rotational

and irrotational

of Helmholtz,

it remains
shown.

irrotational

The

irrotational.
flow far

ahead

assuming
In figure

an airfoil.

zero

flow.

viscosity,

23(c),

of the airfoil

if a fluid

an observer

section

flow is

is fixed

is uniform

to

and of
29

/-Transverse

velocity
ion

__'--

Ave ra4Ie

veloeit

luidvelocity

(b) Real

velocity

flow

--

profile.

One-dimensional
velocity
profile

idealized

--}
(c)
(e)

One-dimensional
Figure

24.-

Ideal
The
tion
but

continuity

of mass
has

in a system.

a constriction

tube.

is

areas

A 1

in the

and

cross

A2,

sections
pipe

nor

is

equation

states

that

the

fluid

value

at

creation"

any
-

station
cross
and

(Mass

2 per
section

the

that

rate)

fluid

being

mass
unit

flow

1 = (Mass

V1

a statement

uniform

in diameter

25(a).
under

and

This
the

be

is

2 have
the

called

average

pumped

in through

the

sides.

The

unit

time

In fact,

this

there

is an

or

assumption

"mass

flow

accumulation

is violated.

Simply

assump-

flow
is

time.

a venturi

stated

assumption

1 per

ends,

cross-sectional

A further

station

conserva-

at both

previously

1 and
V2

of the

flow).

passing

rate)2

is

in figure
fluid,

is

Stations

Let

examined

steady

which

the

(one-dimensional

in the

passing

as

Flow
equation

indicated.

respectively.

no leaks

mass

ends

assumed

direction

Fluid

a pipe

the

profile.

Concluded.

continuity

Consider

it is

flowing

The

between

Furthermore,

tions,

these

equation.-

flow

must

rate"

speeds

that

there

continuity
equal

must

of mass

at
are

be
-

the

fluid

the

same

"mass

stated,

(1)

31

where
Mass
This

equation

rate

reduces

the

fluid

reduces

x Area

x Velocity

(2)

to

PlA1V1
Since

= Density

(3)

= P2A2V2

is assumed

to be incompressible,

is a constant

and equation

(3)

to
AlV 1 = A2V 2

This

is the

simple

dimensional
be valid

continuity

flow
as long

(4)
equation

with no leaks.
as average

By rearranging

for

inviscid,

incompressible,

If the flow were

values

equation

of

Vl

and

viscous,
V2

the

across

steady,

statement

the

one-

would

cross

still

section

are

used.

(4), one obtains

A1

(5)

V 2 - A2 V1

Since

A1

is greater

greater
made,

than
V 1. This is a most
that the flow speed increases

decreases
the

equation,

highest

narrowest

part

of the

The

that

the

fact

venturi

tube.
than

spaced

streamlines

indicate

regions
Bernoulli

32

speed

speed

constriction

flow is composed

this

with the

than

at the

ends.

at the

station
called

a constant
25(c)

of the throat,

the

streamlines

The

indicate

shows

Figure

Hence,

regions

the

is

25(b)

picture.

part.

V2

under
the assumptions
and the flow speed

speed

remains

that

It states,
decreases

commonly

AV

of high-speed

is inviscid,

Figure
flow

it can be concluded

result.
the area

is reached

increases.

's theorem

important
where

a larger

product

wide

fig. 25(a)),

increases.

In the area

in the

fluid

as before,

(see

of the streamline

and the

the

area

the

together

A2

indicating

interpretation
the

the

constriction

nuity
the

where

than

distance

conclusion
of low-speed

flow

In fact,

of smallest
the throat
along

shows

must

and

of the

This

is at
tube.

of flow allows

streamline
crowd

an

pattern

in

closer
decreases

speaking,

widely

closely

spaced

streamlines

Assume

a fluid

flow which,

flow.
-

the

conservation

incompressible,
of several

energies.

of energy.-

steady,
The

and one dimensional.

kinetic

energy

arises

The

energy

because

at

conti-

venturi

streamlines

relatively

arrow

by the

area.

a tube
the

between

is that,

longer

in

of the

directed motion of the fluid; the pressure energy is due to the random motion within
the fluid; andthe potential energy is due to the position of the fluid abovesome referencelevel. Bernoulli's theorem is an expression of the conservationof the total
energy; that is, the sum total of these energies in a fluid flow remains a constant along
a streamline. Expressed concisely, the sum of the kinetic energy, pressure energy,
and potential energy remains a constant.
If it is further assumedthat the fluid flow is horizontal (as, for example, airflow
approachingan aircraft in level flight), then the potential energy of the flow is a constant. Bernoulli's theorem reduces to
Kinetic energy + Pressure energy =
where
the

the

energy

theorem

constant
per
may

unit

includes

the

volume,

one obtains

be expressed

constant

in terms

value

Constant

(6)

of potential

the dimensions

energy.
of pressure

If one
and

considers

Bernoulli's

of pressure.

I
Station 1
I

Ca)

' >
(b)

increased

Figure

25.-

Venturi

flow

tube

speed

and

continuity

principle.
33

The kinetic energy per unit volume is called dynamic pressure q andis deter1 AV2 where p and V are, respectively, the fluid flow density and
mined by q=_p
speedat the point in question.
The pressure energy per unit volume (due
the

static
The

pressure

of the fluid

constant

energy

Bernoulli's

per

equation

Dynamic

and is given
unit

pressure

the symbol

volume

reduces

to random

is called

motion

within

the fluid)

is

p.

the

total

pressure

Pt"

to

+ Static

pressure

= Total

(7)

pressure

or

1 _V 2
_p
+ P : Pt

For rotational
from streamline
usual

case

same

constant

flow the total pressure

Pt is constant
along a streamline
to streamline
as shown in figure
26(a).
In an irrotational

considered

the

static

for

value

Bernoulli's
of the flow,

airflow

less

the

pressure.
such

approaching

everywhere

equation

the

pressures

(8)

states
static

There

that

as shown

their

that

total

in figure

fluid

an_t the less

a simple

remains

the

total

pressure

is the

26(b).

in a streamline

pressure;
exists

an aircraft,

but may vary

flow, the

the

exchange

flow,

speed

the

of the flow,

between

the same.

the greater

the

the

greater

and

static

the other

must

dynamic

As one increases,

speed

decrease.
Pressure
pressures

in a flow

hollow

bent

tube,

measurement
and

The

to rest

the

total
pitot

tube.

pressure
tube

Figure
facing
This

the
tube

instrument
everywhere.

34

are

a pitot

at the

tube

"stagnation

since

22(b)

shows

static

the

Except
pressure

of holes

which

fluid

the

static

rest

fluid

another

fluid

a simple
to a pressure
tube

divides

entrance
up to flow

at the stagnation

to zero

when

the

point

is

flow stagnates.

device.

been

point,

dynamic

flow about

at the

of the

hollow

have

and

is connected

pressure

reduces

acts

static,

up immediately

be connected

at the stagnation
of the

dams

the

measuring

flow about

and may

shows

while

a total-pressure

tube

how total,

inventor,

pressure

and a number

a static

its
fluid

equation

the fluid

flow is closed

27(a)

point"

the dynamic

therefore,

as before.

after
The

By Bernoulli's

is called

us now examine
Figure

instrument.

is,

The

Let

measured.

called

readout

comes

around
the

measurement.-

tube

drilled

normal

fluid

now the end

into the

to a pressure
the

except

measuring

is parallel

to the

tube's

tube's

side.
readout

to the tube
surface.

Since

Pt, 1
_

Pt,2

Pt,4

(a)

Rotational

flow.

Total

pressure

varies

from

streamline

to streamline.

Pt,1
/"'_"_

Pt,1

/""'_

Pt,1

_/

__

..7

Pt,1

t/

Pt,1 _
Pt,1

Pt, 1

_'I_

Pt,1

_J

Pt,I

(b) Irrotational flow.

Total pressure
Figure

pressure

must

be continuous,

26.- Total-pressure

The

opposite
pressure

flow speed
nected

measuring

and static pressure

the dynamic

pressure,

measuring

a combined

ends of a pressure

can be calculated.

directly to an airspeed

display the aircraft airspeed

everywhere

in flow.

variation.

normal

to the holes is communicated

device.

pitot-static tube.
readout

is measured.

defined as

Pt,l

static tube, therefore, with the holes parallel to the

flow direction, is a static-pressure

27(c) shows

constant value

the static pressure

into the interior of the tube.

Figure

same

1
_pV 2.

By

When

properly

connected

instrument,

the difference

Bernoulli's

equation this difference is

If the fluid density

between

to

is known,

total

the fluid

In actual use on aircraft, the pitot-static tube is conindicator which,

to the pilot.

The

by proper

gearing, will automatically

device is sometimes

mounted

forward

35

_
Total

p_

Smalll --_hoes

p..

" Sta.:--/

--"Jl--

pressure
entrance

T
To

pressure
readout
instrument

To

pressure
readout
instrument

(b) Static

(a)Pitot tube.

Total_1

1/

pressure

....
_rarzc
pressure

tube.

I'll

g
_

/I
II
I! !l

Outer

tube

static

pressure
instrument

communicates
to

readout

Middle
tube communicates
total
pressure
to readout
instrument

(c) l>itot-static
Figure
on a boom
sible,

extending

Returning

discussion

Bernoulli
venturi

equations
tube.

ing the tube

then

may

The

of figure

may
static

be used

is a greater

28 holes

tube

to the

have
27(b)

within

which

is a liquid

such

at the

static

tap

the

equal

pressure

are

36

reference
indicated

static

level.

pressure.

by a decrease

These

pressures

or increase

the

fluid

the fluid
above

in the level

along

flow

enter-

pressure

pressure.
similar

in the
In fig-

to the

are

a tube
static

continuity

distribution

holes
-

When
pressure,

the

of static
tube

manometer"

static

But static

earlier,

static

venturi

as pos-

condition).

free-stream

free-stream

alcohol.

free-stream

as closely

the static-pressure

of the

to a "U-tube
as colored

introduced

Any variation

the

the walls

measuring,

undisturbed

value.
than

its

the free-stream

tube

of the

the

connected

called

to describe

to measure

equals

(also

pressure

value

devices.

to insure

of the venturi

into

taps"

at some

flow

drilled

and are

nose

as a reference

"static

measuring

be used

or lesser

been

Pressure

airplane

approaching

the

ure

the

the undisturbed

and

tube

from

27.-

tube.

static

commonly

called

having

a U-shape

pressure

measured

levels

or below
of fluid

in the

the

tube

free-stream

in the tube.

are

[nviscid,

P_oyV_

incompressible

free-strea_
static
pressure

_I
r

andvetocity

manometer

Station

St'ttic

_/I

tap

Station
2
(throat)

_ __

pressure,_
q
Static
pressu
P

Figure
Figure
and

static

station

the

throat

tion

the

28 shows

taps

to measure

V2

is greater

also

is the

total

flow).

static
block

pressure
diagrams

is less

where
and

flow.

indicates
static
The

follow

achieved

continuity

as seen

V1

in the venturi

pressure

2 using

equation

This

reaches

pressure
airfoil

is also
the

than

tube.

and

fluid,

the

the

at

speed

By Bernoulli's

flow (assuming

Pt

in terms

at

equa-

irrotational

of the static

and

(8), namely,

P2 = Pl

dynamic

The

the liquid

free-stream

in an ideal

previously

speed

(9)

(fluid

pressure,

conclusion

demonstrated

the

the

=pt

of high-speed

throat

since

of manometers

equation

tube.

in the

the total

V1

for as the

the venturi

and a set

By the

everywhere

+p2

than

Pl'

tube

in the region

lower

of a real

speed

1 and

flow.

is incompressible)

hence

must decrease
to maintain
a constant
value
below the venturi
tube show this interchange

decreases

as one

mum

than

all along

low-speed

at station

1
=_p2V2

is greater

P2

that

is constant

tube

of a venturi

pressure.

at stations

V2

Venturi

setup

can express

+pl

that

pressure

Pt

lplV122

Since

pressures

static

highest

one

pressures

complete

than

pressure

Therefore,

dynamic

the

28.-

re,UUlll]

flow

fluid.-

following

speed

level

liquid

has

risen

pressure.

increases,

the

of total pressure
Pt"
of dynamic
and static
from

this

increases
levels
above
At the

is that

in the
of the
the

throat

the

region

The
static
of

manometers

reference
this

level

is the mini-

is the highest.

To supply
section

flow and
by the

static

drawn

speed,

it follows

a point

expands

of reference
the previous

in the
discussion

discussions

to

of venturi

37

flow to the ideal fluid flow past an airfoil. Figure 29(a)showsa "symmetric" (upper
and lower surfaces the same) airfoil operating so that a line drawn through the nose
and tail of the airfoil is parallel to the free-stream direction. The free-stream velocity is denotedby Vo_ and the free-stream static pressure by Po_. Following the
particle pathline (indicatedby the dotted line andequal to a streamline in this steady
flow) which follows the airfoil contour, the velocity decreasesfrom the free-stream
value as one approachesthe airfoil nose (points 1 to 2). At the airfoil nose, point 2,
the flow comesto rest (stagnates). From Bernoulli's equationthe static pressure at
the nose, point 2, is equal to the total pressure. Moving from the noseup along the
front surface of the airfoil (points 2 to 3), the velocity increases
and the static
pressure

decreases.

airfoil,

point

lowest

value.

By the

Beyond
to 4, the
point

this

point

velocity

as one

comes

Beyond

the trailing

reached

and the

and 29(c).

Note

particularly

ent).

This
The

parallel
fect

rear

defies

forces

parallel

a fluid

by the

and

is zero

for this

If, however,

the

symmetry

results.
Air

continuity

and

of zero

lift is determined

distribution

38

intuition

components

metrical.

force

a planar

no matter

This

viscosity.

Bernoulli

pressure

particular

fluid.
principles

case

the

upper

since

at an angle
and lower

and

the

It possesses
still

apply

section

main

gradi-

and the

operating

drag

in a peris.

This

It is the

of the static-pressure
of the
rear

between
pressure
to the

free

surfaces

airfoil

surface

in the

world.

of the airfoil.
and lower

distribution

is sym-

stream,

no longer

With

always

the upper

slight
The

the pressure
exists

of the airfoil

viscosity.
real

of

pressure

paradox.

surface

function

station

of the airfoil

on the

the

in fig-

gradient)

direction

components

forces

veloc-

case.

as D'Alembert's

difference

is tilted

desirable

airfoil

on the front

static-pressure

between

is not a perfect
and

of the

pressure

the orientation

The

direction

airfoil

is very

is known

shown

(up to the

fluid

is

These

are

free-stream

what

value

(a positive

in the real

For

the

surfaces

pressures

direction.

to the free-stream

balance

increasing

to the

zero

streamline

edge,

pressure.

pressure.

(a negative

at the trailing

free-stream

static

pressures

norma]

is always

the

its

points

to the total

of the airfoil

as the force

physical

of assuming

surfaces

until

on the

pressure

of the airfoil,

equal

until

point

the static

increases

pressure

will be of importance

and

surface

the center-line

decreasing
one has

free-stream

the drag

result

The

has

rear

to free-stream

front

the thickest

value

increases

for

on the

reaches

pressure
static

returns

surfaces

is defined

to the

seemingly

one

relationship
lift

fluid,,

exactly

that

thickness),
on the

the

speed

pressure

the

static

with

the flow

as one

its highest

along

distributions

29(b)

whereas

and the

edge

ity and static-pressure

maximum

acquired

moves

to rest

static

equation,

has

decreases

4, the flow

ures

continuity

3, the velocity

and a lift

section.

modification,
airflow

over

the
an

speed
static

lowest
pressure

mu

mu

v_

Zero

speed

High

pressure

....

(al

spee_
High

(Total

pressure

(Tot

pressure)

al
pressure)

v4

P_

_'x_

_"

_reatcr

than

cce,_'"

>

Leading
edge

(b)

Trailing
edge

(V = O)

Leading-edge

Traili

highest

pressure

P
Increasing

Pt

1) :
.\_x_

e pressure

(posing

"<$'-

eb '_

r adient]

-e _

Pt

/L,_,,_
"

D.e.c reasing
PrOssur

\_ve.-'_
/

_o

[low

pressure

<)o

,,9

along

_g-edge

highest

.,,,_'e?b_

g "_-----'-77..vOSl_-I
,]

Distance
IV = O)

.... _ _Ve Pr

"

ess
Ure

_raclient)

Lowest
pressure
at shoulder

l
/

0_
(c)
Distance

Figure
airfoil

will appear

the

existence

sent

basic

real,

to be slightly

of drag

From

flow of air

Ideal

fluid

different

in several

principles.

viscous

29.-

The

point

is allowed

laminar
ure

and

30(a)
adjacent

of these

fluid

turbulent

turbulent.

shows

in straight-line
the

and

streamtubes
layers.

flow.-

flow,

are

flow the
the uniform

(laminas)

from

and then
Laminar

Fluid

There

In laminar

a laminar
layers

reduction

of the

past

assumption

in lift

few pages
is dropped

and
repre-

and a

to exist.
Real

Laminar

discussions

on, the inviscid

flow

an airfoil.

with an accompanying

forms.
this

flow about

along

the

flow

left

two different

fluid

moves

rectilinear
to right.

streamlines
need

Flow
types

in layers
flow,

The

not be in a straight

fluid

called

laminas.

consisting

laminas

indicate

of real

may

of air

Figmoving

be considered

the direction
line.

flow:

Figure

of movement
30(b)

shows

39

Infinitesimal
fluid layers
(laminas)
No distinct
layers
Fluid
exchange
free

Uniform

No fluid
exchange
between
layers

rectilinear
flow

(a)

Turbulent
moves
Adjacent
laminas
have same
Fluid follows curved
surface

speed
in laminas

flow
- Flow
left
to right
but
disorganized.

generally
is highly

(d)

profile

_b)
Fluid
layers
(lamina)
move
more
slowly
as one
approaches
the
surface
but
still
slide
over
one
another.

ofile

(c)

_'_

Laminar
flow

(e)
Figure
a small

segment

the curved
case
foil

surface,

lines,

of the surface

surface

for a real

smoothly,

fluid

layers

over

and turbulent

airfoil.

in laminas.

they move.
slide

Laminar

of a curved

to be discussed

the slower

the fluid

30.-

For

Figure

later.

30(c)

The closer

However,

one another

here
without

flow.
an ideal

shows
the

also,

fluid

the

the more

complex

fluid layers

as indicated

fluid being

flow follows

are

flow

to the

air-

by the stream

exchanged

between

layers.
In turbulent
flow.
4O

Figure

30(d)

flow,

secondary

shows

random

a disorganized

motions
number

are

superimposed

of streamlines.

on the principal
They

are

evidently

not

fluid

layers

and

More

importantly,

ticles

speed

particles
rising

from

which

may

ments

(or

tance

above

wave

example

faucet.

Opened
But

Colorado

faucet
the

the

flow

flow

In some

cases,

rising

in the

less

parameter

and

flow

slide

In other

flow

the

air

in the

and

turbulent

out

out

room

is

and

disturbed.

flow

is the

column

water
-

turbulent

laminar

column.
In the

turbulent

both

dis-

laminar

in laminas.

confused

assume

fila-

some

between

in a cloudy
rocks

The

motion

in a clear

moving

smoke

filaments

is laminar.

eddying

par-

rapids.

a laminar

It will

and

turbulent

of factors.
appear

cases,

by

"naturally"

causing

question

turbulent.

in smooth

transition

smooth
in the

will

The

the

flows

may

a number

slower

this

speeds

over

surfaces

flow

gave

water

downstream

airfoil

flow.

which

the

may

upon

or

the

fluid

shows

The
when

moving

to the

which

rises

of laminar

speeds

turbulent

laminar

cigarette

slow

to another.

momentum

a confused

turbulent.

occurrence

churns

to a turbulent

is to be

to the

fully

air.

is

that

sector

30(e)

smoke

identity;

up into

adjacent

such

up their

the

their

break

water

over

lose

flow

one

figure

distance

not

at low

depending

flow

do

closer

the

the

changed

some

this

brook

give
Consider

suddenly

slightly,

characteristic

be

particles

of a common

River
that

smoke

but

from

of monmntum

themselves.

cigarette;

open

of fluid

exchange

For

moves

In a mountain

an

moving

streamtubes)

Another

seen

fast
down

around

the

an exchange

is

a cigarette.

flow

be

and

slow

turbulent

flow.

is

there

up

and

there

In

a quantitative

a disturbance,

arises

1883,

in a laminar

as

Osborne

to how

of the

as

a laminar
one

Reynolds

indication

flow

can

laminar

flow

tell

introduced

in the
can

whether

a dimension-

to turbulent

transition.
Reynolds
strated
nar

the

fact

tube

under

colored

fluid

However,

flow

fluid

speed

of the

tank

speed.

of the

field.-

In his

circumstances

region

was

flow

injected
water

tube.

had

a long

The

tube

into

was

the

flowing

tube

through

its

identity

for

the

entire

speed

was

high,

the

filament

the

cross

section.

Reynolds

defined

a dimensionless

Reynolds

number,

to give

Reynolds

number

R - pVf
#

a quantitative

fig.

flow

The

experimental

outlet

Reynolds

in a tube

changes
setup

with

a stopcock

smoothly

into

the

the

flow

(See

the

at

the

through

experiments,

faired

flow

maintained

when

existed

certain

water

the

of colored
the

on the

a given

A large

to control

When

effects

over

31(a).

filament

that

that

to turbulent

in figure
the

number

tube

length
broke

the

demonfrom

lami-

is

illustrated

at

the

end

tank.

of

A thin

mouth.
was
of the
up

low,

the

tube.
into

filament
(See

the

fig.

of
31(b).)

turbulent

flow

31(c).)

parameter,

which

has

description

of the

flow.

since

been

In equation

known
form

as

the
the

is

(I0)

41

rI

,5

[
I

//

as

Valve,o control--,

[
[

/-Smooth

--

t/

I
Water
[
.........
z_/,/zz'z/zz'zzzzi//////

Reynolds
experimental

Water
level
drops
flow continues

--I
[] _ye

tank
-_--_ ....

fairing

t"

--

flow
. ,

Long

tuoe

speed

\
x

"
Dye
in

[il;unent
flow

1_'_
Outlet

-NN
"_'

(a)

Low
remains
speed distinct
flow
(R
indicating
/ 2100)
throughout

laminar
- Filament flow

(b)
R
,%

-._

" 40000

__

(/
Figure

31.-

Filament
_-turbulent

breaks

up
flow

indicating

[
/

._-

,el

Dependence

of flow on Reynolds

number.

R - pVf

where

density

mean

of fluid,

velocity

characteristic

of viscosity

discussion),

the pipe
true

this
was

regardless

tion between

42

setup,
laminar

of fluid,

length,

coefficient

For

kg/m

m/sec

(called

simply

"viscosity"

in the

earlier

kg/m-sec

Reynolds

found,

as evidenced

of his varying
laminar

by using

by the distinct

combinations

and turbulent

water,

colored

of values

flow occurred

that

of

below

R = 2100

filament.
p,

for Reynolds

V,

This
f, or

numbers

the flow in
value

p.

was

A transi-

between

2100

and40 000dependingupon howsmooth the tube junction was andhow carefully the flow
entered the tube. Above R = 40 000 the flow was always turbulent,
as evidenced
by
the

colored

number

fluid

filament

(between

lence

since

2100

has

on the flow.

The

numerical

and

be the

Additionally,

water

airfoil.

Thus,

different

for

several

the case

million.

low Reynolds
turbulent.
The

The

flows

viscous

forces

number

arise
the fluid's

number

flow the

whereas

in high

inertia

steel

through

dropped

the liquid;

another

Reynolds

number

An example

ball

case

and turbulent

flow,

flows

of low Reynolds

are

number

about

would

numbers

a particular

number

flows

an
be far
of

body,

are

mostly

(ii)

friction

viscous

are

Dust
flow.

very

flow and high

flow

small

(called

oil.

These

relative

ball

settling
flows

in the

flow will

to the
flow)

falls

the

laminar.

air

In a high

of aircraft,
between

is a

slowly

through

are

flight

contrasts

number

inertia

forces

Stoke's

The

particles

interesting

Reynolds

The

In a low Reynolds
are

silicon

experienced

Some

fluid.

with the viscous

number

large.

number

of the

forces

of heavy

as typically

present.

length.

way:

compared

the

a container

such

flows

at Reynolds

to acceleration.

negligible

of a low Reynolds

number

Reynolds

an airfoil,

forces
forces

flows

forces

experiment

flow

For

turbu-

the chord

air

operate
evident.

another

of a low Reynolds

into

viscous

and high

induced

For

called

whereas

are

Reynolds

particular

and turbulent

resistance

are

edge

airfoils

that

of the pipe.

trailing

of the internal

natural

forces

Reynolds

forces.

small

because

diameter

however,

= Inertia
Viscous

for this

laminar

Typically,

be viewed

transition

experiment

between

laminar

may

number

forces

represent

inertia

are

the

the effect

are

and

in the Reynolds

that

indicates

is the

the leading

trends,

fact

transition
f

number

general

number

Reynolds

chosen

of an airfoil.

Reynolds

The

used

transition

The

variable

for the

between

was

the

given

length

distance

up quickly.

40 000) was

values

the characteristic

would

are

breaking

laminar
the

results

be demonstrated

shortly.
Surface
body

immersed

laminar
rence
this

roughness

point.

surface
is seen

in a flow field

to turbulent.
of turbulent

As the
flow will

An airfoil

roughness

effects

surface

is increased

to go turbulent

further

on the flow
is that
surface

move

field.-

it causes

is shown.

along
In each

and the Reynolds

upstream

in each

effect

the flow

roughness

upstream

The

near

increases,
the

succeeding

case.

the body
the point

airfoil.

number

of surface

Figure
case

is held
The

roughness
to go from

of first

Reynolds

occur-

32 illustrates

the degree
fixed.

of a

of

The

flow

number

and

43

surface roughnessare not independentof eachother and both contribute to the

determination of the laminar to turbulent transition. A very low Reynoldsnumber
flow will be laminar evenon a rough surface and a very high Reynoldsnumber flow
will be turbulent eventhoughthe surface of a bodyis highly polished.
Pressure
transition

from

the static

pressure

gradient

effects

laminar

to turbulent

increases

flow will be amplified

with

downstream

will

tend

up to the

point

region.

Beyond

static
before

of maximum
the

pressure
the

flow will

point

Recall

that

of maximum
The

Another

important

laminar

gradient

distance,

over

If the

thickness

in the

static

flow
(or

the

flow field.

pressure

decreases

out and the

static

pressure

will be encouraged

shoulder

in the

in a laminar

flow will damp

an airfoil

A laminar

factor

disturbances

result.

in a laminar

thickness.

increased.

trailing

with downstream

disturbances

laminar.

field.-

flow is the pressure

and turbulent

distance,

to remain

on the flow

decreased
in this

of the airfoil)

flow now is hindered

and

may

flow

the

go turbulent

edge.
_ran.

Laminar

_._tion

v_
Tran.
sition

SY_ly

rough

mrwu

_//_
,,///7-

v_

v_
Figure

44

32.-

Surface

roughness

and

flow field.

All cases

at same

Reynolds

number.

If

vided
real
the

The

boundary

the

background

fluid

flow.
force

is

referred

previously
33

a body

immersed

cous

caused

forces

to show

the
-

that

drag

over

to the
fluid,

the

the

fluid

Pressure
normal

of the

strongly

forces

and

are
help

vehicle.

that

act

also

present.

Hydrostatic

the

proin a

subsonic

and

create

has

immersed

flight
This

dependent

roughness,

./._-

Real

is

forces

lift

low-speed

surfaces
and

discussion

on a body

during

pressure

fluid

foregoing

produced

surface

viscous

ideal

is

force

number,

in addition

The

force

flow

Reynolds

modify

how

skin-friction

in a moving

which

drag.-

aerodynamic

by viscous

to as

shows

skin-friction

important

mentioned

Figure

and

needed

An

shear

force

layer

on

factors

gradients.

everywhere

normal

It is

real

shear

the

pressure

is

fluid

these

to
vis-

drag.

pressure

at rest

forces
to surface

._

___-_-- Static-pressure

forces

flmd

in

Figure

Consider
approaching
stream.
surface
the

plate,

figure
flow;

If the
with
the

the

fluid

velocity
velocity

34
flow
were
V_

which

33.-

Pressure

shows

a very

ahead

of the

ideal,

that

as

distribution

shown

is,

(that

the

flow

viscous

forces.

thin,

smooth

plate

parallel

of the

plate

is

fluid

would

inviscid,

is,

fluid

and

leading

in figure

real

edge
the
34(a).
variation

At all

points

of velocity

to the

a uniform

simply
along
as

free

slip

over

the

surface

one

moves

the
of
per-

45

pendicularly
drag

away

would

result

In a real
fig.

34(b).)

the surface)

if the

fluid

fluid,

This

of a body,

from

of the fluid

constant

value;

Within

in the

case

is changing
layer

and an internal

friction

the body.

cumulative

ary

The

there

effect
drag

Initially,

the

leading

layer

also

is steady

downstream,

as more

and more

reached

on the plate

becomes

a turbulent

fluid

There

from

the

one

moves

is slowed

is no slip

at the

surface

boundary

layer

total

tendency

in a turbulent

boundary

slower

moving

fluid

the

near

and

difference

up more

quickly

will be shown

as

is greater.

in figure

away

flow,

directed

thickness

further

is

turbulent

important
builds

moves

thickens

a point

for

as shown

fluid

of

As one
layer

transition

boundary-layer

of the

the wall

layer.

as the downstream

the two profiles

layer

layers

and the bound-

Eventually,

velocity

layer.

a drag

boundary

Another

where

surface

flow

As is usual

plate.

that

This

the

of the

the

by comparing

to the

undergoes

as well

fact

can be seen

reenergize

layer

is the

condition

particle

a laminar

friction.

34(b).)

of fluid

drag.

laminar

layer

although

This

the

boundary

and the

(See fig.

boundary

the wall,

a laminar

becomes

is to produce

one has

the

as the boundary

extends

forces

(See

the body

layer

to as skin-friction

boundary

layer.

The

between

friction

by internal

laminar

No

at the surface

from

A the velocity

is known

friction

to act

in the

from

value

hence,

down

Voo.

surface.

that

away

V_.

velocities

these

is

internal

continues

the

point

of the plate,

layered

where

at some

is referred

motion

laminar
away

of all

edge

boundary

is a random

motion.

and

moves

value

relative

force

viscosity

this

This

of

to the

It states

As one

to a constant

are

value

adheres

condition.

until

is present.

This

near

no-slip

plate

zero

on the plate.

further

there

of a flat

from

of fluid

is zero.

increases

constant

(inviscid).

thin film

important

gradually

the boundary

force

a very

very

be a uniform

frictionless

B, the flow velocity

velocity

the velocity

were

however,

is the

point

would

from

34(c).
the wall

to produce

to

important

consequences.
The
Reynolds

Reynolds
number

viscosity),
Reynolds
zero.

number
increases

the boundary
number

Thus,

the

at the

wing

surface

It is clearly
in this

46

layer

region.

of the
evident
This

less
wing
that
gives

never

that
than

the flow

slowly.
at the

thickness

a centimeter.

tremendous
to the

on the

boundary
speed

However,
surface

layer.

As the

and/or
even

decreasing

though

of the body

the

the

must

be

disappears.

a typical

to hundreds

rise

more

the velocity

layer

to note

effect

by increasing

thickens

large,

boundary

is generally

an important

(caused

becomes

It is interesting
craft

has

Yet,

of m/sec
shearing

of the boundary
the

velocity

at the outer
forces

skin-friction

(internal
drag.

must

edge

layer
vary

on an airfrom

of the boundary

friction)

must

zero
layer.

be acting

v_

v_
Flat
)late

(a) Inviscid

flow along

a flat

plate.

v_
v.
B_-oundary_
layer
thickness
[......._j

BW_

v_

Laminar

layer

" [--_

thickness

tilickncss

I"_

plate

botmdal_ "__]
layers

Turbulent
layer

(b) Viscous

_rl
_l I

flow along

a flat

boundary

:1
(/
Steetl, er

Laminar

Turbulent
layer

boundary
taycr

(c) Comparison
Figure

airfoil

foil surface
and

the

originally

free-stream

slightly
same

in a real

modified

fluid.-

energy

of laminar

Figure

p_

29.

apply.
purposes

fluid

Again

case.

flow.

flow in a real

fluid.

The
The

all practical

the

the
same

real

fluid

ahead

velocities

and

maximum
on along

flow

free-stream

flow field

a stagnation

and the pressure

reaches
its
pressure).
From this point

and

and turbulent

35 illustrates

in figure

profile
exchange

boundary

Boundary-layer

pressure

and for

as for the ideal

edge of the airfoil

(total or stagnation

34.-

considered

static

plate.

I__z/

The

Flat

point

value of
the airfoil,

the

velocity
of the

static

occurs

over

airfoil

airV_

is only

pressures

are

at the leading
Pt at this point
the picture

changes.

47

Sh,ulder of airfoil maxh_mm

speed
outside
,a[ Ihe llI)w_d_l'vh_yer

_
I

_--

/--Note
/

-- _-

Flow
laver
.

outside boundary
is in_is(id
flow
'
",':

Turbulent

--

boundary

layer

(S_alled flow)

Figure

35.-

wake

Real

fluid

greatly

exaggerated.

on the upper

As noted
because
very
the

much

pressure

and will
the

pressure

present.

This

shoulder

just

came

that

the

forces.

push

layer

continues

dient

and viscosity

pletely.
that

The
the

to rest
from

is the

outside

pressure
the

and

same

acting

to the surface
boundary

begins

of it the

as

flow acts
surface

layer.

This

and thus

layer

to form

on the

boundary

up to the

feels

acts
this

with distance

as if
static

grows

and a laminar

in thickness

particles

condition

the

distance

before

the trailing

shoulder
pressure

the

character

a turbulent

of the flow
boundary

for the flow,

trailing

edge

surface,

pressure

Pushing

stalled

rear

short

than

in the

ideal

flow

present,
is reached.

the static-pressure
distance).

changes

of reaching

the

the

in the ideal

boundary

pressure

flow stops

trailing

fluid

viscous

laminar

turbulent

an unfavorable
point,

The

and the
and the

This

and at some

stopping

edge

gradient

layer.

against

before

slower

with viscosity

with downstream

unfavorable

downstream.

has

to the

is
When

previous

at some
the

layer

flow

the airfoil.

moving

because

The

boundary

along

are

favorable

downstream).

now,

becomes

the

an assisting

appear

both this

layer

shoulder,

It would

is too much

reached

layer

edge.

point,

to thicken

flow

But the

the fluid

(increasing

boundary

at all.

is an unfavorable

transition

layer

layer

layer

however,

against

quickly

boundary

flow is laminar

boundary

moves

thin and

outside

decreasing

The

at the trailing

At the

boundary

48

(pressure

to rest

come

the

of the airfoil

This

must

layers

to it.

surface

is unfavorable

particles

ber

respond

laminar

flow

surface

a boundary

the static

pressure

not present

case.

As the
gradient

were

the airfoil.

flow will

of boundary

lower

plate,

is very

Also,

static

through

is reached,

fluid

flow along

layer

fluid.

by the

exists

up along

Thickness

of the flat

boundary

of an ideal

front

gradient

speeds

ideal

that

layer

Over

the

This

is transmitted

boundary

Bottom

in the example

is determined

pressure
the

earlier

like

an airfoil.

surface.

of viscosity.

airfoil

flow about

edge.
fluid

gracom-

(Rememcase.)

of

This

stall

point

outward

moving

point

and

away

known

into

back,

eddies

is

the

airfoil.

and

around

it.

The

the

airfoil.
Figure

airfoil

36(a)

surface

separation
pressure
force

field
acting

stream
(See

of forces
allel
net

is

result

drag.

the

center-line

shearing

fig.

front

forces

tion

of the

ideal

fluid

of the

The

in the
net

force

due
This

(internal

now
to the

is

friction)

static-pressure

35 is

on

fluid

case

that

the

rear
this

to the

boundary

on

the

to the
the

surface

par-

surface.

The

called

pressure

drag

Additionally,

free

airfoil.

due

the

pressure

to the

modificalift

from

the

case.
_[deal
....

_k

p _'

'"

x
[

leadim,

edge,

fluid
Real

_---

fluid

.......

_
"

distribution

edge

_reatlv
inodified

Separatmn

Distance

OCCURS

here
fluid

(a) Airfoil
Pressure

equal

airfoil

upper

surface

to

static-pressure

alld

stream

opp_,site

(no

Figure

conll)ollents

equal

no

Net

component

pressure
36.-

drag).
Real

(c)
fluid

effects

flow

distributions.
These

free

alon_

near

in
real
case

forces

parallel

fluid

PressuJ'e

trailing

(b) Ideal

up

cancellation

front

rear

in the

tile

the

to the

and

skin-friction

a decrease

that

of the

distribution

layer.

at

parallel

on the

pressure

behind

static-pressure

surfaces

acting

away

occurs

symmetry

acting

field

wake

Note

net

of

to flow

the

shoulder)

the

actually

distribution

case

force

causes

called

separation

(up to the

flow

forced

once

in addition

distribution

is

but

asymmetric

in the

region

this

a region

the

large
fluid

flow
is

disrupting

case.

exceeds

a drag

is

fluid

acting

real

tile

real

static-pressure

direction

air

from

This

static-pressure

ideal

that

is

starting

the

airfoil

canceled

however,

very

line,

around.

figure

case
with

In the

surface

in

a line

this

which

dead

shown

not

along

turning
air

fluid

are

All
Beyond

tile

streamline

and

36(c).)

as

modified.

free-stream

(See

before

ideal

differences

is a drag

nose

outside

compares

destroyed.

to the

flow

of eddies

Now,

stalling.

"dead"

region

opposed

36(b).)

the

point.

is

represents

greatly

on the

flow

Thus,

the
is

exactly
fig.

and

and

point,

separation

the

toward

whirlpools
the

the

flow,

upstream

from

as

Real

fluid
on

an

airfoil

lonR'er

downstream
Pressure

(net

pressure

drag).

airfoil.
49

Figure 36(d)showsfiguratively the lift anddrag for an airfoil producing lift in

both an ideal andreal fluid case. One sees the effects of viscosity - the lift is
reduced anda total drag composedof skin-friction drag and pressure drag is present.
Both of these are detrimental effects.
x\\\\\

t
\\\\\',
\\*._-4

"_\

",'\._
\\
\\_\\

X\.
_. N\
......
,.\_

\\

\\--_ \\"

= ,

<

.....

\\,,X \\

"_

_\\\\-,

(d)

Viscosity

effects

Figure
It should
ited

be

to an airfoil

of the
these

aircraft

noted,
section,

to one

in detail

but

the

the

result

effects
this

of the

strongly,

similar

degree

In summarizing
are

very

or

will

drag.

The

extent

that

drag

arises.

Effects
of air

and

the

normally

body

is

being

flat

has
the

flow

plate

placed

small

a smaller

for

drag

has

been
evident.

the

reduced

on

the

the

all

the

the

viscosity

effects

because

pressure

lift

lim-

components

text

drag

causes

was

other

of this

airplane

that

net

discussion

scope

total

is disrupted
the

field.

37
Four

flight

higher

and

is still

from

that

five

of the

bodies

of subsonic

to the
pressure
The

the

The
smaller
of the

flat

bodies

to treat

is

discussed.

of a real

fluid

flow

a boundary

layer

and,

of viscosity

to the

is

are

number

reduced.

The

next

has

drag

is

operating

a large
the

cylinder,

result,

operating

fluid

at Reynolds

(R = 104

to

the

wake

with

the

105).

flow
num-

The

fifth

at the

same

occurs,

dra_

is a little

pressure

some

effects

drag.

separation

skin-friction

separation

skin-friction

plate;

in a real

(R = 107).

flow

than

placed

aircraft

boundary-layer

cylinder.

but

shows

Reynolds

component.

of the
plate,

Also,

previous

of "streamlining."

A large

wake

beyond

The

field

broadside

edge.

the

observes

fluid.

airfoil.

occurring

when

one

flow

in the

a much

shoulders

than

50

plate

a relatively

case

already

at

noted

Figure

encountered

at the

number,
before

resultant

operating

The

effects

of streamlining.-

bers

points

the

It is

be

of the

a skin-friction

considers

although
are

another.

an

Concluded.

processes

hence,

section

that

discussion,

viscosity

a pressure

36.-

on

drag
Reynolds

in this
larger
Overall,

of streamlining

case,
in this
the
are

total

Hehtl

Separationpoint
R

] ) I';IL'

105_
Flat
]D,

Separation
R _

lye
f(lrce

--_

plate

_Br(adside)

point-

105

10 5

= 10 4

-Separation

)aration

point

point

Skin-friction
cl rag

Pressure
drag

Figure

Also,

at the same

boundary-layer
streamline

37.- Effects of streamlining

Reynolds

separation

shape

may

and the wake

eliminating

exposed

to the

flow

is

Even

more

due
and

more

to the
thus

has

a greater

fact

that
area

One

may

There
assume

is ahnost

is the dominant

One

Oper-

component

large reduction

This has been accomplished

drag has been

increasing

streamlined

over

which

body
the

boundary

has

more
layer

and
in

by
only

can explain that the increase

the

no

then that a

separation.

noticeable is the very

streamlined.

siml)le

shape.

numbers.

of boundary-layer

drag since the sMn-friction

slightly as the bodies became

drag

small.

with the cylinder or plate.

the pressure

skin-friction

is very

the skin-friction drag now

drag is very small.

overall drag compared

Reynolds

is a streamlined

be defined as the absence

ating in the condition shown,

the pressure

number

at various

in

area
may

act.

51

Finally,

in figure

1/10

the diameter

drag

as the

early

could

of the

monoplane

and

fifth

points

shown

downstream
This

the

previously

discussed

and

the actual

better

measure

next

section

flow outside

a car

force

to wade

along

more

stiff

wind.

to the

airflow

air,

the aerodynamic

attitude

the

body

a body,

of the

and the

body,

fluid

the

(air).

been

places

his

for

is higher
by

compared.

in the

is one

the factors
hand

factor

that

of subsonic

along

determines
(high

depends

the aerodynamic

to a

speeds

flight

example,

that

broadside

but if one

directly

although

the

resistance

is

greater

To illustrate,

than

in the

a much

resistance

larger,

A considerable
is another

resistance
of the

fluid,

consider

up against

resistance

is felt.

that,

is dependent

the

relative

lift force

Density

a stiff

shaped

by stating

if

by a body.

similarly

factor

so.

difficult,
of air.

felt

determining

and the

to doing

more

the density

of cardboard

the discussion

properties

resistance

It is considerably

piece

Now hold

to generalize

about

than

speed

be explained

the resistance

factor

hold a small

exposed

drag

consider

aerodynamic

speed.

is much

It is now possible

and

52

length)

wake

is demonstrated

In the preceding

is little

same

determining

same

smaller

velocity.

of water

is experienced.
the

2.

of 20 km/hr,

there

at the

another

up against

times

a beach,

density

viscosities),

that

a much

is felt,

flow problems

small

higher

experiment:

resistance

cardboard

fluid,

The
represents

One

length

at the

If one

Velocity

(velocity)

times

in the water

not impossible.
fluid

or

is five

as great

If one walks

Little

relatively

separa-

have

measure

resistance

is considerable.

(velocity)

of 100 km/hr

little

the

The

may

experience,

on a body.

considering

under

times

25 times

of the

felt

higher

coefficient.

everyday

at 20 km/hr,

In fact,

number

From

resistance

window

the

on (velocity)

drag

facts

reduced

bracing.

the flow

flow speeds,
This

wire

pressure

However,

contradictory

different

of the

velocity).
and

a smaller

size.

is needed.

coefficients.-

the resistance.

velocity

under

this

of

the introduction

flow at a much

cylinder

to expect

These

of the performance

at 100 km/hr,

But try

larger.

the aerodynamic

Reynolds

one

of the same

for

free-stream

of the

speeds

A considerably

the need

the

slow

same

because

However,

in the

the

is large

for the

streamlined.

operating

lead

values,

reason

eliminated

to be the nondimensional

determine

about

would

drag

Aerodynamic

were

shoulders

cylinder

is much

actual

wire

it has

drag

is considered.

by increasing

of the

result

drag

used

is a cylinder

(accomplished

are

that

bracing

pressure

the

approximately

Surprisingly,

The

to imagine

structures

of 104 is a cylinder

thickness.

shape.

if the

better

is evidenced.

realizing

wire

realized

body

number

streamlined

all the

been

Reynolds
tion

when

number

shape

It is not hard

have

The

streamline

larger

wake.

biplanes

drag

of the

much

the turbulent

37 at a Reynolds

wind.

sheet

of

Area

of resistance.

in the flow of the

on the

size,

velocity
defined

(or

shape,
between

as the

aero-

real

dynamic
vious

reaction

perpendicular

discussion,

For

lift

an ideal

fluid,

For

a real

force.
important.
an effect

on

to the

depends

on

fluid

properties

the
fluid,

(size,

however,
to the

shape

the

Based

on

demonstrated

shape,

attitude,
for

attitude

direction.

fluid

density)

elastic,

and
the

velocity

(except
viscous,

In addition
force.

free-stream

and
of the

introductory

From

properties,
did

not

of this

also

roughness

section,

has

it may

be

that

/
Lift

lift

are

surface

pre-

velocity).
the

properties

the

discussion

and

influence

turbulent
body,

the

= p_,

x V

2 S Factor

'is,
\

p_V_C
p

V_ , surface
' a_

roughness,

air

turbulence)

(12)
/

where

PoC,

free-stream

fluid

Vo_

free-

velocity

stream

characteristic

body

frontal

characteristic

body

length

ot

attitude

coefficient

(S

is

times
(chord

check

body

the

its

Also,

the

dimensionless
associated

influenced

the

the

of the

wing

definition

a..__
V_

with

frontal

For

times

previously

R.

degree

length.

particular

or

of sound

a wing,
span

shown

is defined

for
S
that

associated

the

compressibility.

transition
wake

from
formed

for

the

the

it is

the

be

the

consistent

diameter

with

of the

usually

taken

to be

wing).

Thus,

it is

P,oV_

is

Reynolds

number

or

fluid

viscosity

Surface

M.

points.

flow.

the

The

the

planform

necessary

to

was
Air

number

Reynolds

whereas

roughness

to a turbulent
separation

to be

a body.)

quantity

Mach

chosen

it would

a rectangular

with

a laminar
past

usually

a cylinder

used

quantity

is

however,

to be the

fluid

that

For

of

been

of fluid

area

experiments.

length

It has

is

speed

of comparison

cylinder
area

of viscosity

a characteristic

series

area

of body

free-stream

_3_.

density

the

number
Mach

shown

number

to have

turbulence

Furthermore,

is

represents
the

effects

of

53

attitude

and shape

called

K, then,

of a body

Lift

The dynamic
1.
- is included
2
same,

2K

=p_xV_

lumped

together

into

the factor.

Letting

the

factor

be

2 xSxK

pressure

of a fluid

in equation
may

are

(13)

flow was

(13) and

be replaced

previously

the value

by

C L.

of

defined

1 _V 2
_p

as

is doubled

to keep

so if a value

the equation

of

the

Finally,

1
Lift
Equation

= C L _

of lift.

acteristic

body

upon

tude,

and body

having

equation

of lift

important

the Reynolds

wind-tunnel

lift formula
states

times

for

usual

simply

that

the free-stream

aircraft

flight.

CL

the aerodynamic

dynamic

is known

lift

pressure

to realize

number,

shape.

that

Mach

the lift

number,

experiments
of the

body

CL

is deter-

times

the

lift

is a number

roughness,

a constant.

by measuring
dimensions.

coefficient

surface

It is not by any means

or flight

a knowledge

char-

CL

and the

air

depend-

turbulence,

is generally

free-stream

found

attiby

conditions

direction.

p_V_

aerodynamic

Drag

(15)
2, S

drag

One obtains

and

Thus,

Lift
CL-

The

as

area.

It is very
ent

The

by a coefficient

(14)

2 x S

(14) is the fundamental

the coefficient
mined

p_V_

is the

analogous

1
= C D x_p_V_

aerodynamic
equations

resistance
to equations

parallel
(14) and

to the
(15),

free-stream

namely,

(16)

2 xS

or

CD =

Drag
1 p_V
2

where

CD

parameters.
54

is the

drag

(17)
2 S

coefficient,

dependent

on the previously

enumerated

Separati

on

point

Flat

plate

(B roa(
length

Separati
point
R

on

"

----_

s ide)
d

CD

2.0

....

_ 10 5
Cylinder
diameter

S ep;/rat
point

= 10 5

CD =

1.2

CD

0.12

CD

1.2

CD

0.6

i on

Streamline
bed y
thickness
:d

Separation

Cvlinder
=- 1
10

diameter

= 10 7

Cylinder
diameter

Figure
The
its

center

a moment
moment

moment

acting

of gravity.
distance.
equation

38.-

Drag

on a body

This

moment

Let it be stated
as used

Moment

for

the lift

coefficients

of various

is a measure
represents
that

of the body's
the

a similar

and drag

1
2
S x _
= Cm _ p<V_,

resultant
derivation

equations

=d

bodies.
tendency

to turn

aerodynamic
may

(14) and

force

be applied

(16) such

about
times

to the

that,

(18)

or

Cm =

Moment
1
5 P_V_2S

(19)
_

55

Cm

is the

sary

for

coefficient

of moment

dependent
attitude,

on the

Reynolds

and body

shape.

It is now possible
pare

the

first

three

had

five

the

Mach
The

bodies

bodies

same

CD

same

37 except

ficients

C D.

der,

streamline

and

the combined
The
reduced
From
the

cylinder,

cylinder

The
that

last

The

boundary

layer

further

along

before

stalling.

results.

of smaller

size

nullifies

shape

have

equivalent

at the

higher

cylinders

V_

drag
drag

becomes

turbulent

against

Separation

Compare

this

the

viscous

occurs

condition

upstream

flow close

with

of the

separation

coef-

plate,

cylin-

include

its diameter

has

effect

of 1.2.

CD

and

drags.
of 107, has

CD

Its aerodynamic
the higher

of the

the

CD

of larger

wake

surface

and

The

shoulders

and

and wake

at the

and,
the

turbulence

the fluid

unfavorable

drag

numbers,

cylinder.

of

Reynolds

smaller

At high Reynolds

and the

drag

values

of 104 with

to obtain

along

forces

the

These

number

to the

downstream

the flat

previously.

component.

further

for

(17),

the results

by the

aerodynamic

the effect

CD

the frontal

drag.

the

increased

indicates

coefficient

reenergizes

cylinder

been

coefficient

pressure

the

has

discussed

coefficient

38 repeats

examples,

Reynolds

same

with the flow.

replaced

values

number

effect

as the

Figure

pressure

of the previous

because

layer

and

dimension

as large

in the boundary

drag

All

By equation

1.2, and 0.12.

at a Reynolds

operating

smaller

smaller

skin-friction

2.0,

basic

cylinder,

37 is large

number.

CD

respectively,

and streamline

is, half

in figure

hence,

(16), the

of 105, the

The

R = 105, the

for the bodies,

been

com-

resistance.

pressure.

drag.
has

37 and

and the drag

length

force

turbulence,

symmetrically

drag

a unit

drag

number

operating

the

entirely

measured

relative

are,

of the

to one-tenth

small

0.6,

shape

alined

are

streamlining.

number

as is the dynamic

to the

now the

Reynolds

effects

equation

bodies

proportional
that

At the

small

therefore,
By assuming

for all the

directly

of figure

was,

resistance.

of the
more

Reynolds
and

air

with figure

as a measure

to be smooth

Cm

roughness,

associated

same

_ is neces-

CD, and

of progressively

d, the

assumed

surface

coefficient

effects

dimension

resistance
of this

is then

the

number,

length

CL,

discussion

force

demonstrated

aerodynamic
is the

to the

the

characteristic

To reiterate,

Mach

to return

and were

is a measure
S

number,

body

an additional

correct.

by using

basic

number,

area

and

it to be dimensionally

drives

pressure

gradient

a smaller

wake

lower

Reynolds

number.
Figure
Reynolds

number.

experimentally
subcritical
separates

56

39 is a plot of drag
The

values

determined
Reynolds
upstream

CD

for each

body

of the

CD

curve

numbers
of the

coefficient

up to about

shoulders

of the

are

105,

(based
shown.

of cylinders
the laminar

cylinder

and

on frontal
Also,
tested

the

against

solid

line

in wind

boundary
produces

area)

layer
a very

is an

tunnels.
stalls
broad

At
and
wake

I
3.(_--

Curve

Flat

pIate

Lart_e

Streamline

cylinder

[]
/N

Hiah
Small

shape

t_evnolds
cylinder

number

c,,'[indcr

for

2.(

c_

1.0

I
10

102

103

104

Royllo[ds

Figure
and

high

CD

laminar

of

values.

boundary

smaller

CD

105

and
It is

a turbulent

tant

ideas

erences

or

unsteady

dimensional

since

craft

as

operating

far

principles.

and

direction

are

thus

well

the
has

thus

been

other

parallel

to it.

in a subsonic

flow.

from

separation

between

and

larger,

hence,

the

the

Reynolds

very

smooth

decrease

106

numbers

numbers.

behavior
than

number.

is delayed;

occurs

exhibit

rather
behavior

turbulent

and

I
109

of Reynolds

Reynolds

rather

shapes

in the

I
108

their

similar

as

they

drag

once

to that

of cyl-

were,

to

coefficient.

Much

result.

flow

streamline

velocity
as

and

Fluid

flow

critical

spheres

layer

distances

and

dimpled

t
107

numbers

transition

the

that
are

boundary

to airfoil

layer

of today

discussion
and

are

to note

bails

driving

abrupt

values

function

Reynolds

turbulent

A rather

These

as

supercritical

106

nu l/ib_ F

coefficients

becomes

interesting

induce

The

At

values.

Golf

Drag

layer

106 .

inders.

improved

39.-

105

flow
With

general
has

and

demonstrated.
Viscous

been

made.

wake

have

been

these

ideas

introduced

been

have

parameters

has

examined.
vary

in mind,

normal
one

many

impor-

Numerous
flow

of the

The

flow

to the
may

now

ref-

boundary
is

two-

free-stream
study

air-

57

58

IV. SUBSONIC

FLOW

Airfoils
The
wing

airfoil

section.-

and viewing

it from

cross

section

shape

is determined.
The

or more

ultimate

Figure
the

objective

plane

in the

air.

A flat

create

the

1800's

demonstrated
Figure

has

the

by taking
of the

The

question

the

the airfoil

produced

called

arises

used

and wood

wings,

the airfoil

as to how this

lift necessary

Cayley
more

section

out of an airplane

airfoil

for example,

Sir George

surfaces

a slice

shape

of attack,

is excessive.

13 shows

that

is to obtain

at an angle

curved

Wings

section.

of an airfoil

lift but the drag

surfaces.

one

airfoil

plate

that

13 showed

side,

simply

and

EFFECTS

to keep

could

be used

and Otto

lift

to

Lilienthal

and less

by the Wright

an air-

drag

in the

than

Brothers

flat

in their

1903 airplane.
In those
theory.

The

ments

came

early

days

usual
from

of canvas

procedure

at that

adopted.

Early

tests

showed,

rounded

leading

edge

and

The

hit and

systematic

Advisory

determine
World

miss

methods

National

the design
siderably

of most

The

"cut

shapes

and try"
helped

evolved

method.

Improve-

performance,

surface,

from

it was

the desirability

of a

edge.
early

days

by the Royal

for Aeronautics
as possible

investigations

NACA

following

trailing

at G/Jttingen,

of today's

the

to a curved

of these

information

II, NACA

on these

in addition

a sharp

Committee

was

If the modification

methods

used

as much

War

time

experimentation.

few airfoil

Air

(NACA).
about

produced

airplanes.

were

Force,
The

"families"

results

The

replaced

that

by much

and

finally

purpose

here

of airfoil
are

discussions

that

still

by the
was

shapes.

in use

follow

better,

are

to
During

or influence
based

con-

results.

six terms

are

essential

in determining

the

shape

of a typical

airfoil:
(1) The

leading

edge

(2) The

trailing

edge

(3) The

chord

(4) The

camber

(5) The

upper

surface

(6) The

lower

surface

line
line

(or mean

Figure

40 illustrates

the step-by-step

(1) the

desired

of the airfoil

length

line)

geometric
section

construction

is determined

of an airfoil

by placing

the

section:
leading

and
59

Chord
Set up leading edge
and trailing edge and
construct chord line
between
them.

2.

Add curvature
camber
line.

Leading

with

thickness
line
to
surface.

;Trailing

edge

edge

Camber

Upper
Wrap
camber
upper

line

line

surface

Chord

Wrap
about
form

same
camber
lower

trailing

edges

points

together,

curvature

their

and below

about
the

last

shape.

Figure

40.-

desired

aids

Geometric

an airfoil

camber

line;

this

the

final

shows

apart.

section's

line,

characteristics

construction
The

of curvature

camber

surface

added

(__

distance

the

step

aerodynamic

airfoil

(2) the amount

greatly

"wrapped"

(4) the

Final

line

thickness
line
to
surface.
Lower

4.

added

about
form

that

thickness
result

all its

chord

one

adds

a typical

own which

is drawn
by the

abilities,
the

determines
-

line

is determined
lifting

is,

of an airfoil.

may

connecting

camber

line.

(3) a thickness

same

amount

the upper
airfoil

the two
This

function

is

of thickness

and lower

shape.

It has

be determined

from

above

surfaces,
a specific

set

of

wind-tunnel

testing.
Figure

41 illustrates

airfoil

sections.

line).

If the

foil
When
line,

6O

Figure
camber

(the upper

surface

the free-stream
no lift

all the aforementioned

is produced.

42 illustrates

line

is the

velocity
The

an important

same

is a mirror

as the

image

of the
angle

terms

chord

aspect
line,

of the lower

oncoming
of attack

for

surface

is the

differently

of the camber

one

airstream
a

several

has

is alined
angle

line

a symmetric
about

chord

along

the

the

(or

mean

air-

the

between

shaped

line).
chord

chord

line

surface
G/Jttingen
airfoil

387

Upper

Leading
edge

surface

Chord

Camber_

line

line

Trailing
edge

NACA

Upper

surface

Leading
edge

symmetric

Chord
line
equal to camber

surface

0012

airfoil

Trailing
edge

line
Whitcomb

er

Leading

surface

//---Chord

line

edge

airfoil

----'

Lower
surface

c,_._.
, _='"_"

Figure

41.-

Symmetric
lift

i.e.

airfoil
at

eL

- 0 .

--

Trailing

"'"_ --

terminology.

camber

Camber

Angle

line

of zero

lift

Chord

line,

is also

O,

_ 0 .

= 0

_z

ift

v_

ve

Asymmetric
Positive

airfoil
lift

edge

|'.n

Airfoil

Zero

no

supercritical

at

--

Camber

a = 0 .

line

above

chord

camber

line:

a L = 0 <0

v_
ve

camber

"lift"
Asymmetric
Negative

Figure

airfoil
"lift"

at

42.-

--

Camber

a = 0 .

Airfoil

aL

line

below

chord

line:

= 0 > O

camber

line

variations.

61

and

the

free-stream

the

angle

of attack

If the
results.

camber

velocity

chord

line
(that

must
is,

The
namic

causing

case
two

(c_ = 0o),

span

as

fluid

lation,

the

the

where

(to

air

is

no

that

fig.

44(a))

the

airfoil

(see

fig.

44(b)).

F
the

if the

be of any
pointed

infinite.

As

this

value

Kutta-Joukowsky

is
and

of

of the

the

is

the

wing

tips

limitand

to separate
effects.
be

obtained

tunnel

fig.

for

43(b).)
the

airfoil

iMluence

at

wing

for),

by

meaIn this

wing

behaves

section

that

}__'illg
_. - The

fluid

patterns

one

other

is

a circulatory

two

flows

coexist

and

the

These

free-stream

value?

not

flow

A physical

trailing

tangentially

required

supcrimposed

(see

is,

show

section

the

wind

(See

be corrected

variation

will

of aerody-

may

in the

other.

is

aerody-

limiting

the

characteristics.

airfoil

question

can

OtL= 0

is trying

simulation

zero
nega-

three-dimensional

placed

to the

spanwise

discussion

aerodynamic

of two

when

and

around
One

wing's

The

manner

airfoil

span,

free-

to obtain

lift

the

flowing

the

no variation

43(a)
the

a close

wall

stream

has

section

results.

of zero

later).

but

one

effects

there

from

the

section,

tunnel-wall

the

angle

along

from

from

Thus,

When

In a similar

wing

be discussed

airfoil

tunnel

is,

0'!.

the

anywhere

in length

= 0 .

airfoil

lift

free

In fig_are

to prevent

the

by

The

is

A later

l = p_V_r

62

wind

than

direction.
B or

surface.)

a positive

A two-dimensional

infinite

of the

the

lower

to the

less

airfoil

station

is

minor

about

edge

is

ab_o_ut _a _tw_oz_diln?j}s_ional

The

trailing

aL=

respect

characteristics

model

on

around

flow

of this

that

about

becoming

edge.

at

no wing

for

represented

lift

effects

consisting

pattern.

sets

as

point

Circulation
viewed

with

wing.-

same

has

inclined

asymmetrical

characteristics.

wing

The

of zero

an

dimensionally,

namic

the

negatively

chord

is,

an asymmetrical

line

spans

(except

then

the

The

that

line,

along

in a spanwise

the

chord

that

0 = 0 .

is alined

course,

surements,

the

aL=

of the

aerodynamic

insuring

above

or

case,

image

three-dimensional

Of

zero,

in this

a mirror

two-dimensional

airfoil's

is

zero

is not

angle

in span.

It is

surface

yields
0 .

A is

less

lift

lies

characteristics

station

vector.

zero

line

be

the

tive camber
greater
than

the

for

(Upper

stream

lift

velocity

edgc

smoothly
such
theorem

with
(fig.

that

turn

the

relates

a real

44(c)).
rear
th.

about

is the

to give

stagnation
circ_daliop,

is

flow

the

Kutta

to the

or
the

be

circutotal

flow

circulation,
answer.

without

the

point

the
the

corner

fluid,
This

call

may
motionof

flow,

provides

a sharp

an airfoil

free-stream

prescribed,

condition

caImOt

possible

is

flow

the

instead

leaves

condition

moves
section

velocity

to the
lift

and

the
it

trailing
by

(20)

Infinite
length

infinite__

length

(a) Two-dimensional

(2D) wing.

This

Free
this

stream
direction

to show
wine
in
tunr_el

(b) Testing

from

_
_'
j_'V_

by using
Figure

43.-

section's

mounted

/
_

\
L..

for airfoil

side

....
_ms
on

de mounted
slae
mo
near
wall

aerodynamic

a two-dimensional
Two-dimensional

Wing

spans

characteristics

(2D) wing.
wing

testing.

63

elocity
about

sharp

trailing

(a) Flow

with

no circulation.

(b) Circulatory

(c) Flow
Figure

44.-

flow only.

with

span

Circulation

of two-dimensional

Poo

free-stream

air

Voo

free-stream

velocity

circulation

64

density

strength

Flow

leaves

edge

smoothly

circulation.
about

where

lift/unit

edge

wing

a 2D wing.

trailing

Thus, the circulation strenglh I' is set by a necessary physical condition, and the
lift l is uniquely determined.
For a perfect
fluid
the drag per unit length is zero.
However,

in a viscous

drag

along

wing

is considered

may

drag,

and center

has

the airfoil

The
attack.

the

angle

namic

about

point

There

or the

45(c)

for

changes

drag

that

of attack.
This

45(a)

components

occur

and

a pressure

when

a finite

the

along

a system

of angle

45(d)

shows

system

of r,,porting

and the

resultant
in figure
to vary
center

through

chord,

for

center

45(b).

of

The

lift,

as the angle

of

of pressure

this

point.

example,

unless

If one

a quarter

the

of a

resultant

aero-

of pressure.

is generally
a lift,

line

aerodynamic

at the

passes

aerodynamic

a function

drag,

of angle

and moment

of

about

the

of attack.

center,

Figure

line

shown

to the

of reporting

the aerodynamic

The

is not zero

point

functions

chord

airfoil

the

moment

resultant

present

force

point

the

as shown

are

corresponds

point

of the

the cambered

fixed

shows

of pressure.

moments

edge,

all are

is a point,

center.

center

the quart(,r-chord

shows
-

Figure

of the aerodynamic

the leading

moment

quarter-chord

Latex" the

and drag

at seine

is zero

Figure

lift

are

of action

behind

force

a skin-friction

of intersection

No aerodynamic

mounted

length

dynamic

into

is the

of pressure

the line

chord

:force

be resolved

is changed.

because

q'h,., point

resultant

force

of lift.

include

coefficiel:ts.-

on an airfoil,

of this

attack

loss

must

wi]l be shown.

two-dimensional

acting

action

ilow one

with a resulting

The
force

fluid

where

the lift,

the

drag,

moment

is independent

and moment

is convenient

for

about

a number

of

the aerody-

of aerodynamic

calculations.
The

data

obtained

two-dimensional

data.

cient

el,

point

(Cm)0.25c,

These

coefficients

moments

the drag

per

dynamic
Similarly,

and the
are

is the
pressure

testing

Aerodynamic

coefficient

unit

c/
where

by wind-tunnel

obtained

length

characteristics

Cd, the

moment

of the

of NACA

moment

coefficient

wing

of airfoil

recorded
coefficient

about

by measuring,
airfoil

families

include

about

tests,

and nondimensionalizing

lift coeffi-

center
the

(em)ac.

forces

and

as follows:

(21)

qc

measured
lift per unit length of the airfoil
wing,
q is the testing
1
section.
or
_pV 2, and
c is the chord length of the airfoil

d
c d -=_-_
where

the

are

the quarter-chord

the aerodynamic

in wind-tunnel

sections

is the measured

(22)

drag

per

unit

length

of the airfoil

wing
65

Resultant
aerodynamic
force

of
V_

Chord

line

pressure

--]
Line
of
resultant

action
force

of

(a)

Lift

Lift

00_

v_

Chordwise
on shape

position
camber

of

/_enter

of pressure
moves
forward
as
of attack
increases

angle

depends
line

(b)

Lift
Quarter
chord
point

.__

Moment
one-quarter
(depends

Aerodynamic__.._
center

about
on

chord
o)

Moment
about
aerodynamic
center
(independent
of a)

point

(d)

(c)
Figure

45.-

Airfoil

aerodynamic

characteristics.

and,
Cm = m
qc 2

where

is the

quarter-chord

body

number

number,

data

reported

point

of this

angle

of attack,

shown

negligible
and

Reynolds

or any

(angle

on the airfoil

other

of attack

turbulence.

For

not be indicated

as a separate

airfoil

shape,

dependence

and surface

namely,
of the

roughness.

(whether

at the

desired).
are

dependent

or), Reynolds

number,

low subsonic

is dependent

the

point

coefficients

turbulence

is to show
number,

acting

aerodynamic

attitude

and air
need

the

and air

for a particular
figure

unit length
center

that

chosen),

roughness,

roughness

main

66

section

are

per

aerodynamic

been

surface

effects

and surface
shows

(airfoil

moment

or the

previously

shape

Mach

measured

point

It has

(23)

on the

flow,

Reynolds

dependency.
an NACA 2415

aerodynamic

on

Mach
number

Figure
airfoil.

coefficients

46
The
on

This

indicates

of

cl,

Cd,

shape,

the
and

an_le

number,
Air

dependence

c m
of

and

on

Reynolds

surface

turbulence

is

.2

airfoil

attack,

_=g<

rout_hness.
included

in

tile
-.2

Reyl]olds

number

and

dependency.

Math

effects
2.0

not

roughlless

.2

,4

.C,

.8

1 .C_

_.0_l

number

includ(!d.
-o

.020

--

--

.016

1.6

1.2

.01_
.008

.8

.4

.004

g
0

ca
-.l

-.4

_,|

Aerl)d;llat!lic

8
-,2

-.2

s-

-1.2

K2"
z2_--

I_"
-.4

3.0

.241

.014

[]

6.0

.246

.013

4"_

9.0

.246

013

Standard

roughness

-.5

-1.6

-2.o
-32

-24
Section

-8
angle

2415

Specific

46.-

-[6

NACA

Figure

of
Wirlg

body

variation

16

attack,

o0,

-.5

24

32

Figure

----L_A
J

-l.2

deg

-.8

shapu

NACA

(see

upper

distances

dependencies,
along

and

in a general
some

c
Y

of the airfoil section.

One

cambered

manner,

airfoils and was

Above

discussed

next that from

There

denotes

cl

:tio

chord

length,

respectively.

the variation of the coef-

against the angle of attack

earlier.

positive lift. This

One

must

lift. A symmetric

move

is the

to a nega-

airfoil was

shown

be expected.

0 up to about 10 or 12 the "liftcurve"

is a linear increase

this angle, however,

angle at which

nt,
se

J
1.6

liftcoefficient (hence zero lift). It will be remem-

an angle of zero liftequal to 0 as might

straight line.

wine

1.2

typical features often found in the

of coefficient of lift cI

that this angle is called the angle of zero

Notice

coefficit,

.8

of the first things noticed is the fact that at an angle of

tive angle of attack to obtain zero

to have

lift
2415

axes,

attack of 0 , there is a positive coefficient of lift,and, hence,

bered

J
.4

of these results.

47 is a typical graph

case of most

right)

coefficient

denote

-.4

Section

ficients with angle of attack and to discuss

graphs

____1
-1.6

Section

Aerodynamic

and

attack

It is best at this point to examine,

informative

,_X 6.0

-.4
of

10 6

-3

;;at|at|on
Sur face
roughness
variation

Angle

p_)sltD_ll

y/i.

lber
-.3

ct,ll[/,l

x/,,
-8

is almost

in the coefficient of liftwith angle of attack.

the liftcoefficient reaches

the liftcoefficient (or lift)reaches

a peak and then declines.

a maximum

The

is called the stall angle.

67

Negative
stall

]
....

-16

Angle

Figure

The coefficient
the stall angle,
the flow
being

has

from

the separation
the trailing
the pressure
increased

occurred.
0 to past

points
edge.
drag

aircraft
flight.

68

attack,

,_ ,de_

of lift as a funcliun

the
airfoil

Near

the

abruptly.

separated

of attack

on the

Figure

rises

It is interesting
angles

Coefficient

of

of lift at the stall angle is the ma.xinmm

one may state that the airfoil
is stalled

pattern

raised

47.-

-8

and

stall

stall

48 shows
angle

move
angle
Past

flow is to decrease
to note
that

will be operating

(fig.

a negative

the

lift.

at a positive

the
angle

angle

slowly

of attack

that

below

but remain

the

move

rapidly
of the

also.

the lift

is
angle,
close

forward

to
and

greatly

through

In general,

to obtain

stall

relatively

effects

continues

Beyond
in

of attack

the

curve"

occurs

angle

el,ma x.
change

points

angle,

"lift

whose

Note

separation
stall

47) that
stall

of attack.

the

of attack.

lift coefficient
and a remarkable

an airfoil

forward
the

uf angle

negative

however,
necessary

an
for

points
Separation
c_ =

00

Turbulent

__:,_
=

.....

/--Separation

point

wake

moves

Maximum

lift

16.

Separation

point

jumps

(Stall
_ = angle_

..._._
___'__

----_

Separated
expands

flow region
and reduces

lift

5
Large
(Reduced

lift

turbulent
and

Figure

small

positive

only gradually
increase

in

occurring.

cd
The

angle

of attack

at the

lower

is rapid
drag

pressure

drag)

48.-

Stall

formation.

angles.
because

coefficient

of the
curve

in figure

near-linear
before
and

function
the same

of angle of attack,
comments
apply.

of an aircraft

and will

46.

of moment
be discussed

to a positive

As one

as shown

coefficient

coefficient
of drag
the minimum
drag

corresponding

coefficient

The

large

Figure
49 is a typical
graph of the
of attack
of the airfoil
section.
Usually,

"-3

nears

greater
may

Since

also

the lift
the

cd

is an important
when

that

lift

the stall
amount

coefficient

angle,

however,
and

as a function
up to the

appears

parameter
subject

coefficient

of turbulent

be plotted

curve

c d as a function
coefficient
occurs

much

in the

stall
the

stability

of angle
at a

and builds
the
separated

flow

of the lift
angle
same

and

is a
as

control

is introduced.

Two-dimensional
wing compared
with three-dimensional
in figure
50 is a finite-span
three-dimensional
(3D) version

wing.The wing
of the infinite-span

shown
two-

69

.O2O

Rapid increases/
incd towards .I

.01C

_--_Minimum

drag
at small cr

-12

-8

-4

12

Angle of attack,
Figure

49.-

Coefficient

of drag

as

of airfoil

dimensional
the

(2D)

chord

wing

length

tested
times

a function

of angle

of attack

section.

in the

wind

tunnel

wing

span

b.

the

_, deg

(fig.

43).

The

wing

area

is

and

Thus

S = bc

This
on

is
this

also

wing;

and
CL,

(24)

known

3D wing

pressure,

as

and

the

planform

area.

nondimensionalizes

chord

CD,

length,

and

Cm

one

obtains

If one
by

using

the

3D

measures
the

the

wing

lift,

area,

aerodynamic

M
qSc

and

moment

free-stream

dynamic
of the

where

(D = Total

C m =_

drag,

characteristics

(L = Total

7O

is

(M = Total

moment

lift

on wing)

(25)

drag

on

wing)

(26)

acting

on

wing)

(27)

/
/

Particularly

sinlp]c

W:

//_---

;"

./"

//{_>"

same
'd ct

u_lL

x_in_

hi

il(__qiL(

VES_
I)ifferenl
IIIGY_IStlFt_d

C'tJ'i'P't_

<'{, c(p

Figure
Notice
flow

that
are

50.the

coefficients

case

important

airfoil

characteristics

wing?

Or

C m.
wing

tips

are

c d = CD,
answer

the

not

allow

for

But

the

3D wing

The

the

is freely

two-dimensional

dimensional

5all/O

are

how

lift,

C D,

three-dimensional
whereas

used

been

At first

glance

this

C m

conditions.
the

coefficients

to distinguish

of airflow
exposed
nmst

about

in the
be

wind

Cd,

one

the

use

for

2D

finite-span

experimental

moments

and

cm

out

in the

might

on

related

to

lree

conclude

that

Where

does

the

spanned

the

tunnel

stream

modified

tips,
and

that

is,

spanwise

to account

2D

finite

CL,

stream

Why?

wing

NACA

a real,

tunneI
the

free

one
and

moved

is wrong!
in the

can

drag,

Cl,

simply

tested

results

coeffici_mts

CL,

3D

CD,

so that

and
the

c l = CL,
problem

lie?

walls

The

and

did

spanwise

fIow

flow

occur.

may

for

the

effects

of three-

As

was

shown

earlier

of air.

flow.

Circulation
discussion

way,

But

possibility

notation

How

the

has

2D wing

with
c:_pitallzed

arises:

to obtain

exposed.

c m = C m.

that

_}1("

coefficients.
now

wing

are

is the

infinite-span

it another

freely

and
is

3I) flow

quvstion

50 the

t'('lli+tiI1

compared

This

data

to put

In figure

for

letters.

the

I)!P!

Two-dimensic)md

from

The

I)t)

cm

coefficients

lower

it'ltl._

and

the

vortex

of a two-dimen_sion:d

sy,'ste m or'_ _}f![Utc,

',vina.

the

airfoil

_ing.could

be

represented

in the

by a free-stream
71

flow and
For

a circulation

an infinite,

wing

exactly

a finite

of air

for

For

a finite

from

outside

the wing

These

that

shown

static

on the lower

in figure

faces.

The
of air

surface

tendency

(from

the

exists

these

two movements

wing

on the oncoming

wing

surface

wise

flow is strongest

(fig.

the

and

by the

the

names

same

oncoming

free

operating

must

become

gradient

flow direction

equal

between

surface

has

flow

tips

region

of air

view

the

wing.

the

spanwise

lower

to zero
to the

Equal
pressures--

.
/_-_"

free-stream
_

of

wing
at the

free-stream

"
f

_-1-1-_'_

/ / 1 / / / /1

pressure
..
1",.

_'Equal

l]_.._fpre==.re=

\
Higher
static
_-

than free-stream

pressure
b

(a)
Figure

51.-

Finite-wing

flow

tendencies.

pressure

and lower

sur-

parti-

tip to the upper

In addition,

(See fig.

51(b).)

flow about

flow of air

wing

static

since

As

so that

the wing

inward

on the

parallel

tips

differences

lower

lift.

of low pressure).

an inclined

being

than

back

formation

part

positive

52(a)).

Lower

the vortex

the

the upper

around

and decreases

there

but

vortices."

at the wing

(superimpose

one

at the wing

end in

to trail

most

at a normally

to the

combined

outward

them

is for the

flow approaching

stream),

cannot

Physically,

any pressure

Head-on

72

no net
is not the

Instead,

forces

F.

exists

wing

pressure

are

an inclined

exists
This

is permissible

or "wing-tip

of a wing

wing

free-stream

of air

of the

as follows.

is to equalize

of high

flow

strength

surface

the lower

line

which
wingtips.

vortices"

circulation

pressures

from

end at the

"trailing

of the

of the air

region

there
F.

or vortex

the free-stream

A pressure

to move

there

evidenced

the

so that

in front

circulation

to infinity

simply

on the upper

function.

tend

cannot
where

surface

51(a),

by the

extends

can be explained

pressure

the upflow

of the wing,

of circulation

vortex

tips

the

vortices

is a continuous
cles

hence,
have

trailing

The
than

tips,

rear
caused

a line
the

line

the wing

tip vortices

of these

at the

speeds,

condition.

wing.

wing,

the vortex

by the Kutta-Joukowsky

at subsonic

the wing

of Helmholtz,

an infinite

wing,

continues

past

three-dimensionai

By a theorem
midair.

determined

wing,

the downflow

movement

for

two-dimensional
balances

downward
case

of strength

surface.
midspan

If

the

on the upper
The
point

direction

spanas

Tip

flow

(b)

Figure 51.-

Flow

over

top

Concluded.

Flow

surface

over

bottom

surface

lll//j ""
i

;i

I I
I i

I' I

(a)
Figure
When

the air

leaves

is inclined

to that

whole

of vortices

line

at the tips
tance
ces

picture

constitute

trail

lower
back

of the tip vortex

from

so-called
system

of the

the wing,

the vortex

combine

"tip vortices."
replacing

the air

paths

at midspan.

up and

vortices.

wing,

and helical

to zero

roll

of wing-tip

edge

surface

rapidly

the vortices
the

Formation

the trailing
the

and decreasing

downstream
which

from

52.-

from

or vortices

(See

fig.

the vortex

52(c)

distribution

upper
result.

"strength"

being

52(b).)

into two distinct

Figure

the

A
strongest

A short

cylindrical

shows
just

the

surface

disvorti-

simplified

discussed.

I
(b)

Figure

52.-

Continued.
73

Tip

vortex

vortex

(c)
Figure
An account
aerodynamic
The
called

of the

tip-vortex

coefficients
vortex

into

in the

the bound

wing

vortex.

(sometimes

known

system

must

be closed

in some

vortex

which

starting
because
rapidly

is left

behind

(fig.

53(c)).

vorticity
vortices
of the

are
air's

the further

they

shows

manner

If the

and

when

modifications

of the

to the lift of the wing

Also,

vortex

vortex

system).

the wing

the

starts

their

from

rest

are

vortex
(at

____/.,4-----

1/4 c line)

1/4c

(a)

F
._

..(....

,-

Tip

(b)

74

53.-

Complete-wing

vortex

system.

for

vortex

changed,

on the flow behind

__

is

starting
of connew

soon dissipated

left.

/_

the

in the case

continually

vortices

influence

53(a))

by the so-called

is being

starting

(fig.

Also,

Figure

2D airfoil

and the tip vortices

is accomplished

lift of the wing

Generally,

are

the

the bound

as the horseshoe

viscosity.
back

constitutes

is equivalent

53(b)

the wing

shed.

Concluded.

3D counterparts.

(which

Figure

wing

stant

effects

their

a finite

52.-

vortex

a wing

decays

F
F

_-_(_.

_-

'rip

vortex

CYC_

(Lef 2- tairport
Tip

vortex

when
off
-

(c)

Figure

The

tip vortices

and roll

toward

dissipate,

their

this

the

The

important

the bound
The

dimensional

some

vortex

rotates

case.

rotates

For

a finite

Again,

the

or

are

eventually

shown

system.

viewed

to the

the

from

to other

in figure

to sink
tip vortices
later,

aircraft.

54.

Indicated

The

left-tip

vortex

(when

viewed

from

the left

lift on the wing

relation

a tendency

As will be discussed

counterclockwise
(when

have

to be dangerous

system

related
wing

they

by viscosity.

clockwise

is directly

and

wing.

due to the vortex

vortex

vortex

tips

prove

of the vortex

lift

Concluded.

of the

and may

movement

influence
drag)

the wing

transformed
time

effects

right-tip

bound

from

downstream

being

take

of air
the

back

other

energy

may

clockwise,
and

each

change

directions

trail

53.-

plmm
takes
it does
not

are

rotates
behind),

side).

as in the

two-

becomes

L = p_V_bF

(28)

where
L

lift on three-dimensional

Poo

free-stream

air

Voo

free-stream

velocity

wing

circulation
In both the

the

downflow

finite-wing
influence

of the

density

span
(spin

2D and

one must
starting

strength)

3D cases

(or downwash)
case

wing

in back
also

vortex

take

the

upflow

of the

(or upwash)

wing

into account

is negligible).

caused

in front
by the

the tip vortices

The

tip vortices

of the

bound

wing

vortex.

(assuming
cause

balanced
But,
that

additional

in the

the
down-

75

_'et'"

tf_\

_.._

Upwash

"-h'

Rear

.....

view

_'\.

.11,..

Downwash

ahead

of

airplane

_.JqBound

v/

Figure

54.-

Vortex

due
wash

behind

the air

the

(fig.

downwash)
called
plane

The

tip vortices
is an airplane
to roll

the

vortex

over.

into

structural
problems

the airplane

Federal

Aviation

tendency,

in the airplane
that

are

is a large

of the airplane
may

through

are

lose

is

of the air-

upwash

in that

very

large

at the

it.

Also

tendency

not effective

control

in

is called

(this

path

and

can become

fixed

(this

upwards

downwash,

flying

there

downwards

to the flight

upwash,

the pilot

downwash

is moving

to upwash,

surfaces

airplane

for an observer

is moving

perpendicular

Note

the

and

that,

system

will encounter

motions

shown

for the

air-

enough

to

or in a violent

case

failure.
of severe

new generation

low and

roll

system

flying

upwash

can see

the vortex

of downwash

control

that

behind

and the tip vortices.

One

the vortex

a tip vortex.

If the

experience

76

pattern

extreme

Note

"_--,

vortex

Downwash

vortex

span.

an aircraft

and cause
flying

wing

outside

or change

the airplane

of the

within

gradient,

counteract

The

air

that

effects.

the bound

the

all the air

Note

creating

flow

to both

within

55) all the

whereas

upwash).

order.

plane

wing

" _,

tip vortices

of jumbo

jets.

is operating
Agency

has

During

at high

shown

are

that

compounded
these

times

lift

coefficients

for

a 0.27

MN

by the
the

take-off

speed

to maintain
(600 000 lb)

and landings

of the airplane
flight.
plane,

The
the tip

is

I I
I

//

"',.

J,

n
..........
k
Downwash

]
I

"

_
.L[

f
/sL_._.-------"_

/_

_--

vortices

may

approach
craft

traced

160 meters

per

into

a vortex

1969 at least
vortex

in tip vortex

The

Aircraft rolls
over in
tip vortex

It may
way

be noted

associated

not possess
drag)

wing

contribution

power

required

point

ratio

the

FAA

that

and

downwash

a small

may

light

air-

90/sec.

Between

incidents

could

is requesting

jets

may

at and

requires
to induce

force

that

induced

known

drag

A finite
drag

an induced

drag

be defined

as

Wing

field

be

much

small

aircraft

this

To

of energy

component

as induced

of downwash

drag.

Addition-

effects.

operating

together

if generating

the wing.

expenditure

is an ideal

wing

(taken

behind

the

by the tip vortex

viscosity.

(Wing
Aspect

drag

or pressure

possess
ratio

show
other

the large

to the downwash

is decreased

at this

a skin-friction

aspect

between

also

and the

exceeding

countless

this,

an airplane.

and landings.

with a fluid's

but will still

The

and distances

The

on the

at rates
and

around

the airplane

Tests

over

Realizing

with an additional

the net lift

from

accidents

due to finite-wing

may be associated
ally,

fields

(500 ft/min).

contribute

or power.

5 miles

be rolled

100 airplane

tip vortices

unit time

for

minute

take-offs

downwash

and downwash

strongly
could

times

during

Upwash

phenomenom.

separation

especially

per

back

to this

greater

create

extend

flying

1964 and

55.-

inturbulent
flying

across vortices

in tip
vortex
t,

Figure

Very
ride

-_-

fluid

effect

in an ideal
often

lift and

called
thus

not in any
fluid

will

parasitic

a circulation

r.

span) 2
area

(29a)

or

S
for

(_.9b)

any wing.

77

For the

special

case

of a rectangular

wing

S=bc
so that
AR = b = Wing
c
Chord
for

a rectangular

thin wing

has

wing.

span
length

Aspect

a high aspect

(30)

ratio

ratio

is a measure

compared

with

of the
a short

slenderness
stubby

of a wing;

wing

a long

of low aspect

ratio.
With
The

this

2D wing

an infinite
mined

in mind,

is the

ratio.

by equation

(30).

obtained

for both wings

ces

in creating

have

wing.

at the

This

ure

the

by the

56, this

amount

over

that

increase

ces on the

The

3D wing

Figure

case

additional

in angle
downwash

wing

the

downwash
less

3D wings

and,

aspect

evident
w

at the

is obtained

to get

the same

whose

value

curves

is the

effect
the

for the

in figure

one can

of lift

wing;

lift

shown

as such,
ratio

coefficient

Readily

of attack

say

it has

is deter-

('2ift
that

50.

curves")

the

lift curve
smaller

tip vortiis flattened

aspect

ratio

effect.

where

one wants

characteristics,

by raising

= a2D

span

2D and

a finite

56 shows

2D aerodynamic

of the

of the

has

by experiment.

angle

is achieved

a3D
This

the
same

case

of an infinite

is not a beneficial

Consider
predicted

to the

equivalent

aspect

out so that

return

2D wing,

the angle
that

lift

or namely,
of attack

from

the finite

C L = c l.

of the finite

wing

wing

From

fig-

by a small

is,

+ ,xa

(C L = c/)

of attack

to obtain

in changing

the

as

the same

relative

flow

(31)

lift is due to the

seen

by the wing

effect
where

of tip vortifor

small

angles

w
Vo_
It may
wing

2D drag

be stated
coefficient

(32)

that

the

plus

drag

the induced

CD = c d + (CD)induce

78

coefficient

drag

for the
coefficient

finite

3D wing

is the

infinite-

or
(33)

Infiaite

aspect

ratio

Finite

of
lift

ratio

I
I

,
Angle
zero

aspect

I
_a2D
Angle

iO3D
of

attack,

Figure
where

cd

here

drag

coefficient)

sary

to get

(CD)induce
factor"

This

is greater

than

shown

by theory

is proportional

is related

To summarize
lift

coefficient

angle
yields

one

to

at the higher
the

original

to the
comes

to give

at

a2D.

and

an "efficiency

elliptic

spanwise

(e = 1).

lift

Also,

(34)

to the aspect

ratio

to this

a finite-span

point,

and the

parasitic

an increase
coefficient.

In this

not to confuse
converts

the

the

drag

coefficient

efficiency
version

in the

If one

neces-

d = KCL2

causes

It is important

a3D

operating

AR

drag

pressure

Thus

of attack

drag

cd

an ideal

induced

plus

of attack

of

ratio

to achieving

minimum

CL 2.

of lift.
drag

angle

value

aspect

angle

an induced

on coefficient
(skin-friction

(C L = c/) only if its

of attack

represents.

proportional

how close

ratio

coefficient

operating

(CD)induce

where

drag

2D wing

is inversely

(CD)induced

of aspect

of the

relating

distribution

Effect

is the parasitic

C L.
d

56.-

way,

factor.
of a 2D wing

is raised
drag

will give

slightly.

This

the

same

increase

in

coefficient

and,

in addition,

the 2D wind-tunnel

data

are

coefficient
to actual

with
induced

the actual
drag,

drag

one finds

modified.
force

it

that

it is

79

inversely
b 2, and

proportional

(3) the free-stream

Methods
NACA

if proper

corrections
the

the
b

to be as small
drag

span efficiency
(or aspect

fact

points

and

relatively

drag

induced

speeds.

since

by proper

Both

wings

are

only

difference

is that

Ideally,

both wings

(higher

aspect

ciency.

nearly

a wing

idealized

to

lift

the wing

that

span of the
the

second

same

less

the tip vortex

effects

span
being

the

is twice

that

small.

57.-

Wing-span
same

80

effect
lift

on induced

coefficient,

and

drag
same

for

airplanes

dynamic

The
wing.

span wing

a greater
wing

This

having

effi-

spans,

would

In fact,

pressure.

area.

longer

longer

AR).

be con-

of the first

of first

Figure

flight)

wings.

wing

But the

with

(high
very

last

com-

may

rectangular

and therefore,

drag

span

of the total

that

same

drag.

drag,

induced

long wing

have

lift and

This

(cruising

factors
with

wing

wing

drag.

physical

they

the induced

with

an extremely

flow,

and

these
How

it is a considerable

two airplanes

coefficient

one-fourth

arises

span are

the

5 to 15 percent

or landing)

like

(1) increase

Vow.

speeds

entire

drag.

(2) increase

at high
about

would

one may

velocity

of the total

57 shows

has

with

only

(take-off

and wing

Figure

as possible,

that

on the

the least

discussion

component

it constitutes

it can be seen
acting
One

lift with

the free-stream

is a small

produce

ratio)

e = 1

results
and drag

included.

the previous

(3) increase

should

The thought

not make

most

same

stated

the lift

to get the

for up to 70 percent

design.

the

as possible

drag

factor

at the

From
to obtain

From

span squared

V_ 2.

are

since

it accounts

e, (2) the wing

tip vortices

At low speeds

The efficiency
trolled

drag.-

be used

to as close

unimportant

factor

for the

/k_), and

up that

efficiency
squared

be reduced?

factor

ratio

at those

ponent

induced

data may
corrections

induced

span

velocity

of reducing

2D wind-tunnel

3D wing

may

to (1) the

why

give

as figure

58

pl_e

same

wing

area,

illustrates,

sailplanes

wings.
wing

that

But structural
requires

essary

comes

to smaller

vortex

formance.

This

weight
the

wing

effects.

show

also

sailplanes

ratio

Another
tanks
ing

as shown
span

valuable

define
three

other

give

from
airfoil

of reducing

59.

This

ratio).

reduction

Normally,

looking

taper

and twist

for a wing.

distinct

ways

the

further

along

of the airfoil

the wing

and twist

taper

is the

the root

section

(near

also

remain

For

wing.
may

airfoil

Planform

sections

at methods

section

of the

taper

tends
are

weight

nec-

drag

the

optimum

as fuel

capacity,

due

percontrol

of airplane

single-engine
airplanes

light

with

air-

an aspect

(1958)

AR = 24.

is by the

use

to promote

or tip

a 2D flow by inhibit-

physical

not used

of tip plates

effect

since

as an increase

there

are

other

in

more

methods.

Before

of attack

drag

the same

these

thin long

A survey

fighter

wing.

arrangement
have

give

of 15 or more,

induced

They

slender

of decreased

factors.

supersonic

High-aspect-ratio

of tip vortices.

(or aspect
drag

shape

angles

way

in figure

the formation

wing

the

interesting

58.-

long

structural

such

HP-8

Figure

A very

would

on factors

ratio

6, and

factor.

the advantage

aspect

an aspect

of about

very

it.

counteracts

dependent

do have

of increasing

and numerous

with

ratio

a dominant

disadvantage

span

allowances,

an aspect

efficiencies,

to support

A compromise

is necessarily
size

planes with
ratio of _.

on high
become

where

increased

characteristics,
categories

structural

a point

to support

rely

considerations

a large

There

must

of reducing
a general

wing,

First,

the size

change

as one moves

sections

may

change

that

are

terms

reduction
the

induced

fuselage)

geometrically

the airfoil

or chord

along

it is necessary
sections

length

along
the

may

vary

change;

the wing,

wing.

may

to

and

These

in

second,

lastly,

the

variations

now considered.

of the chord
to the

drag,

length

tip section

similar.

(See

and

thickness

(at the
fig.

wing

as one proceeds
tip)

so that

the

60(a).)

81

Tip

plates

inhibit

tips

_
v

Loe

Figure

_iPw ta_kuSt

k_

inhibit
wing

59.-

Tip plates

and

tip

tip tanks.

ileduction
in thickness
airfoil
thickness
;lnd sections
charltte
Thickness
Ch,)rd = Constant
Reduction
in chord
length - airfoil
sections

sinnlar

(a) Planform

taper.
Figure

Thickness
the

tions

at the wing

shows

a typical

this
ness
fig.

82

root

taper

from

normal
so that
60(d).)

section

taper
the

tip.
wing
was
wing

is the
to the
(See
with
the
tips

(b) Thickness
60.-

Planform

reduction
tip section

fig.

60(b).)

and thickness

of only
-

this

The

chord

and thickness

XF-91

which

were

thicker

has

and wider

thickness
results

remains

both planform
fighter

taper.

the airfoil's
reduction

taper.
inverse

than

taper.

as one proceeds

in thinner

constant.
One
taper

the inboard

Figure
notable
in planform
stations.

airfoil

sec-

60(c)
exception

to

and thick(See

__.

Redtlctbnl
and ('hl)rd
_.

(c) Planform

m thickness
length
-

iirf,nl

secti(ms

and thickness

taper.

(d) Inverse

Figure

Wings
decrease
in angle

given

minimum

toward

of changing

should

be as close

bution.

A number

the
drag

the

airfoil

sections

lift distribution
it was

of methods
Same
used
Root
s e c ti o n _<

\ Neg.ative

are

NACA

available

"-I../

and thickness.

the

span

that
is the

twist

an increase
(fig.

61(a))

aerodynamic

an aerodynamic

(fig.

the spanwise

span.

whereas

represents
manner

the

whereas

Geometric

61(b)).

efficiency

case

of an elliptic

to modify

the spanwise

To give
factor

spanwise
distribution

e
lift

distriof lift.

sections
_

throughout

along

washout

washin.

in a spanwise

This

varies

the lift distribution,

along

demonstrated

to 1 as possible.

of attack
tip is called

tip is called

of changing

in planform

Concluded.

angle

the wing

method

different

induced

so that
toward

the wing

a geometric

by using

method

twist

of attack

of attack

represents
twist,

are

in angle

60.-

taper

...."_tk\
_o_x\\\\

S,'une NACA

/
_'/positi"

ve
_

used

sections

throughout

Washout
sR2:tlon

(a) Geometric

Washin-_

twist.

Root
section
NACA

4 -221
X-Tip
section
NACA
0024

(b) Aerodynamic
Figure

61.-

Geometric

and

twist.
aerodynamic

twist.
83

These methodsinclude
figure

62(a)

and/or
all

for the

point

of view

twist

to obtain

are

that

as the

cant.

This
fall

result

is remarkably

Taper
is discussed

plane

so that

One

the

tips

being

62(c)

favorable

one.

and twist
later.

are

most

fact

and

at the

presents

perhaps

With

the

is a piece

that

wing

point

of

seams"

these

devices

and

It is in the

may
the

safety

interest

as possible.

But also,

Consider

equal

to the lift

would

be operating
solving

one

a near-level

(L = W).

formation

devices"
as slats,

art.

of air

to perform

minimizing
62(d)

problem

indi-

of stalling

is the

flaps,

sound

spoilers,

of flaps

the

condition

in which

flying

speed

at maximum

lift or

CL,ma

x.

(take-off

From

velocity,

might

slats

exists

opening
"coming
for

all of

at as low

characteristics

airplane

to

weight

or landing)

equation
Vmi n

traveler

maneuvers

flying
the

dive

on them.

landing

normal

to achieve

of the wing

is dependent
and

number

and

and

But a purpose

take-off

vast

wing

air

inspection

travel

not want

flight

the

unsuspecting

The

minimum

minimum

appears

figure

to a simple

slots,

the

For

for the

distribution.

of flight

affixed

with a visual

flight

be insignifi-

lift distribution

whereas

when

as

Devices

on a wing,

does

nearly

may

and thus

shape,

the unknowledgeable.

of safety

the

the

Surprisingly,

of the tip vortices,

importance

such

and economy

wing.

drag

wing

of aerodynamics

combined

untwisted

is very

an elliptical

wing-tip

of modern

unnerve

induced

for a real

tip vortex

drag

from

fig. 62(b).)
wing

of production

a good

hanging

for a landing

at the

manipulation,

in lift and

(See

in reduced
that

"aerodynamic

devices

apart

be affected.

twist

Of course,

is the untapered,

approximates

subjects

all these

as one approaches

a speed

term,

or decreases

think

in

(3) a combination

is costly.

rectangular

of greater

fascinating

of a better

and

of wing

gains

in minimizing

Figure

of the

of, for want

well

as shown

(2) a geometric

or

manufacturers.

to the

at the wing
shape,

type

Aerodynamic

brakes.

planform

elliptic;

lift distribution;

a square-tipped

be traced

importance

drag.
a less

that

wing

may

wing-tip

increases

an elliptic

to manufacture

by light

elliptic

to be of more
cates

to obtain

elliptic

the best

indicate

off to zero

The
induced

which

is hard

considerably

data

efficient

planform

of construction,

is used

there

does

wing,

taper

methods.

An elliptical

This

Spitfire

aerodynamic

of these

(1) planform

(25) after

the

is

wing

some

yields

(35)
Vmin

84

= t p_

2c_,WmaxS

High
cost
Minimum

complex
induced

(a) Elliptic

drag

wing

Supermarine

Spitfire

Mk. I.

q/
Low

induced

drag
Aero

(b) Untapered,

untwisted

(c) Good

Rounded

corner

tip shape.

The

density

Po_ is considered

characteristic

CL,ma

Reduction

of induced

to be constant

of the airplane,

to increase

62.-

then

and/or

tip shape.
drag.

and if the weight

it is obvious

the wing

tip shape
drag)
corner

(d) Poor

Figure

that

area

S.

of lift

may

100

wing.

Less
favorable
(Higher
induced

Good
tip shape
for
low induced
drag

Sharp

Commander

is considered

the only way

Slots

and

flaps

a fixed

to reduce

are

used

Vmi n

is

for this

purpose.
Slots.slot

formed

the

operating

the

airfoil.

energizes
can then

The

maximum

coefficient

by a leading-edge
principle.
The

When

the

slot

airfoil

layer

at a higher

called

is open,

slot is a boundary-layer

the boundary
be flown

auxiliary

the

wing

angle

of attack

and

device
retards

before

through

a slat.

the air

control

about

be increased

stall

Figure

flows

through

and

the

the

separation.

occurs

air

the use
63(a)
the

thus

and thus

of a

illustrates
slot

and over

channeled
The
get

airfoil
a higher

85

Slat

Slot

(a)Slat.

airfoil
Normal

Unslotted

|/
I

Angle

(b) Slat
Figure

CL,ma
slotted
less

than

the

stall

are

explanatory;
main
German

angle,

the airfoil

effects.

Slat-slot

lift curve

_'_stall

operation.

is relatively

for the normal

and the
that for angles of attack
unaffected

whether

The

slot

the

slot

or closed.

There

86

63.-

with

x value.
A curve showing
C L as a function
of
airfoil
is given in figure
63(b).
Notice particularly

is opened

wing.

of attack,

aerodynamic

angle

, rIncreased slat
_/

two types

the leading-edge

disadvantage
World
The

of slots

is that
War

automatic

fixed

and

slat

is mounted

it creates

excessive

II designed
slot

rocket

depends

fighter

on air

automatic.
a fixed
drag
-

pressure

the

distance

fixed
from

at high speeds.
Me-163
lifting

the

the airfoil.
Figure

with fixed
slat

is self-

away

slots
from

Its

64 shows
in the
the wing

at high angles of

attack

against

leading

the

slot.

Its

wing
main

One

to open the
edge

disadvantages

main

disadvantage

airplane

must

approach

reduced

visibility.

slot.

At low angles

and

reduces

are

its added

drag

of both types

for

a landing

at high

of attack
speeds

complexity,

of slots

is the high
nose-up

slat

is flush

compared

weight,

in an extreme

the

and

with

the fixed

cost.

stall

angle

attitude

created.

which

The

promotes

slot

Me-163

Figure
F_.llaps.- Flaps
wing

area,

change
flap
same

may

or both.

in the

is one

shape

method

shaped

be used

A change
of the

to increase

airfoil

section

with a simple

flap

lift coefficient

for

the airfoil

unflapped

airfoil.

the

coefficients

tially

range.

Also,
This

unchanged

is shown

from

tion where

a higher

disadvantage

that

that

stall
the

slot

in figure

of the
angle
has

the

maximum

lift

Figure

lift coefficient,

coefficient
65(a)

in the down
with the

obtained.

in high landing

Note
airfoil.
The

may

shows

flapped

a normal

over

that

airfoil

is opposed
airfoil

and the

camber.
than

the

the stall

the

by a

trailing-edge

is greater

increased

This

The

for increased

flap

also

increase

be realized

camber.

position

simple

of lift are
65(b).

unflapped

was

slots.

or by increased

this.

maximum

attack

Fixed

in the maximum

of accomplishing

airfoil

64.-

that

entire
angle

to the
reduces

The
for

the

angle-ofis essenslot

opera-

the

angles.

87

Inc reased

r
Normal

airfoil
flapped

airfoil

(a) Flap.
CL
CL,ma.x
flapped
CL, max
normal
airfoil
Simple
flapped
_- Normal
airfoil-_

airfoil

////

Angle

(b) Flap
Figure

of attack,

aerodynamic

65.-

Simple

effects.

flap operation.
Increases

Closed

1)
2)

camber
wing
area

position

(a) Fowler

flap.

Slot-----_

X_Flap
Closed

(b) Complex
Figure

88

system

position

slotted
66.-

flap
Types

Open

position

of Boeing

737.

of flaps.

Figure 66(a)shows a Fowler flap which is hinged such that it can move back and
increase the airplane wing area. Also, it may be rotated downto increase the camber.
A very large increase in maximum lift coefficient is realized.
There are many combinations of slots andflaps available for use on airplanes.
Figure 66(b)showsthe arrangement on a Boeing 737airplane which utilizes a leadingedgeslat and a triple-slotted trailing-edge flap. This combination is a highly efficient
lift-increasing arrangement. The slots in the flaps help retard separation over the
flap segmentsand thus enhancelift.
It may also be notedthat flaps in an extreme downposition (50 to 90o) act as a
high-drag device andcan retard the speedof an airplane before and after landing.
Boundary-layer
control.boundary-layer
control.
The
boundary

layer

kinetic
nar

energy

flow for

larger
shown

and let it be replaced

to the

a longer

boundary

layer

distance

over

by high-energy

as shown

low-energy
in figure

backward

boundary
67(a)

facing

Both

the airfoil,

delay

layer

may

or high-energy
holes

flow from

directly.

angle of attack
before
stall occurs,
and
to be one means of passing
high-energy
The

through

Another
method of increasing
CL,ma
idea is to either
remove
the low-energy

or slots

of these

air

separation,

be blown

into the

as shown

in figure

67(b).
layer

of boundary

/_--Add

Figure

6'/.-

Forms

slots

may

by

(b) Reenergizing

and

is by
segment

of the

or by adding
maintain
allow

CL,ma x.
top surface

through

Boundary

(a) Suction

above

methods

thus a higher
flow over the

be sucked

a lami-

one to get

The slot was

of a wing.

or holes
boundary

in the

wing

layer

controlled

suction

layer.

energy
to boundary
by blowing
high pressure
through
holes
or slots

the boundary
of boundary-layer

layer
air

layer.
control.

89

Spoilers.- Spoilers are devices used to reduce the lift on the airplane wing.
They may serve the purpose as on gliders to vary the total lift and control the glide
angle. Or on large commercial jets they may be usedto help the aileron control by
"dumping" lift on one wing and thus help to roll the airplane. Also, on landing, with
spoilers up, the lift is quickly destroyed and the airplane may quickly settle on its
landing gear without bouncing. Figure 68 showsthe spoiler arrangement on a Boeing
707wing.

Figure
Dive
speed.

brakes.-

Whether

in a dive,

operating
order.
adequate

increase

after

root

section

The

tions

should

in a turbulent

first

This
and

be the
"dead

when

last
air"

to stall
wake).

Use

Figure
dive

discussion

has

stall

is gradual,

and

by "forcing"
the

the

the wing
ailerons

of twist,

tips.
remain

namely

to control

a landing,

Essentially,

aircraft

toward

so that

for

they
69 shows

brake

descent

after

landing,

promote

or

a large

a civilian

aircraft

arrangements.

concentrated

CL,ma x. A further
stall characteristics

may be achieved

let it progress

in airplanes

approaching

drag.

present

(2) the

used

helpful.

condition
favorable

stall,

ol spoilers.

are

and two military

of the

a stall.

brakes

are

?- Spoi, rsop;

Use

the pressure

near or at the stall

A wing should possess
warning

68.-

quickly
brakes

characteristics.-

spin

9O

and

arrangement

Stall

down

aerodynamic

wake

speed-brake

(or speed)

slowing

these

separation

Dive

//

considerably

on

word about stalling

is in
so that (1) the pilot has
(3) there
stall
The

to occur
outboard,

effective

washout,

is little

(are

is often

tendency

to

at the wingwing-tip

sta-

not immersed
employed

so

Fokker

Speed

F-28

brakes

Speed

brakes
F-105D

open

x.
_-..___

Speed

bra.ke

F-IOOD

Figure

that

the

wing-root

sections
stall

section

with gradual

reaches

the

inboard

root

and buffets

the

device.

With

a gradual

few spin

tendencies.

(speed)

stall

fig.

stall,

controls.

stall

Up to now the
that

three

and

(3) induced

and

each

drag

on both wings,

acting

components
drag.

will introduce

Drag

on a finite

are

present:

Of course,
a total

first.

more

turbulent
This

Total

shown

are

arrangements.

(See

fig.

favorable

70(a).)

than

ones

Also,

airfoil

with quick

70(b).)

stations

pilot's

brake

angle

characteristics

(See

plane

with

Dive

stall

characteristics.
As the

69.-

the wing

condition

is an adequate

the

should

plane

strikes
stall

maintain

the

tail-

warning

a level

attitude

of Airplane

wing

has

been

(1) skin-friction

an airplane
drag

flow from

of its own.

is composed
Possible

considered.
drag,
of many
airplane

It has
(2) pressure
other

been
drag,

components

component

drags
91

V_

--_

..

J/iHtEIA.oo<

Negative

Washout

(a) Twist

and

toward

stall.

wing

Note

that

tip as wing

stalled

angle

_ACA

region

of attack

moves

increases.

651-212

/__

spread

out"

-\NACA64,-,18

Wing

(b) Gradual
Figure

include
(4) drag
stores,
aircraft
are

(1) drag

of wing,

of nacelles,
(7) drag

combined

of engines,

into

the drag

change

in the

(Drag)l+

92

the

of the

Stall

and
sum

of the

of the

one

These

effects

component

drags

2 = (Drag)l

+ (Drag)

(6) drag

(3) drag
of wing

of miscellaneous

drag

aircraft,

stall.

of fuselage,

gear,

(8) drag

of attack

characteristics.

(2) drag

of landing

a complete

of another.
sum

flaps,

(5) drag

is not simply

hence,

wing

70.-

angle

tanks

parts.

components.

component
are

called

is called

can affect
interference
interference

2 + (Drag)interference

of tail

surfaces,

and external
The

When

net
the

drag

components

the flow field,

effects,
drag.

of an

and
Thus,

and
the

Generally, interference drag will addto the componentdrags but in a few cases, for
example, addingtip tanks to a wing, total drag will be less than the sum of the two
componentdrags becauseof reduced induceddrag.
Interference drag can be minimized by proper fairing andfilleting which induces
smooth mixing of air past the components. Figure 71 showsa Grumman F9F Panther
Jet with a large degree of filleting. No adequatetheoretical methodwill predict interference drag; thus, wind-tunnel or flight-test measurementsare required. For rough
computational purposesa figure of 5 percent to 10 percent can be attributed to interference drag on a total aircraft.

(
F9F

Figure
Small
they

items

can greatly

craft

from

changes

components

Figure

73 shows
breakdown

decreased

all aided

in the

what

has

prediction
results,

final

nique,

and

use

reduction
been

of drag

accuracy

are

drag
of the

subsequent

Jet

71.-

Wing

aircraft

German

of the drag

(includes

fighter

bracing

with

trivial,

a TBF

coefficient

It is beyond
total

Avenger

as these

the

be obtained

scope
drag

of test

by flight

II.

of the

drag

wires,

measurements

is dependent

War

drag)

air-

small

coefficient

tests.

on flight-test

behind

surfaces

discussion

at subsonic
of models

has

engines

of polished

of this

Shown is the

components.

shielding

and use

airplane

evaluation

evaluation

World

airplane

techniques,

drag

proper

seemingly

72 shows

interference

and wind-tunnel

measurements

from

away

about

must

in drag

total

of flush-riveting

introduced

Figure

of how the

of drag.

and although

for.

a Me-109G

Doing

drag

the increase

accounted

a graph

fillets.

top speed.

II and shows

the years.

cowls,

total

the aircraft's

74 presents
over

streamline

upon

War

and

Figure

add to the

reduce

World

percentage

the

also

Panther

to expand

speeds.
does

Even

Although

yield
here,

equipment,

have

good
however,

pilot

tech-

data.

93

(National

Advisory

Committee

for

Aeronautics.)

C D at C L
Condition

Airplane

configuration
= 0.245

Airplane

Flat

Seals

removed

from

flapped-cowling

Seals
gaps

removed

from

cowling-flap

completely

plate

Exhaust
Canopy
sealed

replaced

fairing

removed,

and

Aerial, mast,
installed
Canopy

from

stacks

Tail
wheel
uncovered

sealed

removed

and

and

10

Leak seals removed

cover
plate, and

11

Leak seals removed

and miscellaneous

12

Fairings

13

Wheel-well

14

Seals

15

Plates over
removed.

exits

from

0.0189

0.0006

0.0199

0.0010

0.0203

0.0004

0.0211

0.0008

0.0222

0.0011

0.0223

0.0001

0.0227

0.0004

0.0230

0.0003

0.0234

0.0004

leaks

tube

removed

from shock strut,

wing-fold axis
bomb-bay
doors
seals removed

hooks

plates

removed

removed

tail-surface

gaps

wing-tip slot openings

Airplane
in service condition
Total-drag

change

0.0236

I0

0.0002

0.0237

11

0.0001

0.0251

12

0.0014

0.0260

13

0.0009

0.0264

14

0.0004

..........

Figure 72.- Small item influence on total airplane drag.

94

_C D

openings

seals

from
leak

1)

hinge-line

trailing antenna

leak

(see
column

0.0183

air

turret

catapult

cover

removed

faired

nose

arresting-hook

turret

over

and

Reference
condition

0.0081

Component

Percent

Wing
.............................
Fuselage
........................
rail
surfaces
..................
Engine
and radiator
.........
Appendages
....................
Induced
drag
...................

of total

drag

37.5
13.7
6.9
23.3
11.4
7.2

S
Figure

73.-

Typical

fighter-drag

breakdown.

.10

.0_

-"

_9

.06 _

Wright

_hers

.04
B 17

St,

homs
P-B_1

.O2 -

o
1900

I
1910

I
1920

I
Date,

Figure

74.-

Decrease

1930

in airplane

1940

N
P-80

Comet

1
1950

I
1960

19q0

years

drag

coefficient

with

time.

95

Propellers
Propellers.into

propeller
stood

per

behind

backward

This

second

times

a spinning

force

motion

force

at a constant

the

axis

by acting

determined

(See

as a "drag"
by the

engine

was

is a small
of this

airplane

force).

forced

to this

air.

at rest

configurations

blade

of an engine's

of air

by the

If one

ever

Four-bladed

propeller
Pup

propeller
B-29

Figure
96

75.-

oa

on

Various

has

on the ground,

torque

on military

producing
may

this

The

torque

in the plane
force

In equilibrium,
equal

and

opposes

the propeller
opposite

Three-bladed
Me-109G

Eight-bladed

propeller

propeller

contrarotating
on Antonov
AN-22

configurations.

and

civil-

a resultant

be resolved

and a force

76.)

on it.

wing

discussion,

(thrust),
fig.

used

to the

torque.

Two-bladed
Beagle

crankshaft

backward

noticeable.

of propeller

of the

(the torque

engine
rate

the

the airplane

the purposes

power

mass

imparted

is very

a propeller

turning

to the

velocity

while

slipstream,

for

the

is equal

added

a variety

which

along

blades
of the

the

Basically,

pointing

propeller

air,

converts

thrust

propeller

75 shows

airplanes.

aerodynamic

propeller

force.

moving

Figure
jan

The

the thrust

and Rotors

on

propellers

into

of the
the

rotary

rotates
propeller

Direction

of

rotation

_'rhrust
T

Figure

As

figure

77 shows,

tions

which

fixed

with

respect

(fig.

78(a)),

the

oncoming

may

and

relative

velocity

root

closer

As

one

plane

the

tip

of the

of the

respect
sum

propeller

rotation

airplane,

of the

airplane

78(b).)
is

helix

are

relative

velocity

vector

aircraft,

that

the

velocity

of the

and

is

of air

it sees

an

free-stream
angle

between

the

helix

angle

angle

propeller

a wing

flow

The

called

this

sec-

Although

free-stream

to the

fig.

velocity

of airfoil-shaped

blade.

relative

(See

root,

free-stream

root

velocity.

of the

the

of a set

the

vector

airplane

sections

approaches

to the
only

the

of a propeller.

consists

with

is

a particular

oncoming

obtain

to the

peller

rotation

angle

of attack

angle.

an

aerodynamic

relative

for

and

the

force,

velocity

to the

chord

that

A propeller

revolving

varies

faster

than

the

or

from

comes
is,

this

the

the

root

inclined
helix

angle

root

vector.
line

section

blade

the

with

blade

shown

appears

sections

Thus,

of the
as

airfoil
the

blade

section

total

section

angle
is the

in figure

to be twisted
large

blade

78(c).
with

angles

is

placed

from
sum

This

the

tip

due

in main

at

an

angle

of

the

plane

of the

pro-

of the

helix

angle

and

is

known

sections

as

with

to the

the
small

increase

blade
blade
in

angle.
The

a propeller

pitch

rotating

which

torque

90 .

attack

ground

the

tip

sees

rotational

For
since

to the

To

helix

and

tip

approaches

angles

propeller

of advance.

sections.

of air

the
and

also

and

blade

from

airplane
is

flow

Thrust

propeller

in shape

propeller

the

to the

the

to the

relative

velocity

angle

vary

76.-

blade
blade,

(adjustable
propeller).

angle

is

also

called

hence

a fixed-pitch

pitch

propeller)

The

efficiency

the

or

pitch

angle.

This

propeller,

or

controlled

automatically

of a propeller

is

may

pitch

power

be

angle

adjustable

output

in

the

divided

may

be

by hand
air

fixed

for

on the

(controllable
by

power

input

97

blade
__ller

Figure

77.-

Propeller

blade

sections.

Airfoil

_ections

a,

denotes

Wing
7

v--" Propeller

fixed

angle

to

of attack

of airfoil

airplane

Free-stream
velocity
(a)
Plane
of
rotation
Velocity
and
of airplane

motion

fT'U

Blade

Rotational
velocity
of
this
blade
section
relative
to
airplane

.o,
Helix

angle

(b)

5
/9
Angle

of attack----_

of blade

_x
.z_

/_#-

angle
--

Tntai

a.ng[e

blade

(c)
Figure
98

78.-

Propeller

terminology.

angle

or

pitch

angle

sections.

and

would

desirably

efficiency

is

requires
pitch

be

proportional

a different
(flat

blade

A coarse
effect

or
is

as

close

to a value

to the

free-stream

pitch-angle
angle

high

or

pitch

illustrated

used

for

in figure

For

angle

(or

100

velocity

setting.

small

is

of one

cruising

and

take-off,

of attack)

percent)
for

gives

high

low

possible.

maximum

an airplane

to provide

and

as

The

efficiency

uses

a fine

revolutions

per

revolutions

per

or

low

minute.

minute.

This

79(a).

I I

I]

I I

II

4-

fl

I_I

I
I
I
I
I

l
t
I
I
o

I
I

f
I

...//

2/

Coarse
pitch
- Cruise

'rake- off

(a) Pitch

_'X

Fin('
(low)
pitch

I
_
_
_

l
I
% I
\I

I
I
I
I
/
/

1\
\

(high)
flight

control.

(brake)

- propeller

stopped

fi_"

(b) Feathered

.qq_'_'_'_''_:'_ _

propeller.

(c)

Figure
Some
turned

so that

velocity.

the

use

as

by turning
The
of which
mise
propellor
shaped

the

may
leading

Feathering

decrease
for

propellers

propeller

edges

of the

(See

the

to a large

design

is

blade
blades

(See

contradictions

used

on the
slender

or

fig.

more

mission

with
propeller

brake.

that

alined

to avoid

Some

blades

to the

an engine

have

negative

are

free-stream

damaging

propellers
case,

the

reversible
thrust

is

and

to

pitch
obtained

of attack.

airplane,
The

means
are

In this

angle
an

This

propeller

79(c).)

Landing

thrust

control.

sections

79(b).)

in design.

dependent

is usually
are

airfoil

fig.

like

of pitch

in flight.

negative

of a propeller,

largely

Use

on a stopped

drag.
brake.

cause

and

feathered

a landing
blade

79.-

be

is used

Negative

is

influenced

overall
to be

rounded
blades

shape

by
is

performed.

tips.
are

For

many

factors,

determined

by

For
high

speeds

low

speeds
larger

some
comprothe
paddle-

used.

99

The
wards.

slipstream

It is a cylindrical

tailplane.
mental
this

is produced

The
and

some

means

that

larger.

The

effective

control

surfaces

are

may

be low.

plane

the

opposite
producing

since

square

and other

of taxiing

or take-off

of the

slipstream,

however,

in a later

be counteracted
Figure

80 shows

have

air

Figure

80.-

an effect
The

aircraft

used

Contrarotating

VTO

propellers.

and
detriflow;

to it is

in providing
produced

moving

on the

XB-42

XFV-I

some

exposed

over

of the

this

for
by these

them.
velocities

to strike

stability

propellers
that

back-

the free-stream

the air

effects

air

fuselage

the free-stream

device.

Lockheed

effects

parts

causes

contrarotating

three

the

forces

of the
when

discussion).
by using

over

and is beneficial

velocity

may

by forcing

than

the aerodynamic

of the

This

back

important

tailplane,

the tailplane

surfaces

flows

thrust

flow is faster

Douglas

100

has

cases

(considered

directions).

that

tailplane

slipstream

over

and not headon.

may

producing

air

fuselage,

on the

motion

at an angle

of the airplane

of the
moves

in the

the

The

by the tail

rotary

the propeller

drag

of spiraling

it strikes

beneficial.

dependent

is important

core

that

slipstream

This

The

fact

by a propeller

the
and

rotary
(spinning
form

tail-

control

motion
in

of a thrust-

of

Lifting
blades
The

rotors.-

of the
number

For

rotor

are

of blades

employing

a different

blades

used

are

a helicopter,

airfoil
vary

with

number

to reduce

the

shaped

the design.

of blades.

the load

rotor

and are

that

is the

long and
Figure

81 shows

Generally,
each

must

lift-producing
slender

for

device.

(large

aspect

The
ratio).

three

helicopters,

each

the heavier

helicopter,

more

carry.

Bell AH-16
Heuy-Cobra
Two-bladed

Hughes
OH-6A
Four-bladed

Sikorsky
CH-3C
Six-bladed

Figure
As for
defined
blades.
controlled

the

airplane

as the angle
The

81.-

pitch

propeller,

between
of the

individually

Helicopters

the

blades

(cyclic

with varying

the helicopter
plane
may

of rotation
be controlled

rotor

blade
blades

of the blades
collectively

numbers.
have
and

a pitch
the

(collective

angle

chord

line

pitch)

of the
or

pitch).

101

Collective pitch changes the pitch of allblades together and with changes in
engine power settings,produces the liftnecessary for the helicopter to take-off,hover,
climb, and descend.
Cyclic pitch is controlled by the swashplate of the rotor head which allows the
pitch of individual blades to vary as they rotate about the hub.
fly forward, the swashplate is tiltedforward.
ward position
lift

(toward

is reduced,

is increased,
to tilt
(see

and
the

the whole
fig.

plished

its flight

blade
rotor

the

rotation

disk

by a tail

ency.

Additionally,

copter

may

path

main

body

rotor.

forward

blades

in the opposite

produces

It provides

direction.

sufficient

by controlling

the thrust

thrust

pitch decreases,

rotates

path

angle,

is given

its

blade

and the flight

to the desired

rotor

cycle,

As the

component

the total

to the

/i

rotation

o[

rotor,

Thrust
component
yielding
forward
m orion

I
1
Main

Main

rotors

rotors

V_

Figure

102

82.-

Helicopter

forward

the pitch

net

lift vector

effect

is

is rotated

motion.

which

control

to counteract

of

blades
is
forwardJ

rear,

The

torque

Directional

Thrust

Axis

the blade

helicopter.

a reactive

of the tail

to the

ascends.

be controlled.

._

a pilotwishes to

As each rotor blade approaches the forof its

descends.

thrust

of the

helicopter

of flight)

lift is increased,

82) and a forward

The
rotate

the direction

When

this

tends

to

is accomrotational

the heading

tend-

of the heli-

V. TRANSONICFLOW
Up to this point the airplane was considered to be in motion at subsonic speeds.
The air was treated as thoughit were incompressible and a study of the aerodynamics
involved using this simplifying assumption was made. As the airplane speedincreases,
however, the air loses its assumedincompressibility andthe error in estimating, for
example, drag, becomesgreater andgreater.
The question arises as to howfast an airplane nmst be moving before one must
take into accountcompressibility. Oneimportant quantity which is an indicator is the
speedof soundof the air through which the airplane is flying.
A disturbance in the air will sendpressure pulses or wavesout into the air at the
speedof sound. Consider the instance of a cannon fired at sea level.
An observer
situated
the

some

sound

wave

can easily
cannon

distance
is heard

compute

from

precise,

shown

it depends

under

standard

altitude

upon

sends

separates

plane

and

little

time

pulses
airplane

the

air

pulses

merge
elapses

airplane's
move

at the

into a "shock

temperature,
airplane

below

these

and

and abruptly

to break

there

is a change

sible

flow speeds.

away

from

in the

him.

The

of the
K) the

speed

indicates

the

speed,

speed

and,

of sound

in all directions

"messages"

before

But as the
closer

same
wave"

passes

aerodynamic

gets

At the

is an almost

The

air

through

the airplane

approaches

and
forces

has

the

from

those

altitude

up against

in the

speed

There
about

experienced

flow

of the air-

(fig.

airplane
84(c))

together
line

ahead

of sound,

of the

merge

of the

Air

and the

in front

instantaneous

not flow smoothly

at this

of sound

They

system.

of sound

84(a).

a warning

no warning

shock

the

84(b))

speed

as the airplane.

which

density.

arrives

the air

time.

speed

the airplane

(fig.

but at an

speed

a disturbance
in figure

together

the time
arrival

creates

level

m/sec

comes

as shown

airplane

and closer

between
actual

therefore,

83.

At sea

flying

out

To be more

K the

an airplane

and the

in figure

is 340.3

to 216.7

observer

propagates

temperature.

of sound

that

him

with altitude.

is down

but

The

between

as shown

varies

absolute

later.

disturbance

shell

of sound

instantaneously

time

the distance

the temperature

the airplane.

pulses

pressure

of the

root

almost

some

hemispherical

difference

well

receives

and the

pressure,

This

flash

is felt)

to reach

(T o = 288.15

out pressure

approach

of the

sound

square

the

by dividing

7, the speed

the

flying

around

pressure

the

see

wave

speed of sound at a slower

effects
sooner.

of the airplane

the

pressure

where

m/sec.

An airplane
and

will

of sound

in figure

conditions

encounters
the
compressibility

cannon

in an expanding

of 15 kilometers

is only 295.1

air

speed

it takes

the cannon

As was

the

(or the

the

by the time

away

from

the

ahead

of change

impending

in

approach

is a tendency

for

it; as a result,
at low incompres-

103

Time

Cannon
fires
BOOM

= t
0

Cannon
flash
observed

Distance
D

Time
- t1
time elapses

_Direetion

Time

= tB

I BOOM

is heard

Speed

Figure
The
sound.
may

words,

it is a number

to an airplane

For
than

is hypersonic
flow

one,

regime.

numbers

flow,

Additionally,

patterns

change
flow

flow nor

from

presents

those

that

Mach

than

transonic

of the airplane
relate

the

number

85 shows

one,

and for

of a disturbance.

ratio
may

Figure

less

D
time

of sound

The

to 1916).

supersonic

flow.

Transonic

ing subsonic

104

Mach

Distance
Elapsed

of the

approach.

(1838

Speed

In other

regimes.

the

83.-

is a measure

professor

to 1.2.

sound

number

have

which

of

Mach

Austrian

greater

of

degree

is named
the names

one has

Mach

speed

subsonic

of warning
Ernst

to various

flow,

for

greater

flow pertains

to the

range

than

versa,

to supersonic

or vice

a special

problem

as neither

supersonic

flow may

that

after

subsonic

describing

speed

given

numbers

area

to the

5 the

about

be accurately

an
flight

numbers
name

of speeds

equations

air

Mach,

Mach

of

used
in

Mach

0.8

describapplied

to

/-

Pressure
move

Disturbanee__

pulses
away

f tom

Disturbance

at

(a)

sour

Pressure
ce

i_

putses"
//
begin
to
[
pile
up -J

rest

Zero

and

low-speed

\\

_/_

_"

t-Pressure
left by

_ D_isturbance,
,
begms
movmg

pulses
disturbance

disturbance.

Shock-wave

discontinuity _

pressure
Pressure

pulses

just barely
out racing
the
dmturbance

/
/

M = 0.75 /
)
.... /

_\\_
\\_

Pressure
pulses
cannot outrace
disturbance
- air
in front
has
no
warning
of particle
(or airplane)
approach

1
/

_-_/

(b) Nearing

Mach

1.

84.-

Shock-wave

_ , n
_" _. _-"
/
_

]
/

(c) Mach

Figure

f/fil/1Utl//fl

_-_
/_
/ _
/
__

1.

formation.

Subsonie/J

._ransonie

..{{_: _i{i::ii:
.8

1.2

Maeh

Figure

85.-

number

Flight

regime

terminology.

105

With
flow

these

at high

sonic

speeds.

speeds.

pressure

there

mental

changes
This

drag

and large
wave

and

induced

erable

is due

part

of the
from

shock

formation

lished,

however,

shows

the

drag

lift and

clearly
to exceed
sonic

the

flight,

the

the transonic
required
speeds,

wing

sound

regime,

drag

transonic
barrier

increases

the

drag,

to funda-

drag

drag

and the

However,

The

though
"Sound

drag

(drag
barrier"

barrier

as it proceeds

toward

coefficient

enough

early

days

speeds.

show

\\
\

"_

]/

.=_

_._.

/ Due
........

l
coefficient
wave

drag

2_ .......

/-Drag-divergence
/

Mach

106

number

1.0

Figure

Mach

86.-

Variation

of wing

number

drag

coefficient

with

Mach

Once
thrust

a decrease).

r\
/ \

(or

number.

thrust

of tran-

supersonic

Barr[er"-__

?-

of zero

up rather

and less

may

total

and wave

provide

higher

86

(1) zerodrag

to higher

estab-

The

to lift)

In the

decreases,

drag

been

Figure

shows

must

coef-

erratic

number.

due

drag

the

of the

flow has

Mach

drag

into two categories:

is encountered.

coefficient

(even

with

"sound

a real

because

This

separation
the

is reduced.

the airplane

represented

sharply
a consid-

range,

a supersonic

The

in speed.

(or pressure-related)

infamous
that

rises

and to the induced

coefficient

of induced

drag.

transforms

transonic

can be divided

The

which

coefficient

and wave

wave

increases

range

Once

drag

drag

to fly supersonically.
the drag

heat,

composed

to lift.

waves

into

to fly supersonically

the

at sub-

due

is called

further

Throughout

the drag

speeds

of skin-friction

due

the

and supersonic

of the airplane,

in the supersonic

and

supersonic

part

to obtain

flow instabilities.

of an airplane

maximum

any

energy

than

flow stabilizes

86 since

detail

skin-friction

of the airplane

speeds

of shock

surfaces.

the

drag

in figure

propulsive

general

composed

At transonic

drag

high

matter,

formation

and

(2) lift-dependent

more

to be in motion

components

to lift).

at these

necessary

is greater

and

pressure-related)

are

unstable

available

due

considered

in the total

or for that

the airplane

variation

at transonic

(or drag

in a little

distribution.

in thrust

of the airplane

was
main

encountered

to the

now examine

of three

increase

wing,

may

the airplane

drag

pressure

increase

increases

of the flow
ficient

in the

one

composed

is a substantial

airplane

drag

drag

was

drag

of the

in mind,

Up to now,

Drag

drag,

speeds

lift

definitions

past
is

There is a famous little story, untrue of course, of the pilot who flew his plane
beyondthe soundbarrier andthen got trapped there becauseof insufficient reverse
thrust to get back below the speedof sound. Another case of perpetual motion.
It is a large loss in propulsive energy due to the formation of shocks that causes
wavedrag; figure 87 showsthis shock formation about an airfoil. Up to a free-stream
Mach number of about0.7 to 0.8, compressibility effects have only minor effects on the
flow pattern anddrag. The flow is subsoniceverywhere (fig. 87(a)). As the flow must
speedup as it proceeds aboutthe airfoil, the local Mach number at the airfoil surface
will be higher than the free-stream Mach number. There eventually occurs a freestream Machnumber called the critical Machnumber at which a sonic point appears
somewhereon the airfoil surface, usually near the point of maximumthickness and
indicates that the flow at that point has reachedMach 1 (fig. 87(b)). As the freestream Mach number is increased beyondthe critical Mach number andcloser to
Mach 1, larger andlarger regions of supersonic flow appear on the airfoil surface
(fig.

87(c)).

through

In order

a shock

increase

(pressure

anywhere

vature

and thickness,

decelerate

the

boundary

layer

increase
The

increases
thrust
has

shock

wave

would

is known

Mach

number

The

goal.

flight

87(d)

shows

to one where

large

regions

a free-stream

allel

Most
to the

the boundary

layer

shock.

the

further
its

speed

indicated

be explained

that

later

so that

a separation

condition

must
drag

the

shock.
of the

accounts

for

of the

airplane

Large

increases

speed.

by the

originally

If an airplane

designed

was

in

drag-divergence
as a supersonic

of high drag,

how success

separation.

number.

in airplane

because

due to cur-

the wave

through

will be limited
was

where,
airflow

flow

shocks

coefficient

Mach

F-102A

etc.)

These

(boundary-layer)

drag

increases

drag.

of energy

This

as shock-induced

an

it would

achieved

for

never

this

airplane

redesigning.

Figure

nose.

a loss

pass
by an

represents

1.0 and the

transonic

from

Convair
tests

It will

For

it must

is accompanied
heat

nacelles,

88(a)).

the

flow,

as wave

engine
exceeds

at which

thrust,

This

number

behind

any

of velocity

be presented

the drag-divergence

prototype

but early

proper

with

which

number.

through

(fig.

immediately

of insufficient

this

fuselage,

occurs

to produce

achieve

(wing,

in drag

required

interceptor

may

Mach

loss

to subsonic

of heat.

be estimated

interacts

is called

This

which

of sound

markedly

an engine

Mach

than

free-stream

are

flow to return

a production

localized

speed

is greater

In fact,

airplane

the

the

is,

energy

on the

below

increase

that

of propulsive

appear

supersonic

discontinuity).

in temperature,

expenditure

large

for this

Mach
of the
body

the
are

number
airfoil

surface

character

of the

in supersonic

greater

than

is in supersonic
and stabilize,

flow at a free-stream
flow and the

1, a bow shock
flow.

and the

The

flow

shock-induced

shocks
appears
begins

Mach

number

close

very

strong.

At

are

around

the airfoil

to realine

separation

itself

par-

is reduced.

107

Shock
(leads

wave
formation
to wave
drag)

point(M=
Sao

1.0)

Subsonic

0
Subsonic
Subsonic

flow

(Critical
Mach
number)

everywhere

(a)

(b)

Supersonic
rsonic
= .90

M_
Moo = .85

Subsonic

Subsonic

Subsonic

Subsonic

Supersonic
(c)

flow

Subsonic

A
M_

= .95

\.Bows.ock
/

Subsonic
Supersomc

wraPoSs_en_///

(d)
Figure
This

condition

behaved

than

dynamic

forces

and the
thus

disrupting

and

flow

however,

in the

region

lift(fig.88(b)).

108

first

airplane

the transonic

to the

and

tail

of both

configurations
little

types

Supersonic

jump back
the

wing

and

to probe

gradually

that

tail

or no difficulty

the

and forth

The

the sound

evolved

flow,

result
This

barrier.

to the point

in terms

along

the

sends
is that

aero-

surface,
pulsing
the pilot

condition
With

where

of wing

the

flow is unsteady

This

controls.

well-

can predict

surface.

of the airplane.
wing

flow is more

theories

in transonic

may

flow over

surfaces

airplane

formation.

adequate

Often,

surface
the

vibration

posed

are

present.

separating

Shock

coefficients.

there

on the body

back

a buffeting

drag

flow and

and moments
waves

especially

in lower

transonic

shock

unsteady
feels

results

87.-

occurred

proper
flying

buffeting

design,
through

or loss

of

"_---------M>I

(a) Total

aircraft

shocks.

e,

F-84

h_

(1949)

X-15

(1964)

0._
i- _ F-100

(1954)

e_
b_

.=
0.4
e.

x
0.6

I
0.8

i
1.0

Mach

number

(b) Improving
Figure
The question
value

closer

really

suggests

engine

thrust

delaying
Mach

88.-

as to whether

is the ability
before

the transonic

to 1).

(1) Use

of thin

airfoils

(2) Use

of sweep

(3) Low-aspect-ratio
(4) Removal

may

the drag-divergence

delay
of novel

aerodynamic

to fly at near-sonic

wave

closer

large

drag

rise

flight.

characteristics.

subject

encountering

number

transonic

Supersonic

one

to 1 is a fascinating

I
1.2

wave

velocities
drag.

There

(or equivalently,

These

include

of the wing

forward

Mach

designs.
with
are

increasing

the

What

same

a number
the

number

to a

this

available
of ways

of

drag-divergence

or back

wing

of boundary

layer

and vortex

generators

109

(5) Supercritical
These

methods
Thin

are

to the

is used,

the flow

Thus,

The

square

wave

of the

speeds

one

area-rule

technology

now discussed

airfoils:

portional

foil.

and

may

individually.
drag

rise

associated

thickness-chord

around

the

airfoil

fly at a higher

free-stream

one

reaches

the drag-divergence

of using

thin wings

are

that

are

tural

speed

support

shows
the

range

and they

members,

the

airfoil

sections

have

increased,

(fig.

89(b))

was

high and

used

to achieve

lift.

landing

mishaps

were

of using

a thinner

the drag

divergence

Mach

reduce

the

shock

waves

reduces

It was
effects

confirming
One
section

(t/c

chord

that

been

are

number

(at which

a sonic

delayed

to higher

values.

Figure
has

flow has

92(a)

of sweep

longer

reduced.

as the

sweep

of sweep

than

(See fig.
more

time

point

92(b).)

appears)

93 shows

a modern
however,

to adjust

and

jet

employing

stability

ratio

airflow
If the wing

a thinner

to

airfoil

The, critical

accomplish
forward

new

of thickness

Mach

and handling

airfoil

encounters

situation.

will

of sweep.

section.

the drag-divergence

airplane

in the

the

it

data

a thinner

with

using

to the

or sweepback

Additionally,

the wing

maximum

and

of the

experimental

airfoil

flow over

One is effectively

in which

that

delay

formation

using

is shown

a typical
The

the

may

to a high degree

wing

previously.

particularly
90 illustrates

sweep

number.

a straight
Notice

penalized

in particular,

91 shows

as effectively

Sweepforward

disadvantages,

Mach

no sweep

A, the same

was

As

F-104

but was

Figure

that

of a wing

to the wing.

angle

section

results.

effect

decades.

value.

Figure

from

struc89(a)

The

airplane

will delay

to a higher

numbers.

is swept

In figure

to some

sections
has

the

perpendicularly

is now swept
airfoil

view

as a wing

wing

tanks,

three

Notice,

who proposed

A swept
flow

drag.

in the

Figure

drag

pilots.

to a greater

in 1935

all Mach

of this

disadvantages

fuel

decreased.
wave

untrained

transonic

is delayed

Busemann

over

reduced).

approaching

number

in transonic

drag
result

may

on the

past

airpoint

produced)

wing.

the

have

speed

among

of compressibility.

wave
this

common

over

possible

landing

a sonic

(wing

pro-

section

thicker

The

of lift

a thicker

ratios

for the

number.

structure

than

minimum

the

section

Adolf

encountered

the

etc.)

airfoil

before

(in terms

U.S. fighters

the

As a result,

the effect

Sweep:

by three

number

less

the thickness-chord

designed

with low subsonic

effective

stations,

those

Mach

can accommodate

armament

speeds

less

flow is roughly

If a thinner

than

Mach

and before

subsonic

(t/c).

will be less

appears

they

with transonic

ratio

Mach

number

are

these

desired

sweep.

Forward

characteristics

at low

speeds.
A major

disadvantage

wing,

and the boundary

roots

for

II0

sweepforward.

of swept

layer

wings

will thicken

In the case

is that
toward

of sweepback,

there
the

tips
there

is a spanwise
for

sweepback

is an early

flow along

the

and toward
separation

and

the

Chord

Thickness

_-r

_ZZZZzzz_-

Very

(1940' s)

F-86

(1950' s)

F-104

T
(a) Changes

P-51

in airfoil

(1960' s)

sections.

thin wings

(b) F- 104G airplane.

Figure

t/c =

89.-

Thin

airfoils.

.18

t/c= .o6

I
0
Mach

Figure

90.-

I
I,

A
.5

Effect

of airfoil

i
1.0

number

thickness

MUD , drag

I
,i

on transonic

divergence

Mach

drag.

Lift = 0;

q = Constant;

number.
III

0.10
0 Sweep

10 1/2 Sweep

0.05

40 Sweep

I
49

.7

.8

.9
1.0 1.1
Mach number

Figure

91.-

Effects

transonic

drag

of sweep

on wing

coefficient.

(b) Swept
wing

(a) Unswept
wing

1/4 Sweep

Chord

v_

[-

Figure

112

92.-

Sweep

reduces

Chord

swept

effective

thickness-chord

ratio.

Figure 93.- HFB 320Hansa Jet with forward sweep.

stall of the wing-tip sections andthe ailerons lose their roll control effectiveness.
The spanwiseflow may be reducedby the use of stall fences, which are thin plates
parallel to the axis of symmetry of the airplane. In this manner a strong boundarylayer buildup over the ailerons is prevented. (Seefig. 94(a).) Wing twist is another
possible solution to this spanwiseflow condition.

Stall

fence

Wing

(a)

__.....-%_

Mig-19

Vortex

generators

(b)

Figure

94.-

Stall

fences

and vortex

generators.
113

Low aspect ratio: The wing's aspect ratio is another parameter that influences
the critical Mach number andthe transonic drag rise. Substantialincreases in the
critical Machnumber occur whenusing an aspect ratio less than aboutfour. However,
from previous discussions, low-aspect-ratio wings are at a disadvantageat subsonic
speedsbecauseof the higher induceddrag.
Removal or reenergizing the boundarylayer: By bleeding off some of the boundary layer along an airfoil's surface, the drag-divergence Mach number can be
increased. This increase results from the reduction or elimination of shock interactions betweenthe subsonicboundarylayer andthe supersonic flow outside of it.
Vortex generators are small plates, mountedalong the surface of a wing and
protruding perpendicularly to the surface as shownin figure 94(b). They are small
wings, andby creating a strong tip vortex, the generators feed high-energy air from
outside the boundarylayer into the slow moving air inside the boundarylayer. This
condition reduces the adverse pressure gradients andprevents the boundarylayer from
stalling. A small increase in the drag-divergence Mach number can be achieved. This
methodis economically beneficial to airplanes designedfor cruise at the highest possible drag-divergence Mach number.
Supercritical and area-rule technology: One of the more recent developmentsin
transonic technologyanddestined to be an important influence on future wing design is
the NASAsupercritical wing developedby Dr. Richard T. Whitcomb of the NASA
Langley Research Center.
A substantial
rise in the drag-divergence
Mach number
is
realized.

Figure

95(a)

beyond

the

layer.

Figure

(supercritical
arated

boundary

same
tion

Mach

number.

and strength

shock-induced
even

shows

The

of the

This

critical

shocks

has

operating

number)

shows

is greatly

closer

decreased.

represents

with

near

airfoil
which

to the

trailing

edge.

increase

Mach

and

operating

surface

critical

1 region

shocks

upper

The

a major

the Mach

its associated

the supercritical

a flattened

to a point

delay

airfoil

Mach

95(b)

airfoil

separation

up to 0.99.

a classical

sep-

at the

delays

the

forma-

Additionally,
number

in commercial

the

is delayed
airplane

performance.
The
surface
new

curvature

of the supercritical

supercritical
There

First,

wing

are

by using

subsonic
drag

two
the

cruise

divergence
without

higher

at lower

lift

has

same

speeds.

camber

penalty.

the

its lift.

Because

at the

ratio,
the

transonic

supercritical
This

airfoil

of the flattened

However,
trailing

of the supercritical

thickness-chord
1 before

wing

lift is reduced.

increased

numbers,

a drag

the

advantages

Mach

Mach

gives

airfoil,

main

near

to be used

114

of a wing

to counteract

airfoil
reduces

this,

the

edge.
airfoil

the supercritical
drag

upper

rise.

as shown
airfoil

in figure

permits

Alternatively,

permits

a thicker

structural

weight

96.

high

at lower
wing
and

section

permits

trong
shock
---.

Separated

(a) Classical

boundary

l_ayer

airfoil.

Weak
shock

_Smaller

separated

boundary

layer

(
(b) Supercritical
Figure

95.-

Classical

and

airfoil.
supercritical

airfoils.

(
_M

15"{

cruise

r_
_9

Thickness-chord

Figure
Coupled
Dr.

Richard

transonic

to supercritical
T. Whitcomb

airplanes

Basically,
obtained

96.-

when

and
area

the

Two uses

technology
of NASA

later

ruling

that
area

nal axis

can be projected

into a body

changes

in cross

along

area

against

body

section
position,

its

Research

minimum

the resulting

Or,
curve

concept

Center
flight
transonic

distribution

of revolution

length.

wing.

"area-rule"

to supersonic

states

cross-sectional

of supercritical

is the

Langley

applied

ratio

in the early

which

is smooth.

developed
1950's

by

for

in general.
and

supersonic

of the airplane

if a graph

also

is smooth
is made

along
and

drag
the

is

longitudi-

shows

no abrupt

of the cross-sectional

If it is not a smooth

curve,
115

then the cross section is changedaccordingly. Figure 97 presents the classic example
of the application of this concept- the Convair F-102A.
The original Convair F-102A was simply a scaled-upversion of the XF-92A
with a pure delta wing. But early tests indicated that supersonic flight was beyond
its capability becauseof excessive transonic drag andthe project was aboutto be
canceled. Area ruling, however, savedthe airplane from this fate. Figure 97(a)
showsthe original form of the F-102A andthe cross-sectional area plotted against
bodystation. Notice that the curve is not very smoothas there is a large increase
in cross-sectional area whenthe wings are encountered. Figure 97(b)showsthe
F-102A with a coke-bottle-waist-shaped fuselage and bulges addedaft of the wing on
each side of the tail to give a better area-rule distribution, as shownin the plot. The
F-102A was then able to reach supersonic speedsbecauseof the greatly reduced drag
andentered military service in great numbers.

Bulges

_
o_

Nose

[eal

____

Body

(a) YF-102A

station

before

capable

of cruising

critical

wing

cross-sectional

is used.
area

at Mach

/-Indent.fuselage

ruling

has

this
The

of F-102A

been

around

98 shows
Notice

Body

/Actual

station

(b) F-102A

Area

numbers

that the shape is near optimum.

near-sonic
Mach number.

ll6

ruling.

concept

Figure
plot.

Nose

97.-

the area-rule

Tail

area

rear_

Ideal

Actual

Figure
Recently,

at

the
curve
shocks

applied

0.99.

to design

area

ruling.

a near-sonic
to area

obtained

now is completely
and drag

after

airplane.

In addition

configuration

Tail

divergence

transport

ruling,

and the

a super-

resulting

smooth

and

are

delayed

indicates
to a

--'-_-.

/--

smooth

Completely

surve

e_

Body

Figure

98.-

station

Near-sonic

transport

area

ruling.

117

118

VI. SUPERSONIC

The

previous

through

proper

directly

applicable

supersonic

design,

wave

three

dimensions,

extends

will

back

wing

loss

exist

back

Mach

behind

that

cone

has

dominant.

They

include

high

of attack

The

is designed

cruise,

it would
is the

and how,

also

are

drag

in the

it was

shown

that

a bow

1.0.

(See

swing-wing

lift,

airplane

does

the

is the

advances

and reduced
not have

efficiency,

airplanes

added

weight

employing

solving

plotted

airplane.
speed

problems

span

and

regimes,

it is evident

One

major

of the
also.

sweep

Figure

drag

advan-

numbers.
transonic

For
and

swept

and

the

are
ratio),

wing

for
equal

that
total

drawback
mechanisms.
103 shows

an airplane

supersonic

102 shows

number

not necessarily

over

a straight

of trailing-edge

Figure
Mach

delta

or low aspect

cruise

Although

role,

the

disadvantages.

wing

against

individually.
and complexity

these

wing

or swing-wing.

for the
Mach

the disadvantages

subsonic

a straight

can in a multimissioned

other

are

sweep

respective

these

of a large

in fact,

Mach

effectiveness

for example,

to combine

and,

however,

of

swept

of minimizing

(due to small

most

supersonic

at higher

in the interest

drag

over

qualitatively

wing

numbers,

As long as

a highly

rapidly

Mach

to compensate

higher

of even

101 shows

or delta

Mach

maximum

swept-wing

capability

than

a swept

edge

to increase

Figure

wing

In

as it

the

the advantage

swept
at still

leading

drag

primarily

for the variable

in their

a simple

that

flow

100) has

88.)

cone)

numbers.

is subsonic

(fig.

fig.

(a Mach

Mach

But,

the

high induced

for

wing

than

total

over

be advantageous

and

configurations

the

used

of aerodynamic

straight-wing

area

to be multimission,

logic

a measure

A delta

At subsonic

straight-wing

which

airplanes

used

99 demonstrates

there

in sweepback.

has

been

drag.

ical

rise

wave

in shape

increasing

cone,

preferable.

wing

wave

airplane

techniques

above

Figure

with

Mach

wing

causes

supersonic

angles

back

may approach

becomes

a straight

a cone

the

greater

condition

(no sweep)

better

drag

minimum

formation,

is in reality

of the airplane.

experienced

Sweepback

This

of the

to fly with

numbers

low drag.

but also

the
This

flaps.

on the transonic

Mach

swept

and relatively

numbers,

tage

Many

of shock

for free-stream

increasingly

angle

wing

mainly

airplane

discussion

the nose

of lift usually

wing.

the

the bow shock

is swept

the wing

to the

from

becomes

sweep

centered

it may be delayed.

in designing

returns

shock

the

has

regime.

If one

cone

discussion

FLOW

design.
(L/D)max,

an optimum
to the

an airplane
speed
of the

optimum
with

regime,

be

swing-wing
But technolog-

a variety

of modern

a swing-wing.

119

In addition
may

also

slender,

be

to low-aspect-ratio

minimized

cambered

by

employing

fuselages

minimize

wings

at

supersonic

speeds,

thin

wings

and

area

drag

and

using

also

improve

supersonic
ruling.
the

Also

spanwise

wave
long,
lift

distribution.

Conical

bow

M_=

shock

F-100D

1.3

Conical

bow

1_=

shock_

2.0
English
Lightning

Figure

120

99.-

Mach

cone

and

use

of sweep.

drag

F-106

Figure

100.-

Delta-wing

airplane.

wing
__

Straight

Swept
', /

St raight-wi ng

Swept-back
advantage

__

1.0

1.5

2.0
Mach

Figure

101.-

Wing

as functions

design

drag

of Mach

number

coefficients

number.

121

25

2O

15

,-1
10

1.0
Mach

Figure

102.-

Variation

of

,_'l,-Ji

(L/D)ma

Optimum
swept
wing

2.0

3.0

number

with

Mach

number.

Variable

_::!

Mirage

III

F-14A

Figure

122

103.-

Modern

variable-sweep

airplanes.

sweep

airplane.

The SST
On June 5, 1963in a speechbefore the graduating class of the United StatesAir
Force Academy, President Kennedycommitted this nation to "developat the earliest
practical date the prototype of a commercially successful supersonictransport superior to that being built in any other country in the world ....
" What lay aheadwas
years of development,competition, controversy, andultimately rejection of the supersonic transport (SST)by the United States,and it remains to be seenwhether the
British-French Concordeor Russian TU-144 designs will prove to be economically
feasible andacceptableto the public.
NASAdid considerablework, starting in 1959,on basic configurations for the
SST. There evolved four basic types of layout which were studied further by private
industry. Lockheedchoseto go with a fixed-wing delta design; whereas, Boeing initially chosea swing-wing design.
One problem associatedwith the SSTis the tendencyof the noseto pitch down as
it flies from subsonic to supersonic flight. The swing-wing can maintain the airplane
balance andcounteract the pitch-down motion. Lockheedneededto install canards
(small wings placed toward the airplane nose (fig. 104(a))to counteract pitch down.
Eventually, the Lockheeddesign useda double-delta configuration (fig. 104(b))and the
canards were no longer needed. This design proved to have many exciting aerodynamic advantages. The forward delta begins to generatelift supersonically (negating
pitch down). At low speedsthe vortices trailing from the leading edgeof the double
delta (fig. 105(a))increase lift as shownin figure 105(b). This meansthat many flaps
and slats could be reducedor done awaywith entirely anda simpler wing design was
provided. In landing, the doubledelta experiences a ground-cushion effect which
allows for lower landing speeds. This is important since three-quarters of the airplane accidents occur in take-off andlanding. Figure 106showsthe British-French
Concorde
wing

called

low- speed

and

the Russian

the ogee
subsonic

TU-144

wing.

prototypes.

It, too,

uses

They

use

the vortex-lift

a variation
concept

of the

double

for improvement

delta
in

flight.

-Canards
lble

delta

I
i

(a) Lockheed

(b) Lockheed

CL-823.
Figure

104.-

Lockheed

double

delta.

SST configurations.
123

(a) Vortices

on double

delta

wing.

Nonlinear
coefficient
vortices

Angle

(b) Lift
Figure
Ultimately,
U.S.

SST competition.

from

one

design.

The

engines

were
Despite

cal advances

124

with

Major

moved
the

increase

Lifting

design
cruise

the

size

changes

was

evolution

of the

were

lift-drag

of double

design

107 shows
The

due to vortices.

vortices

a swing-wing

designs.

supersonic

attack

coefficient

105.-

Figure

of the NASA

requirements.

faces.

Boeing

of

incorporated

ratio

wing.

selected

grew
into

as the winner
design

the

from
impinging

the

exhaust

advantages

previously

quoted

for

in time.

Because

airline

Boeing

6.75

a swing-wing

of the

originally

to meet

increased

aft to alleviate

did not appear

delta

of this

airplane

further

in construction

excess
lift
due
to
on wing

derived
payload

2707-100

to 8.2 and the

on the
concept,

of the

rear

tail

sur-

technologi-

swing-wing

mech-

Russian

Figure

i06.-

British-French,

Y
I

Figure

10'/.-

'

TU-144

and Russian

Evolution

of Boeing

SST airplanes.

Model

733-197

Model

733-790

Model

2707-100

Model

2707-300

SST design.
125

anisms

and beefed-up

tion of payload
Figure

resulted.

107 shows

continuing

into advanced

cruise

M = 2.7,

configurations

with

at the

NASA

126

at

transports

a cruise

108.-

speed

Research

Langley

problems

the B2707-300.

to cancel

in the

of

incurable

but to adopt a fixed-wing

and Russian

M = 2.2 to 2.4,

Langley

Figure

States

Concorde

supersonic

and TU-144

tested

adopted

led the United

the British-French

placement,

had no recourse

configuration

factors

Concorde

design

due to engine

Boeing

the final

and environmental
While

structure

the

United

States.

Center

advanced

is shown

cruised

analyzed.

in figure

SST design.

is still

Whereas,

design

are being

economic,

in 1972.

fly, research

and the Boeing

M = 3.2

concept.

Political,

project

TU-144

in reduc-

108.

the
at
One

such

Sonic
One

of the

commonly

referred

to a description
A typical
one

of the

tail

(See fig.

as shown.
above
pressure
place

The

and

on the

pressure

a final

in one-tenth

with

resulting

coming
the

ground,

recompression

shocks

some

is felt

leading
from

appear

and
edges,

the air-

to be "N"

below
The

return

(bow shock)

wing

pressure.

is

supersonically.

as an abrupt

and heard

must

distance

decompression

to atmospheric

transport

one

flying

changes

pulse

and is felt

boom,

one at the nose

pulse

by a rapid

or less

sonic

off the canopy,

main

this

any supersonic

an airplane

waves,

pressure

followed

of a second

about

shock

waves

facing

To explain

formation

to merge

To an observer

atmospheric

boom."

Shock

tend

109.)

"sonic

two main

shock).

etc.

of the problems

shock-wave

generates
(tail

nacelles,

plane.

objectionable

to as the

airplane

off the

engine

more

Boom

shaped

compression
atmospheric

total

as a double

change
jolt

takes

or boom.

airplane
Bow
shock
Tail
shock

underpressures
Overpressures
with distance

decay
and

-Underpressure

Overpressure

"N"

Figure 109.- Sonic-boom

The
such

sonic

boom,

as airplane

angle

spheric

turbulence,

overpressures

or the overpressures
of attack,

atmospheric

will increase

sectional

area,

decrease

with

will

altitude,

with increasing

decrease

increasing

conditions,

with

Mach

increasing

that

shaped

generation.

cause

them,

cross-sectional

altitude,

are

area,

and terrain.
airplane

pulses

controlled
Mach

As shown
angle
and

of attack
first

by factors

number,

atmo-

in figure
and

increase

110, the

crossand

then

number.
127

1
f

O9

0
Angle

of

Cross-sectional

attack

area

Altitude

Figure
Turbulence
the impact

away
and

travel
from

they

on the

to nothing

the

airplane
ground

Orthogonals
shock

normal

may

and produce

(normal

that

of the flight
the

multiple

the

speed

of sound

in which
will

directly

beneath

waves

locally

-Supersonic
airplane

by

Stratosphere
_/;(_?:S_)_:

_W ropopau

s e t///_i:_:_/(

Boom
on

Troposphere

heard
_

,I

ground

_Maximum
boom

Figure

111.-

Refraction

of shock

waves.

increases

point
the

a superboom.

to

booms

the overpres-

at some

It is interesting

of shock

lessen

overpressures.

cause

path.
set

thus

may

they

is felt

and

waves)

refracted

128

the

the directions

and

boom

concentrate

profile

amplify

profile,

that

sonic
side

"N" wave

and buildings

case

number

overpressures.

in fact

atmospheric

strongest

on either

the

may

111 shows

in this
The

hand,

by terrain

Figure

refracted

sonic-boom

smooth

other

In a normal

altitude.
are

supersonic

intersect

affecting
may

overpressures

the Earth.

decreases

a turning

or,

aftershocks.

with decreasing
sures

boom

of the

post-boom

Factors

in the atmosphere

of the

Reflections

110.-

Mach

curve

airplane
to note
where

that

or

Perhaps

the greatest concern expressed about the sonic boom

public. The effects run from structural damage

is its effecton the

(cracked building plaster and broken

windows) down to heightened tensions and annoyance of the citizenry. For this reason,
the world's airlines have been forbidden to operate supersonically over the continental
United States. This necessitates, for SST operation, that supersonic flightbe limited
to overwater operations. Research for ways in which to reduce the sonic boom
continues.

129

130

VII. BEYOND

THE

SUPERSONIC

Hypersonic
Hypersonic
although

flight

no drastic

magnitude

have

research

been

waves

shocks,
the body

in today's

leading

surfaces

sufficient

the

112 shows

wing

for effective

are

being

ure

113 shows

Although

commercial

ciple

that

the

pulsion

This

Because
tering
landing
ballistic

from

for example,

flight

does

away

the

with

the

normal

of

metals

or methods

wing

that

of the
of sweepback.

is used.

placed

so that

they

if shielded

will be ineffective.

that

exhibited

airplane
control

strong

heating

Otherwise,

they

airplanes

shows

surfaces

cost

with

and safety,

distance.
little

knowledge

much
the

of this

highly

swept

out on the wing

that

The

waves

moving

parts

landing

engine
the

the

studies

design.

Fig-

have
site.

for

that

on the

prin-

combustion

in

designs

to maneuver
reentered
Large

the

an efficient

recognized
crew

works

air

field.

long been

the

realized,
for

Economically,

in this

it has

enable

speeds.

represents

Bodies

over

being

necessary

and

Lifting

Up to now spacecraft
control

ramjet

compress

continuing

would

from

(HST).

at hypersonic

shock

is also

be found

is a long way

engine.

many

NASA research

must

problem

is the ramjet
numbers

a great

entries

to operate.

transport

major

Mach

of the

spacecraft

them

the basic

hypersonic

prospect

method.

part,

degree

design

about

has

they

most

temperature

a high

be strategically

craft

that

the

materials

must

reentry

hypersonic

is another

at high

engine.

most

The

by using

research

angle

Aerodynamic

required.

hypersonic

by NASA to obtain

a proposed

Propulsion
promising

across

flight

NASA X-15

Dynasoar

a high

speeds.

control.

conducted

most

modified

X-20

Secondly,

a flat-plate

fuselage,

two proposed

The

and the

tips

ratio,

pressure

flow by the

philosophy.

delta

lift-drag

dynamic

For

new

of this

at these

the body.

flight

NASA X-15

at such

be reduced

for hypersonic

approaching

Figure

may

and the

back

therefore
are

Mach

speeds

about

hypersonic

effects

To date,

increase.

melt;

beyond

encountered

in nature.

sustained

quickly

wing

a good

trail

temperature

For

would

to obtain

Control

design

problem.

of the airplane

Additionally,

from

a drastic

are

layers

turbulent

this.

and spacecraft

by a body

highly

at speeds

to define

problems

the boundary

the high-temperature

edge

encounter

are

airplanes

can withstand

evident

formidable

undergoes

is a major

are

as flight

only by rockets

with

layers

the air

defined

generated

interact

boundary

used

achieved
Several

the shock
seriously

these

flow changes

airplane.

First,
may

is arbitrarily

Flight

the

pro-

of reencraft

to a

and followed

near

recovery

forces

and
131

Figure 112.- Examples of hypersonic designs.

Figure
operations
been

involved

spacecraft.
because

132

were

usually

in designing
They

of their

113.necessary.
aircraft

are called
body

Proposed

shapes.

lifting

hypersonic

Starting

in the late

that produce
bodies,

transport

more

for they

lift
have

1950's,
than

sport

(HST).
however,
drag

no wings

NASA has

and yet resemble

but obtain

lift

Figure
teristics

114 shows

and flight

the NASA Ames

advantages

The

of the shapes

qualities

of this

Research

of stability

speeds.

four

Center

lifting

10+ and,

top and a flat

a flat

bottom.

pointed

belly.

two since

Rebuilt

with

at Mach

a rounded

The

it now has

handling

in contrast

developed

to the

the

Center

M2 vehicle,

X-24A

is very

it, like

a double-delta

at

at subsonic

Research

although

charac-

and combines

ratios

Langley

Marietta

type

belly

lift-drag

rounded

the

M2 vehicle

a rounded

NASA

Martin

it is more

as the X-24B,

The

with high

trim

sesses

the previous

topped

speeds

by the

optimum

to evaluate

concept.

developed

to provide

from

is flat

tested

body

shaped

shape

unusual

at hypersonic

HL-10

being

is
it pos-

different

the HL-10,

planform

and

in
has

a more

nose.

Northrop

M2-F3

Northrop

HL-

10

Martin

Martin

X-24B

X-24A
J

Figure
The
sonic

lifting

speed

bodies

ranges

of more

advanced

benefiting

from

being

to show

Lifting

flight-tested

how control

vehicles.
this

114.-

are
over

research

is the

Space

cost

method

settled

is shown

rockets

engines

is the actual

Shuttle

represents

of delivering

upon

solid-fuel
stage

Space

in figure

and a large

to complete
part

and

of the

States'

vehicle

into

may

generation

low super-

aid in the

of vehicles

orbit.

to go into

commitment

to and

booster

nonrecoverable

the boost
total

The

ratio

and

landing

primarily

Shuttle

payloads

l15(a).

subsonic

Shuttle.

the United

returning

the

lift-drag

of a new

Space
The

exploring
the

Representative

bodies.

stage

external
The
orbit

from

and

orbit.

consists

fuel
orbiter

to developing

tank
stage

return

The

basic

a lowdesign

of two recoverable
used

by the

shown
to Earth

orbiter

in figure

llS(b)

to a controlled

133

Liquid

fuel

_.-Delta-wing-

orbiter

(a) Space Shuttle.

udder

Cargo bay _

(b) Orbiter.
Figure
landing.

Aerodynamic

mission

when

from

subsonic

ated

with the

staging

The
must

boost

and
landing

hypersonic
landing
capability

about

30 .

range

and

l15(b))

this

2000

km.

This

high

and landing

entire

are

range

some

solid-fuel

is an area
like

uses

a conventional
with this

a double-delta

and

still

orbiter

the

reenters

of attack

part

for
orbiter

Mach

on the

concern.

of the

The
There

has

as well

orbiter
are

vehi-

numerous

mission.

configuration
a good

vehicle,

numbers.

lift-drag

to optimize
ratio

a side-to-side

the atmosphere

is used

associ-

by parachutes,

airplane.

wing

provide

capability,

angle

of great

acting

of the

numbers

problems

pressures
boosters

stages

of Mach

unique

both at low and high

associated

The

boost

of dynamic

of the

land

lift-drag

designs.

the

The

There

mission

characteristics

of about
-

of the

problems

(fig.

With

evident.

considerations

research

phase.

recovery

to deorbit

flight

as the

Shuttle

about

is covered.

the

phase

orbiter

are

such

control

be able

The

134

phase

Space

is centered

pressures

to supersonic

aerodynamic

attack

dynamic

aerodynamics,

as stability

cle

interest

115.-

to concentrate

in the
range

at a high
the

the

angle

maximum

of

aerodynamic
tection

heating

on the underside

is provided.

a reaction

control

control

yaw)

and

become

effective.

In the
system,
elevons

is deployed

challenge

to aerodynamic
into

(combined

to slow

the unknowns

reaches

but as the

On landing,

parachute
further

upper

of the vehicle

the
the

research

elevators
rudder

pressure
and

splits

attitude

builds,

ailerons

to control

to come

The Space

thermal

Shuttle

and is a stimulus

pro-

is controlled

the vertical

open to act as a speed

to a stop.

for years

of high-speed

the greatest

of the atmosphere,

dynamic

orbiter

where

pitch

by

tail

(to

and

roll)

brake

and a

represents
for

probing

flight.

135

136

VIII. PERFORMANCE
In the earlier discussions, the conceptsof lift anddrag were explored extensively
to discover howthese forces arise. With these basic ideas in mind, it is relatively
easy to follow the results of the application of the fundamentalforces on a complete
airplane.
As indicated earlier, there are four basic forces that act on an airplane - these
include lift, drag, weight, andthrust. Additionally, in curved flight another force, the
centrifugal force, appears. Performance, to be consideredfirst, is basically the
effects that the application of these forces have on the flight path of the airplane. Stability and control, considered later, is the effect that these forces have over a short
term on the attitude of the airplane itself. For performance purposes the airplane is
assumedto possessstability and a workable control system.
Motions of an Airplane
Figure 116illustrates the various flight conditions encounteredby an airplane.
All the motions may be groupedinto oneof three classes: (1) unacceleratedlinear
flight, (2) accelerated and/or curved flight, and (3) hovering flight.
Performance of an airplane is a very broad subject and much could be written on
it alone. In the interest of brevity, therefore, only the simplest, but probably the
most important, aspects of airplane flight are considered.
Class 1 Motion
Straight
flight

may

and

occur

it is usually
dition

been

Figure

altitude,

The
weight.
ities

to the
along

the

this

combining

system

seen

thrust

must

it with

surface

that

plane.
lift

equal

must

the
the

plane

this
may

condition

in the

for

design

and

simplicity

equal

weight.

and

important

of an airplane.

level

level
since

This

con-

flight

path

will be made.
flight.

it is assumed

the flight

straight

it is very

comments

straight

For

Although

flight,

additional

and for

The
that

to be horizontal,

tile thrust
or constant

To fly at constant

velocity

(unac-

the drag.

of the airplane

examines

which

condition

the

force

flight).-

of the total

but some

horizontal

(cruise

section

on before

Earth's

velocity
If one

over

a small

flight

the standard

touched

it is easily

celerated)

over

117 shows

is horizontal
acts

only

unaccelerated

considered

has

always

level

must

be sufficient

statement

closely,

fly straight
that

Lift

to produce

it says

and level.
= Weight,

that

there

Expanding
one

a lift

equivalent

is a range
equation

to the
of veloc-

(25) and

obtains

137

1
Weight = _ p_V_2CL
If it is assumed
one

easily

decreases,
Minimum
CL,max,
flight
a small

observes
which
flying
that

that
may

speed

is,

is limited
value

that

near
by the

of

CL

(36)

the weight,

air

as the velocity

be accomplished
for

straight

the stall
thrust

V_

available
a small

p_,

The

and

increases,

by a decrease

and level

angle.

and hence

density

flight

occurs

wing

when

flying

the engine.

angle

area

the wing
in the

maximum

from

wing

the wing
for

condition

Maneuver
(or combat)

Descent
turn

_Unaccelerated,
[III]ffm]Accelerated

Figure

138

116.-

Airplane

flight

flight

direction
linear

and/or

conditions.

flight
curved

CL

is operating

straight

of attack.

Indicates

constant,

of attack.

Maneuver
(or combat)

_lP

are

lift coefficient
angle

speed

This

flight

also

and
requires

at
level

In conclusion, at low speedsto fly straight andlevel the airplane angle of attack
is large (fig. l18(a)) whereas
for high speeds
the airplane
angle of attack
is small
(fig.

118(b)).

Lift

Thrust
Flight

F-106

path

horizontal
to ground

Figure

117.-

Weight

Straight

and level

flight.

Lift

Low

(a) Straight

Need
to

less

angle

generate

Horizontal

level

Flight

path

Figure

dive.
flight

It has
path.

118.-

unaccelerated

systems
been
The

Speed

ascent

for the

cases

assumed

that

climb

speed

lift

(b) Straight

the force

= Drag.

low speed.

High

Straight,

Thrust

of attack

same

and

= Weight;

or descent

and

level

high speed.

effects

on straight

and level

(climb)

or descent

(dive).-

of an airplane
the

speed

thrust
angle

in a straight,

line
is given

lies
by

along
+_

flight.

Figure

119 illustrates

constant-velocity
the

free-stream

or

->,, respectively.

climb
direction

or
or

If the

139

+ y

(Horizontal

Weight

t
(a) Climb,

unaccelerated.

J
J

Horizontal

(b) Dive,
Figure
forces

are

summed

weight

force

parallel

is resolved
L=W

119.and

unaccelerated.

Unaccelerated
perpendicular

ascent

to the flight

into two components.

cos

y=

W cos

and

One

descent.
path,

To maintain
weight
maintain

weight
for
140

a straight

perpendicular

(-y)

climbing

velocity

the forward
component

constant

(-y) =D-

to the

a constant

retarding

sin

along

velocity.

motion
the

flight
the

path
thrust

of the
flight

(eq.
must

airplane.

path

helps

the

(Climb or dive)

(37)

(Climb)

(38)

(Dive)

W siny

(or diving)

that

obtains

T = D + W sin y
T =D +W

it is seen

flight
(37)).
equal

path,

the

In the
the

In the
the thrust

lift

case

drag
case

equals
of the

plus

the

component

of

climb

condition

to

a weight

of the dive

by reducing

(39)

the

component

condition

the

drag

component

The conclusion
velocity
ation
from
the

and

use

of a car

where

slowing
car

less

sin
Lift

_, = 0

(39).
and

= Weight

_, = 90 , and
vertically
tical

climb,

thrust

to dive

in going

speeding

It is interesting
(38), and

one

one must

down

from

is that

First,
cos

is equal

This

the

lift

Horizontal

equals

yields

the

drag

cos

plus

zero

the

flight,

at constant

is analogous

thrust)

gas"

cases
the

previously
(T = D).

y = 0.

Thus,

airplane

weight

This

condition

(L = 0).

This
more

up on the

special

= Drag

and

(apply

to climb

to the

to prevent

(use

less

of the

use

thrust)

situ-

the

car

to prevent

a hill.

three
level

Thrust

sin _, = 1

"let

and

thrust

velocity.

gas"

down

to examine

_, = 1.

to the

and

going

in straight

an increased

it the

up a hill

(L = W) and
hence

use

at constant

"give

up when
also

must

climb

angle

derived
Secondly

of equations

V is zero,

conditions
in a vertical

the thrust

necessary

(T = D + W).
is shown

Also,

in figure

(37),
hence

that
climb
to climb
for a ver119(c).

= 90

Thru

Weight

Drag_

(c) Unaccelerated
Figure

119.-

vertical

climb.

Concluded.

141

The
equals

final

zero.

lift and

condition

to be discussed

It is therefore

drag

with the

simplified.

is gliding

necessary

to balance

Equation

weight.

flight.

In gliding

flight

the aerodynamic

(37) remains

unchanged

the thrust

reaction

forces

but equation

of

(39) is

In a glide
L = W cos

(40)

yg

(41)

D = W sin Vg
as shown

in figure

L _
D

If one

120(a).

tan

drag

ratio

is a measure

sess

the greatest

to keep

the

lift-drag

ratio

range.

glide

angle

pilot

to raise

range

ratios

them

aloft.
with the

of the flight

is a maximum.

maximum

For

This

but unless

this

excellent

For

a particular

angle

smallest

the result

is then

the

is

of attack,

a steeper

glide

(increase

the

of the

airplane.

the

maximum

lift-drag

angle
for

of attack

posrely

on

120(b),

to try

the descent

for which

glide

is less

It is a natural

ratio,

they

in figure

minimum
ratio

of attack)

lift-

(not to be confused

the lift-drag
results.

since

as shown

of attack

The

Sailplanes

design

of the airplane

angle

and hence

is the maximum.

is a particular

angle

angle,

ratio

airplane,

of attack
There

glide

aerodynamic

nose

gives

the

efficiency

with

angle

hence,

airplane

that

the lift-drag

path).

any other

is increased;
the

when

of the aerodynamic

varies

angle

this means

is obtained

lift-drag

currents

ratio

language

range,

air

this

(41),

_g

gliding

glide

(40) by equation

(42)

maximum

the

equation

In nonmathematical

with

divides

angle

and the

tendency

to get

and

for

maximum

will be steeper

instead.

Class
Class
cases

2 accelerated

of take-off,

landing,

Take-off.the

instant

leaving

(50-ft)

142

obstacle.

may

transition

the

and

curved

begins

its take-off
continuous

be considered
distance,

flight

is considered,

constant-altitude

of an airplane

it is under

needed
(2) the

and

take-off

airplane

the ground,

off distance
distance,

the

The

motion

2 Motion

to the

of accelerated
time

acceleration.
to consist

and

(3) the

for the

banked.turn.

is a case
roll

specifically

of three
climbout

it begins
(See fig.
parts:
distance

motion.
its

From

climbout

121.)

The

(1) the

ground-roll

over,

say,

total

after
take-

a 15.25-m

Lift

Flight

'L

path

Weight

cos

_,g

W sin _,g

(a) Unaeeelerated

glide

conditions.

12.0

3O

_or%_=_u_=_e
p_

--.4

_Jl _

r_

o_ 2O

0
0

_ 10

-4

I'
4
u,

(b)

Glide

Figure

J
8

angle

J
12

a,,
16

20

24

-'JO

28

of attack

aerodynamic

120.-

Glide

characteristics.

characteristics.

143

Figure
Figure
weight,
sum
the

122 shows

drag,

of the

(about

attack,
friction

pressure

(thrust
build.

the

the

lift quickly

forces

drop

as the landing

gear

stall

velocity,

the

nary

equations

for

the

the

frictional

force

is equal

to zero

(eqs.

to the

landing

net force

acting

due

to the

of the

ground

retarding

force),

in a horizontal
stall
up.

velocity
The

weight,

its

(37) and

(38))

Acting

safety)

the airplane
airplane's

usually
apply

increases
some

decreases

_Rolling

velocity.

The

ordi-

SA.AB

A-37

Viggen

II/I/I/I11
resistance

Weight

Figure

144

122.-

Forces

acting

during

take-off

greatly
the

//11

Rollins

Rolling

above

////

resistance

point
of

20 percent

case.

lift

velocity

Z'-_
///I/

and

the ground.

drag

are

the net

angle

//"

,,,,t

drag

at which

at constant

to accelerate

is reached

about

in this

The

the airplane
leaves

total

gear.

under

until

increases

to thrust,

lift and

the velocity

end of transition,

climbout

roll,

attitude
for

pitch

and

and the

At the

begins

In addition

total

at liftoff,

is retracted.

roll.

no winds).

airplane

the

ground

(assuming

remains

exceeds

climb

during

distance.

zero

or pitched

airplane

take-off

At the beginning

airplane

above

acting

direction

is still

is "rotated"

Total

is a rolling

exceeding

The

10 percent

airplane

there

the runway.

as dynamic

and drag

the forces

in a horizontal

down

acceleration

the

lift,

forces

airplane

zero

and

121.-

ground

roll.

The
roll

total

distance

is important

Additionally,
aborted

the

The

drag

and

pilot

take-off

distance
there

retard

use

rocket-assisted

a transitory
periods.

airplane's
will

Landing.vertical

an airplane

will

touchdown

and

Under
and

that

they

are

the

The

not be considered,

ground

conditions

lift equals

the weight.

advantageously

maximum

lift

take-off

may

be

high lift
to increased

an optimum

These

form

setting

may

units

acceleration
the

flap

airplanes

also

represent

for

short

of a catapult,

or two.
down

phase

at the lowest

and its

the two terminal

possible

associated

phases,

techniques

namely,

the

rollout.

touchdown

used

takes

of touching

but only

the

of its

purposes.

contribute

Some

of high

of a second

approach

start

design

and other

also

distance.

method

consists

velocities.

of flaps

is usually

a means

in a matter

which

distance.

minimum

this

for

the

to a stop.

they

There

provide

carrier,

is achieved

and horizontal

to a landing

the

an aircraft

from

since

take-off

off in the

and

speed

use

from

required

by the use

to their

the

to take

m (50 ft)

for deceleration

acceleration.

in thrust

Landing

maximum

exists

minimize

units

speed

the

15.25

of runway

may be reduced

the

On board
flying

know

is a limit

which

increase

to clear

the amount

runway

However,

an airplane

where

should

sufficient

for

the airplane

and determines

so that

devices.

for

it is assumed
The

previous

to decrease

coefficient

that

the

discussion

the landing

and decrease

the

vertical

velocity

about

velocity.

landing

is near

flaps

indicates

Indeed,

velocity

zero

they

as indicated

that

increase
by equa-

(35).

tion

Figure
They

are

The

rolling

dition

123 presents

the

same

This

near

lift

thrust

negative.
thrust

the

This

drag

ure

therefore,

stop.

Another

which

is opened

mechanical
across
to large

may

more

flight

structural

ground

roll

braking

deck.

Deceleration

applied.

For

normal

reversible

landing

the thrust

deceleration
used

acting

is exceedingly

maximum

carriers,

on the

force

the

airplane
swift

drag.

and

airplanes,

is the

The
fig-

it to a

parachute

landing

brake

a cable

the airplane

is

or

From

to slow

engaging

the

The

is retarding.

usual

con-

to "dump"

propellers

airplane

airplanes

this

is increased.

pitch

on the

by military

aircraft
hook

for

direction.

touchdown.

and military

by using

the flaps

used

after

force

rollout.

operation

are

air

commercial

and

safe

into the

as the

the landing

magnitude

on the wings

by setting

On board

their

Spoilers

for large

device

during

rebounding

during

of the arresting

for

are

friction

usually

is a net

at touchdown.
form

from

rolling

be increased

favorite

except

is accomplished

there

in the

the

or,

on an airplane

as the brakes

airplane

the

For

airplane
123,

the

condition

reversers.

acting

end of the rollout.

increases
is zero

forces

the take-off

is greater

to prevent

condition

engine

as during

friction

occurs

airplane

the

is

laid

is subjected

forces.

145

Rolling

resistance

and

brakes

Rolling

resistance

and

brakes

Weight

Constant-altitude
plane

are

cases

in a straight

include

One

of the

altitude

the

basic

In the

line.

previous

in that

same

line

path

force,

is proportional

By Newton's

third

force,

the

called

law

that

tight

turns.

horizontal

reaction

lift

must

146

flight

paths.

These

in combat

and aerobatics.

heading

is the constant-

flight-path

of an airplane,

an acceleration

law

the force

line

force.

due to a

acquire
will

be supplied

toward
this,

required

to maintain

the

centrifugal

force

sig-

continue

in

opposite

is given

an air-

the center

to perform

by the body,

added

To maintain

required

force

The

they

in a straight

by an external

that

is a reactive

accelerations

But in a turn

in motion

upon

force.

the

entering

turn

are

banked
wings
that

force.

occur

Thus,

a banked

curved

massive

called

of

centrip-

curved
the

flight.

centripetal

by:

also.

flight

must

airplane

From

to the

When

horizontal.

component
path.
turn

This

equation

at high

executed

resolved

in the

this

airplanes

in a properly

a constant-altitude
lift

of the

path.

it is the horizontal

the total
turn.

for

at an angle
to bank

velocity
flight

of forces

the

For

is the

or curved

disposition

to maintain

weight.

Voo

forces

it is seen

needed

the

of the

lift on the

centrifugal
equal

a body

of the airplane,

the wings

resultant

when

of curved

of an air-

(43)

124 shows

force

the

116, not all motions

maneuvers
the

to the acceleration

centrifugal

components,

centripetal

turns,

to change

acted

second

is the radius

that

the

unless

there

mass

the highest

Figure

causes

landing.

mVoo 2
R

is the

particularly

cases

insignificant.

law,

centrifugal

FC -

sees

after

in figure

ample

of motions

were

requires

etal

and

required

first

By Newton's

curve,

are

and descending

discussions

curve.

acting

As shown

There

of flight

the

where

Forces

turn.

in a curved

altitude

turn.-

By Newton's

motion
plane

banked

climbing

of direction

nificance.

123.-

maneuvers

banked

change

Figure

speeds

turn.
This

into vertical
of lift

one

that

in

Notice
angle
and
is the

force

is balanced

by

the vertical

component

of

be increased

to maintain

constant

I
] Vertical
compone,_t
i
of lift

I
i
I

I
[
I
$

I
i
Lift

I
I
I

I
I
I

t
I
Horizontall
component
of lift

I
Centrifugal
force

Weight

Figure

124.-

Forces

in a properly
Horizontal

The
the

smaller

the

angle

must

be.

to hold

the

airplane

banking

component

turning

radius
This

flight.

has

In hovering

sphere.
whole,
and

3 motion

As
that

such,
is,

weight,

no

must

Thrust
By
vertically

properly
as

shown

flight
this
lift
be

been

and

drag

balanced

or

is

required
turn.

is

in no

motion

greater

the

to produce

of the

= Weight;

in a turn,
enough

condition;

aircraft

with

reaction

in figure

velocity

a large

flight

In equilibrium,

shown

lift

the

horizontal

in figure

lift

125.

of the

remaining

Hence,

of hovering

respect

forces
the

that

for

to the

atmo-

aircraft

on

forces,
hovering

the

thrust
flight,

= Weight
controlling

larger

Flight

aerodynamic

forces.
as

the

to a special

no

Vertical
force.

3 Motion-Hovering

assigned

there
results

is

turn.

= Centrifugal

in the

Class
Class

banked

lift

(44)
the

thrust,

the

126.

The

chief

aircraft
advantage

may

be

of such

made

to rise

aircraft

and

is their

descend
ability

147

/
Thrust

of engines

Weight

Figure

125.-

Hovering

flight.

of

airplane

Thrust

= Weight.

Thrust

Thrust

Weight

Thrust
Vehicle

> weight
rises

Weight

Thrusq
Vehich

Figure

148

126.-

VTOL

ascent

and

descent.

< weight
descends

to land and take-off in small spaceswithout the use of long runways. Sincethey land
andtake-off vertically they are called VTOL aircraft. They have the addeddistinction
of being able to perform at high speedsas a conventionalairplane in flight. This is
why helicopters, althoughcapableof hovering flight, are usually not included in this
grouping. They are, at present, incapable of the speedsandmaneuvers of conventional
airplanes.
The first conceptsto be tried were three "tail sitting" airplanes, the Lockheed
XFV-1, the Convair XFY-1, and the RyanX-13 Vertijet
as shown in figure
127.
The
first

two used

thrust

needed

VTOL

airplanes

turboprop-powered

landing

and the

concept

tried

the

wing

whereas

the X-13

were

the tricky

engines

conventional

For

simplicity
present-day

down

four

main
such

to use

level

flight.

rotating

flight

Lockheed

exhaust

behind

nozzles

as shown

is supplied

XFV-

body

over

required
into

vertical

with these

in the

conventional

take-off

The

and

flight.

in a conventional

to the horizontal.

separate

powerplants

But this

added

This
are

used

in figure

127.-

uses

The

sense

next

but tilt

LTV-Hiller-Ryan

XFY-

Early

to each

Harrier

(fig.

the concept
the

Control

in the wing

take-off

and

flight

regime.

128(b))

exhaust

tips,

is one

of "vectored
from

at low flight

VTOL

vertical

weight

to deflect

128(c).
jets

for

dead

Siddeley
plane

Convair

Figure

problems

main

the

an aircraft.

by reaction

The

of the aircraft

the Hawker

aircraft.

to supply

maneuvering

aircraft

the vertical
was

propellers

jet powered.

piloting

and efficiency,

to directly

in hovering

the

was

VTOL

was

the entire

from
128(a)

concept

best
where

to tilt

to keep

in figure

Another
ing and

need

was

and

XC-142A

contrarotating

nose,

Ryan

and

land-

of the

thrust"
vertically

velocities

and

tail.

X- 13 Vertijet

airplanes.
149

Wing.
tilts
down

(a) XC- 142A.

(b) Harrier

GR MKI.

Forward

Transition

Hover

(c) Example
Figure

150

128.-

flight.

VTOL

concepts.

flight

IX. STABILITY

The
chapters

subject
been

acting

of stability

kept

this

control

CONTROL

of an airplane

has

in the

background

so as not to complicate

and

the related

performance

on an airplane

consider

and

AND

subject

in view

of the presented

throughout
the

the

study

considerations.

previous

of the forces

It remains

now to

material.

Stability
Simply
scribed

defined,

flight

conditions.

all

condition.
The

For

equals

subject

the drag,

on it must

as in figure

and there

are

of it, of an airplane

of a pilot

is considered

to be in equilibrium

and level

or lack

is the ability

of stability

and moments

straight

is the tendency,

Control

an airplane

the forces

flying

stability

to change

be zero.

For
Then

no net rotating

the airplane's

flight

first.

for a particular

129(a).

to fly a pre-

flight

example,

the

condition,
consider

lift equals

moments

acting

the

of

an airplane

the weight,

on it.

sum

the

thrust

It is in

equilibrium.
Now,

if the airplane

is disturbed,

noses

up slightly

(angle

If the

new forces

and moments,

tendency

to nose

diverge

from

to hold
fig.

129(c).)

tion,

up still

that

tend

to bring

initially

of motion

and

level

that

the airplane

after
(fig.

An airplane
control

by working

to do this.
statically
necessary

unstable
may
the

An airplane
and

increase,

produce

is statically

unstable

and its

If the initial

tendency

of the airplane

has

neutral

forces
to its

static

and

stability.

moments

equilibrium

is statically

nose

return

130(a).)

This

are

straight

The
case,
(fig.

of this
stable

stable,

motion

will
is

(See
generated

by the

and level

airplane

noseup,

condi-

of decaying

is said
nose

condition

oscillatory

continue
to have

up and down

three

overshoot

equilibrium

Or it may

it may

it may undergo

overshoot,

former

type

stable.

elevators

to change

down,

to its

of straight

motion

to nose

up and

neutral

dynamic

with

to a

increasing

indicates
down

there-

stability
magnitude

130(c)).

be dynamically

dynamically

except

in equilibrium.

airplane

it back

It may

amplitude.
in the worst

and be dynamically

and

129(b).)

if restoring

is dynamically

or,

is no longer

by the angle-of-attack

the airplane

eventually

(See fig.

at a constant
130(b))

that

and

flight.

turbulence,

stable.

with time.

degree,

by atmospheric

the airplane

the airplane

hand,

If it is assumed

smaller

the

(See fig.

On the other

it is statically

forms

caused

position,

example,

increases),

further,

equilibrium.

the disturbed

airplane

of attack

for

unstable

in this
design

last

has

poor

can be flown

the equilibrium

and
instance.
flying
"hands

flight

still

be flyable
But,

qualities.

if the

ideally,

pilot

he should

An airplane

off" by a pilot

uses
not need
which

is

with no control

condition.
151

Lift
= weight
Thrust
= drag
No net moments
--

--

n_=======dm_

....

(a) Equilibrium

flight.

lq _

Statically
unstable
divergent

Equilibrium
Disturbed
moments
increase
disturbed
condition

(b) Statically

unstable

airplane.
No

moments
- airplane
holds
disturbed

condition

Disturbed

Equilibrium

(c) Neutral
Figure

static

129.-

Statically
to return

stability.

Static

stable,
airplane

stability.

dynamically
to equilibrium

stable
moments
- oscillations

tend
decay

Equilibrium

(a) Statically
Moments
tend
but oscillations

and dynamically

to return
do not

airplane
decay

to equilibrium

.... ......"t-5-----'')----

Equilibrium

(b) Statically

stable;

Moments
but

tend

neutral

towards

oscillations

Equilibrium

are

dynamic

stable;

stability.

equilibrium

divergent

"_/

(c) Statically

\\_/

dynamically

Figure 130.- Dynamic

152

stable.

unstable.

stability.

Longitudinal
motion,

stability

lateral

stability

and

and

control

control

relates

tional

stability

and

control

relates

tional

stability

are

closely

interrelated

referred

to as lateral
Longitudinal

of lateral

is concerned

with

an airplane's

to an airplane's

to an airplane's
and,

rolling

yawing

therefore,

motion.

the two are

pitching
motion,

and direc-

Lateral

and

sometimes

direcsimply

stability.

stability.-

and directional

Since

longitudinal

stability,

stability

it is discussed

can be considered

first.

Consider

med" to fly at some angle of attack,

_trim"
This statement
in equilibrium
and there
are no moments
tending
to pitch the

independent

an airplane

"trim-

says that the airplane

is
airplane
about its center

of gravity.
Figure
forces

131(a)

acting

are

shows
the

how pitch

weight

through

dynamic

center,

and the

thrust

airplane

usually

is very

close

example

it lies

above
ter

or below

of gravity

It is seen
whereas
the

in this
the

needed

center

shown

in figure

"trimmed"

thrust

line.

aerodynamic

and thrust

a nose-up

tail.

are

to the

needed.

The

13 l(b).

both contribute
If these

It is evident

horizontal

tail

control.

total

that

acts

equilibrium
moment

cen-

of gravity.

each

wing

other

source

and the

tail,

only

the balancing

is

arm

can
from

relatively
moment

the

the airplane

out,

pilot

long moment

condition,

about

the

moments

moment

of the

lie

about

nose-down

as a small

supplies

may

and the center

another

of the
In this

line

moments

of the horizontal
tail

alone.

do not cancel

Because

center

To fly in a particular
The

them

at the aero-

center

thrust

The

between

the horizontal

angle.

The

above.

moment.

aerodynamic
Thus,

case,

The

lift and drag

of the wing

of gravity.

the distance

the lift

The

center

center

in this

lift by elevator

to a particular

as

elevator
center

is

of

is zero.
If the

airplane

the trim

to the

is statically

angle

equilibrium

of attack,
atrim.

stable
moments

against

the

angle

negative

moments

moments

rotate

of attack.
rotate
the

Now the curve

different

nose

are

the

nose

up for

of the

down

angles

generated
to express

the center
statically

Of course,

of figure

components

in a longitudinal

It is customary

as a coefficient
of moment
about
Figure
132 shows the longitudinal

the

the

not be in equilibrium.

of gravity

forces

the

the

times

contributes

or negative

small

from

that

the horizontal
lift

gravity

case

of gravity,

to the aerodynamic
above

for an airplane.

center

of gravity;

forces

is achieved

the

along

of and

center
the

drag
will

achieve

the
are

airplane

the

in back

equilibrium

that
the

tend

then

if disturbed

to return

moment

the

away
airplane

nondimensionally

of gravity,
or
(Cm)cg.
(See eq. (27).)
stable
case of the moments
plotted

there
for

is no moment
angles

below

132 is a composite
airplane,

sense,

of attack

at the trim
above

angle

of attack;

atrim'

and positive

curves

caused

atrim"
of all the

for example,

moment

the wing,

fuselage,

tail,

by

and

153

k
Thrust

LLift

I ]

momj

Thrust

oment
Drag

Weight

moment

(a) Net

moment

pitches

for

Tail

moment

= Resultant

tail

of thrust,

and

drag

thrust.

Figure

First,

the

stability
ure

horizontal

134, if the

is moved

(point

C in fig.

neutrally

of point

has

A), the pilot

tail

the

range

of gravity

a great

static

are

effect

stability.

of the aerodynamic
If the

sufficiently,

there

is a point,

curve

is moved

and the

is moved

maximum

becomes

airplane

forward

to generate
lift
large

the

back

on the static

neutral
this

(point

toward

enough

135(a)).

the nose

force
With
There

are,

of the

point

airplane

is

D in fig.

134)

unstable.
too far

on the tail
power

in fig=

center

of gravity

is longitudinally

coefficient.
(fig.

center

horizontal;

further

important.

As shown

forward

slope,

is relatively

has

facts

stable.

not be able
the

fundamental

airplane

of gravity

of gravity

to achieve

Some

is statically

moment

positive

will

equilibrium.

is sufficiently

center

if the center

center=of=gravity

154

where

If the

curve

of attack

the

--I

lift,

Pitch

the entire

of gravity

toward

131.-

of the center

the airplane

134),

stable.

moment

Likewise,

angle

center

force

condition.

qualitatively.

and hence,

A or B), then

airplane

this

position

of the wing,

(points

the

133 shows

down.

moments

(b) Equilibrium
Figure

airplane

(forward

to raise

off the usable

however,

the

_9
Positive

moments,

_< _trim

b_

i
Zero

moments,

_ I" _trim

Angle

of attack, ot

,4

atrim
_9

Negative

moments,

a > atrim

i
0

E
&
C9

Figure 132.- Longitudinal staticstabilitymoments

as a functionof angle of attack.

_\_

,,++

.+oo

h_

\ \

_,o,,__ae_t_O

c9

i
0

__"

Angle of attack

_9

trim--'

O
I
h_

_\_

Complete
\_

_tatically

airplane
stable)

\
\
\

Figure

133.-

Longitudinal

static

stability

components.
155

Destabilizing

monmnts

/--->
+

Center

i,J

O
v

of gravity

at D

_9
%

Neutral

/_

Angle

of attack,

o,

Stable
(equilibrium)
condition

_9

_,_
_b_Bl_)

Center

factors

engine-on

thrust

considerations)
airplane

loaded.

For

example,

airplane

was

loaded

side

the

range

the

center
The

airplane
plane

gravity

static

156

ground

the

effects

there
or the

135(b).

usable

are
cargo

The

that

an airplane

in flight

factor

horizontal

tail

controllable

curve.

of gravity

static
with

By design
stability.

The

of the airplane).
further
of the

away

as close

with respect

so that

from

wake

tail

of gravity

designed

and

because

center

of gravity

unstable.

The

contributor

give
case,

the

center

The

tail

its

a more
that

the
fell

out-

location

of

to the

of gravity
efficiency

efficiency

the downwash

complete

statically

the

distance

and slipstream

tail,

and other

airplane.

will

normal

include

center

crashing

the

moment

to 100 percent
to the

the actual

became

Of course,

airplane.

to the airplane

it is made
Finally,

as is the

flaps,

is carefully

in a stable

horizontal

(assuming,

stability
respect

main

A larger

tail

is important.
the

is the

These

gear,

airplanes

then

stability.

range.

To insure

airplane

Positions
ol
center
of gravity

static

landing

of transport

shifted

limits.

(including

range,

cases

center-of-gravity

is an important

location

effects.

the usable

and unstable

of gravity

center

enhances

neutral,

in figure

within

of usable

a smaller

aft of the

tail

falls

moment
than

and

as shown

of the

Stable,

reduce

effects

at A

Neu!ral

nloments

134.-

which

of gravity

Destabilizing

additional

at B

,e,

_///

Figure

"

from
it is,

factor
of the

stable

horizontal

tail

the

center

the

more

depends

engine,

the

of
it

on the

and power

as possible
from

airlies

wing

for most
is of

Unstable;
_off

<
_-Center
xx nmst

of gravity
between

lie

these

limits

(a)

Ground

Unstable
power

on

7.

mal_

Center
must
these

,,iq_

of gravity
lie between
limits

(b)

Figure
considerable

importance.

it leaves

a wing.

deflected

air

turbed,

it will

degree

to which

the

stability

vertical

location

figure

and hits

angle

that

For

shows

range.

how the

results

in the

air

and the

affects
this

it is exposed

the

reason,

is deflected

wing

the horizontal-tail

of attack

directly

airplane.

such

of air

center-of-gravity

reaction

plane.

downwash
tail

to as little

If the

angle

effectiveness.

the horizontal

tail

downwash

force

also

downward

when

or lift.

This

airplane

is dis-

changes.

The

Hence,

it will

reduce

is often

located

in a

as possible,

as shown

in

136(b).
Dynamic

airplane.
]ect

its

it changes

of the

136(a)

deflection

rearward

change

Usable

Figure

This

flows

135.-

Again,

in detail.

interest

longitudinal

with

this

is a very

Basically,
regard

stability

there

to an airplane

is concerned

broad
are

subject
two primary

attempting

with the
and no attempt

motion

forms
to return

of a statically

is made

to treat

of longitudinal
to an equilibrium

stable
this

oscillations

subof

trimmed

157

Lift

(a) Downwash

Downwash
angle
at tail

of wing.

Horizoa_
F- 101A

,_

li

Downwash

(b) High
Figure

flight

condition

tion which

after

being

is a long

fig.

137(a).)

can

control

the

drag

this

is.

as shown

it is poorly

oscillation

The

effort.

pilot

attempts

time

where

he may

instability

that

oscillation

occurs

"out

if the

and is influenced

by the

the

may

airplane

plane

that

occur.
Insofar

aerodynamic
condition
under"

158

Proper

elevator

increases

of the

and be extremely

short

with

are

stable

period,

the

because

free.

This
main

if a coupling

damped

pilot

of the

angle

may

pilot's

induce
type

effect

free

if a

reaction
dynamical

of short

"porpoising"

is vertical
the

with no

slow

A second
the

of attack

worsen

and thus,

is called

generally
the greater

quickly

oscillation
of the

between

(See

it is,

out very

forces.

The

term
mode,

accelerations
elevator

of

and air-

here.

effects

are

concerned,

as the airplane
stability

damps

the oscillation,

left

is essential

the static

highly

of oscilla-

path.
The

variation

oscillation

balance.

wing

more

to destructive

out of hand

design

the

mode

flight

can be an annoyance.

of a control

lead

as compressibility
center

this

of phase"

elevators

get

and

its natural

eventually

is the phugoid

is a short-period

it out by use

get

may

form

on tail.

of the airplane's

although

Usually,

with

to damp

damped

effects

first

oscillation

oscillation

137(b).

However,

The

himself

second

in figure

pilot

slow

tail.

Downwash

disturbed.

period,

Often,

136.-

horizontal

to such

in a steep

dive.

goes

the rearward
supersonic

an extent

that

the

movement

is most

evident.

airplane

may

of the
This
"tuck

Slow
Axis
remains
to

of

ris("

airplane
tamgent

flight

_111(1 fall

and

of

elmnging

:lJl'p|alle

spevds

Minimum

speed

path

_I _lx i tl/tl

(a) Phugoid

nl

speed

longitudinal

oscillation.

Short
period
anglt,-of-attaek
variation

(b) Short-period
Figure

This
answer

condition

to this

goes

moment

due

to lift

advantage
The

would

and the

strong

viding

trim
When

Figure

at supersonic

turned

downward

apply

so that
bility,

yaw

negative

yawing

vious

condition

it has

neutral
further

shows
observes

the

moment

generated

is shown

in figure

directional
away

the variation
a positively

from

"tuck

nose-up

arrangement

has

an

is beneficial.

The

at supersonic

speeds,

(flaps)

at low speeds

by pro-

to trail

in the free

under."

Additionally,

stream

at

should

ideas

involving

by convention,
a negative

139(b).

equilibrium,

the

of canards
the wing

139(a).

coefficient
as a directionally

condition,
To have

if the

for
tips

staare

sideslip

holds

is to increase
is directionally
with

sideslip

stable

an airplane

flies

directional

sta-

is disturbed

sideslip
angle

stability

static

airplane

a positive

If the airplane
tendency
airplane

longitudinal

equilibrium

be generated

for

a pair

forward.

in figure

If the

line

config-

center

It has

center

stability.

sloping

wing

an additional

control

XB-70.

In the usual

of yawing-moment

for

aerodynamic

of the basic

or alternatively

of fuel

drag.

as shown

moment

double-delta

This

can be allowed

the aerodynamic

is zero

tailplane

American

Many

range.

One

by a transfer

to develop

high lift devices

canard

North

the

SST.

lift.

of the

from

stability.

yawing

angle

shift

to prevent

stability.-

a positive

airplane

to the

rearward

include

of the airplane

minimum

to keep

solutions

oscillations.

regard

of gravity

and a rear

moments

speeds

with

and supersonic

for trim

the

center

to the

not used,

the yaw angle

nose

rearward

to directional

negative

tion,

transonic

generate

Directional
also

in the

138 shows

bility

the

oscillation.
longitudinal

previously

Other

at the

the

of dynamic

discussed

placed

nose-down
also

types

is to move

of a canard

uplift.
lift and

been

of contributing

use

canard

Two

supersonic.

or canards

added

zero

has

problem

as the airplane
uration

137.-

longitudinal

angle

excursion.
its disturbed
the

/3 and a
The

Here,

pre-

position,

disturbed

unstable.
angle.

to a

posiFigure

140

one

case.

159

Canards

Folded
down
wing tips

Figure

(a) Equilibrium

138.-

XB-70

airplane.

condition

of zero

yaw.

Figure 139.- Staticdirectional stability.

160

\ (+)
Sideslip
angle
Positive

yawing

moment

tends

decrease
disturbance

to

sideslip

\
(b) Sideslip
Figure

disturbance.

139.-

Concluded.

()

Sideslip

Positive

a_

remSt
mreing

()

&

(-)

Sideslip

angle

s
/_Negatlve
/

J
restoring

(-)

o
Sideslip

Figure

140.-

Directional

() ._,,.
angle

stability

curve.

161

The

fuselage

directional

and the vertical

tail

As figure

141 shows,

stability.

t.ion at a sideslip

angle

tends

the

to increase

component

of static

sideslip
arm

disturbance;

of gravity

stabilizing

moment
size

that

dition.

The

quately

covered

usually

has

a low aspect

results

and

a catastrophic

here.

of a dorsal

at large

sideslip

effectiveness

or ventral

tail

of the

of rudder

offset

to a zero

that

however.

The

Adding

more

provides

a stable

bomber

before

tail
instability

vertical

yawing

and

con-

be ade-

vertical

result.

or yaw

cannot

occur,

area

moment

produces

sideslip

factors

main

due to the

by the
tail)

that

is the

of attack

should

a B-17

This
F8F
pilot

angle

at the

can be very

Bearcat,

a carrier

to counteract

tail

moment

after

influences

add to the directional

stability

whereas,

contributing

reason

Lateral
undergoing
moments

for

choosing

stability.tend

that

to reduce

addition

bank

stability

with

to this

will

influence.

from
This

lateral

stability

static

wing

detract

wings.

_, it generates
the

high-

problem.
A sweptback

wing

angle

degree

during

sweptforward

and restore

large

a certain

sidewash

moments.

to possess

it to some
angle

by the

a destabilizing
over

static

require

a solution

wings

the

direc-

As shown

in aircraft

a sweptforward

is said

rolls

induced

on the

slipstream.

reduces

would

the yawing

sweptback

the bank

that

pronounced

are

it is by itself

An airplane

a disturbance
that

since

influence

to the

plane,

propellers

of sweep

stability

tail

the yaw

degree

directional

velocity

effect

Contrarotating

The wing's

is a destabilizing

a rotational

a sidewash

Grumman
by the

airplane

imparts

tail.

take-offs.

total

tail

If a stall
may

142 shows

vertical

multiplied

on many

condi-

a moment

of vertical

back

stalling.

generate

at an angle
when

useful,

divergence

of a typical

and it also

The

the

are

to prevent

Figure

propeller

engines.

will

airplane

is dependent

sideslip

143 it produces

powered

the

observations

ratio

will

center

in

is in a disturbed

The

placed
which

components

fin extension.

stability,

in figure

tail

fin extension

A tractor
tional

to move

Some

angles.

When
force

to aerodynamic

of the vertical

by use

of a dorsal

tends

alone

is, it is unstable.

a side

of airplane

influential

an airplane

fuselage

stability.

it generates

the two most

when

the

that

directional

disturbance,

(center

8, in general

are

if after

forces

equilibrium

is a

and

flight

condition.
Dihedral
shows
some
flight,

a headon
dihedral
the

turbance
lift vector
the airplane

162

is often
view
angle

lift

rotates

one

to the

wing

to improve

that

horizontal.

by both wings

and

to move

as a means

of an airplane

produced

causes

used

to drop

there
sideways

has

relative

is a component
in this

dihedral

Under
just

lateral

the

equals

Figure

the wings

are

where
condition

shown,

the weight.

to the other

The

Now,

as shown

of the weight

direction.

stability.

acting

airplane

144(a)

turned

in straight
assume

in figure
inward
is said

up at
and level

that
144(b).

which

a disThe

causes

to sideslip

and

V_

Sideslip
angle

Airplane
to some

Fuselage
produces

is disturbed
sideslip

angle

side
force
destabilizing

arm

moment

Moment

Fin and

rudder

arm

force

produces
stabilizing
moment

Figure

141.-

Directional

stability

moments.

163

Small

Large
Dorsal

Figure

142.-

Improving

fin

fin

and

and

rudder-_

rudder

fin

directional

stability.

Grurrlman
F8F-1
Bearcat

Figure

164

143.-

Slipstream

effect

at tail.

_-_

Di:e ralT--

---_

Dihedral
angle

(a)

Velocity
component
due to
sideslip

Weight !_
_

(b)

L1

____///

//////
Figure

the

relative

free-stream

sideslipping.
bank

angle.

closer
will

If the
From

to the
experience

There

results

figure

144(c).
The

airplane

geometric
(that

a greater
a net

position
design,

is

as

angle

force

and

of the

wing

shown

L 2

is

now

effect on lateral stability.

in a direction

laterally

stable,

considerations,
is,

>

Total relative freestream

(main component along
longitudinal axis)
(c)

direction

sideslip

L1

144.- Dihedral

airplane

Component of weight
acting to cause sideslip

toward

also

in figure

than
tending

has
145,

wings

free-stream

of attack
moment

moments
when

the

toward

an

the

contributes

arise

that

have

dihedral,

velocity),
raised

to reduce

impact

which

on the

wing
the

and
bank

lateral

airplane

tend

hence

lateral

to the

the

the

hence
angle

to

reduce

the

wing

stability.
stability,

the

lower

greater
as

is

wing,
lift.

shown

in

A high-wing
whereas

165

Low-wing

placement

is destabilizing

High-wing

Figure
low wing

placement

counteracted

has

sweep

swept-wing

velocity

normal

tends

to diminish

noted

that

the combination

bility

and

some

airplanes

to lessen

the

The
airplane
presented
gravity,
ish

by the

lizing

moment

plane
decrease

166

these

up that

of partial

detrimental

the

the

a small

overall

the

than

may

amount

may

sideslip

will
away

from

moment

the

a
sideslip.

arises

that

It may be

too much

of anhedral

When

experience

to equilibrium.
produce

be

stability.

146 shows.

and a roll

airplane

effect

lateral

the wing

sideslip

and sweep

this

as figure

toward
edge

return

(wings

lateral

turned

stadown

stability.
and vertical

In a sideslip,
and vertical
side

tail

there
tail.

147, there

If the

because
use

use

fuselage

If the

is below

will further

increase

that

also

of the direction
span
effects.

flaps.

tend

may

contribute

will be a side

is a roll

force

moments

arise

and the

lateral

in figure

set

Destabilizing
a sideslip

will

fuselage

angle.

toward

and

the

stability

leading

stability.

However,

to improve

lateral

of dihedral

on lateral

in roll.

the wing

wing

angle

stability.

as shown

the bank

bank

of the

lateral

promote

on the

the

effects

dihedral

laterally

placement

effect

to the wing's

lift is generated

is stabilizing

of wing

is sideslipping,

More

slightly)

Effect

more

will help

airplane

placement

a destabilizing

by including

Wing

higher

145.-

laterally

side

moment
the
the

center
bank

to increase

of the

slipstream

Added

dihedral

force

to or detract

force
acts

caused
above

generated

that

of gravity,

by the
the

tends

there

from

the

area

center

of

to dimin-

is a destabi-

angle.
the bank

angle

of an airplane

for a propeller-driven
or sweep

again

may

in
air-

be used

to

/_normal

Figure

Cross
stability
roll

effects

are

causes

exists

gives

rise

divergence,

to the

a yaw

the yawing
continue

yaws

moments
until

important

the

into
that

airplane

lateral

the

a yaw

motion

static

dynamic

motions

stability.

earlier,

of an airplane

causes

stability

motions

lateral

and directional
are

such

that

a roll

motion.

Thus,

and lateral

static

stability

observed:

directional

crossand

divergence,

roll.

divergence
or rolls

and

aids

As mentioned

stated,

directional

and Dutch

sweep

effects.-

motion
the

three

Directional

Wing

Briefly

between

spiral

airplane

and dynamic

interrelated.

motion

coupling

146.-

is a result
a sideslip

arise

continue

is broadside

of a direetionally
so that

side

forces

to increase

the

to the

relative

unstable
on the
sideslip.
wind.

airplane.
airplane
This

(See fig.

are

When

the

generated,

condition

may

148(a).)

167

er

of g rav i t Y _Js --

- _tLmaa!
Side
_ml_eZa!in_g

force

o ravity

Side

force

Point

v-_

of side-force

[ _,L

Laterally
destabilizing

application
I

moments

(
Figure

Spiral

divergence

but not very

this

case

the

plane

negate

stable

when

this

sideslip

spiral

airplane

angle

increases

away

the wake

fins,

of the

stability

wing

exhibiting

disturbance

although

travels

angle.

and the
fig.

stability

is very

stable

airplane

with

the

force

side

faster,

airplane

directionally

no dihedral.
tends

generates

No lateral

continues

to turn

more

stability

In

lift,

is present

to turn

into

to
the

148(b).)
of both directional

is strong,
as the

The

stability.

whereas

airplane

airplane

the directional

yaws

wags

its

divergence

in one
tail

stability

direction,

from

side

the
to side.

effect.
primarily

at high angles

and increasing

bank

occurs,

that

finned

characteristics

in a countermotion.
this

wing

(See

The lateral

illustrates

Ventral

spiral.

on lateral

sideslipping,

outer

a higher

is a motion

If a sideslip

149(a)

The

a large
and

to still

bank

divergence.

rolls

Figure

168

roll

The

example,

wind.

and tail

by an airplane

is in a bank

in an ever-tightening

is weak.

eral

for

airplane

will

roll

of fuselage

is characterized

relative

roll.

Dutch
and

the

airplane

Effects

laterally;

into the

and the

147.-

the

used
of attack,

directional

to augment
are

also

stability

the vertical
beneficial
to reduce

fin which
in decreasing

the

effects

may be in
the lat-

of Dutch

roll.

Initial
flight
path

Insufficient

directional

stability

(a)

Di_

divergence
(airplane
may
yaw broadside

\
to \

\stabilily, oor atera \

Airplane

(b)

Spiral
_
divergence

--,_

in sideslip

(Bank
angle
increases
and causes
greater
greater
sideslip)

Figure

disturbed

148.-

._

Original

and
_:_flight

Directional

and

condition

spiral

divergence.

Control
Control,
change
alter

an airplane

the airplane's
the lift
The

vide

whether
force

the rudder
discussed

on the

familiar

longitudinal

flight

to provide
later.

Figure
to the

control

pilot's

point

of view,

are

shown

or unstable,

It is brought

to which

(in pitch),

directional

150 shows
surfaces

conditions.
surface

controls
control

is stable

they

are

in figure

the ailerons
control

about

15.

They

to provide

(in yaw).

Some

basic

control

system

is by use

of the

control

stick

the

control

stick

ability

by the

use

of a pilot

to

of devices

that

attached.

a simple

if he pulls

is the

back,

include

the elevator

lateral

control

other

control

as operated
and rudder
the

elevator

(in roll),
devices

by a pilot.
pedals.
turns

to pro-

From

and

are

His

link

the

upward

169

Tail-wagging

"Dutch roll"

(a)

Disturbedcondition

Undisturbedcondition

_------Ventralfins to improve
(b)

directional

stability (as well as augment

the vertical fin)

Figure

(fig.

151(a)).

surface
about

This

and
the

a downward

airplane

of the

control

shown

in figure

camber
ing

of the

in the

170

the

other

pedal

This

wing.

pressure

produced.

in the

and

condition

toward

which

to the

the

wing

This

forward

the

then

the

rudder
(the

of one
camber

control
pedals

left

pedal

the

pitches

up

will
comes

lift
to

roll

pushed.

deflect

the

other

motion

down

as

it increases
the

about

rudder.
the

moment

A side
the

while
than

was

back),

a nose-up

and

wing

airplane

horizontal-tail

upwards.

aileron

more

stick

entire

produces

of one

produces

causes

to the

in turn,

airplane

movement

roll.

camber

This,

reduces
One

Dutch

a negative

of gravity

151(b).

direction

right

is

results

results.

Applying
pushes

gives

lift

center

stick

moment

axis

movement

149.-

rudder

other
its

the
and

a roll-

longitudinal

If the
deflects

pilot
to the

..

Elevator

control

"--

__roncontrol

control

Figure
right.

As shown

and a tail

force

and hence,

in figure
to the left

the airplane

Control

the larger

is fitted,

the greater

faces

possess

151(c),

greater

the

Basic
movement

A moment

is a measure

control

control

control

system.

increases
arises

that

the vertical
yaws

the

tail

nose

camber

to the right

right.

control

the

this

results.

turns

effectiveness

general,

150.-

surface

of how well
is with respect

effectiveness.
effectiveness

Also,
than

a control
to the

surface
entire

does
surface

high-aspect-ratio

low-aspect-ratio

its

to which

control
surfaces.

job.

In
it

sur(See

fig. 152.)

171

(b) Aileron

control.

Beagle

(c) Rudder
Figure

172

151.-

Control

control.
surface

operations.

206

Z.1

_ntrol

surface

//

._V

larger

with

_V"

Smaller

control

effectiveness

Greater

Figure
Balanced

controls.-

flow,

a pressure

to its

original
may

only

the

must

to insure

forces

required.

the

of the

the

face

tending

effort

controls

are

that

even

and,
are

has

Mass

balance
of the

effect

a sense

surface

at will,

is used

artificial

in the

balance

surface

the

are

the

shown.

air

that

hence

force

deflection
The

strikes

force,

that

aft of the

control

design,

the pilot-

sur-

must

be exercised

so that

to move

them)

lest

unwittingly

control

systems
is used

is incorporated

the

pilot

of today's
or not,
into

the

airplanes

the pilot-felt
the

controls

so

controls.

in front
may

surface

back

care

balance
feel

control

to reduce

By careful

aerodynamic

surface

be small

deflection.

The

control

should

the

needed

fluid

but the forces

counteracts

However,

effort

the

Not

distribution,

surface

into

design.

of aerodynamic

This

surface

surface

a pressure

In fact,

and a control

control

creates

whether

which

the

Balance

to its destruction.

surface

the

is deflected,

reduced.

is employed

upon

not tire.

further.

of feel

to force

the surface

(little

small.

tends

surface

when

the control

light"

a control

to hold a particular

two forms

of the hinge

is considerably

the pilot

dynamic

so that

surface

power-operated

vent flutter

does

is set

the airplane

forces

pilot

the

entire

to

effectiveness.

up that

depending

respect

effectiveness

deflects

necessary

to deflect

153(a)

not "too

overcontrol

control

the

to reduce

supplied

force

In figure

forward

turn

a pilot

not be small

be able

that

Control

will be set

The

or may

surface

surface

helps

are

distribution

pilot

enough

hinge

Whenever

position.

deflection

152.-

control

nOW

of the hinge

occur
that

line

of a control

due to accelerations
deflects

about

surface

to pre-

on the airplane.

on its own may

lead

It is a

to dynamic

173

Area

forward

Area
Me-

109

forward

of hinge;

_1_,_

(a) Horn

balance.

(a) Inset

Mass-balance

balance.

weight

!
" Balanced"
moving-surface

hinge

,
J

rfa

_Movi g-su
|
weight

ce

weight

(b) Mass-balanced
Figure

instability

of the

ity near

or forward

ward

primary

Tabs

to the primary

downward

moment,

to move

balance
Trim

the

tabs

are

or manually

steady

used

They

surface
long

are

and

set

tabs

movement.

important
may

stick

by the pilot.

set

are

used

forces.

If the

tab will

they

and are

stick

forces

are

very

they

insure
the

154(b)

edges

of the

(2) to trim.
propor-

to assist

the

pilot

wishes,

in

for

as the

a force,

powerful

elevator

hence

at the trailing
in action.

for particular

shows

for-

and

upward

that

lead

balances.

and

placed

airplane

of grav-

opposite

create

to zero

when

Figure

mass

pilot

deflect

up will

arms

since

small

up to move

Because

center

by adding

(1) to balance

set

be set

surface

at the trailing

They

the balance

pilot

tabs

by using
placed

are

down.

balance.

control

two purposes:

moment

very

Trim

the

153(b),

distribution

to reduce

flight.

operated

down,

mass

be accomplished

surfaces

in reducing

pressure

possess

conditions.

in holding

surface

control

may

in figure

balance

and

and the

This

serve

154(a),

and

is to move

control

the elevator

tabs

line.

Tabs

surface

to move

solution

auxiliary

control

control

deflects

174

are

in figure

the

Aerodynamic

or as shown

As shown

example,

flight

line

surfaces.

moving

The

of the hinge

control

tional

edge,

airplane.

of the hinge
Tabs.-

153.-

weight.

chosen

the pilot

will

is on the

ground

a deflected

not tire

control

Tab
t- Balance
Fixed

surface

__

"m':'_

surface

otal
Main
surface

"-_
___

surface

_
_

f--_

' '
Fixed

force
Tab geared
proportional

_._

deflection

__osite

force

(a) Balance

helps

move

._-,_

surface_*

control

Trim

tab-placed

_----/-----_position

O_',_"_,..._
_,_2_ot--_,_
"_._"__]__

by

/_

airplane
it holds
particular

_-/
"
_._..________.__.
without
Mom_ced
by
M(_ment
produced
by
trim
tab to counteract
control
surface
to
control
surface
return
to undeflected
morn ent
position

(b) Trim

tab

operation.

154.-

Balance

and

Figure

plane

will

control

the trim

continue

surface

control
the

control
outlined

advantages.

butterfly

"dump"

condition

When

new setting
devices.-

They

Included

are

and

a new

about
no pilot

control

effort.

tabs.

the

hinge

effort

deflection

when

line

to zero.

is required
is needed,

The

to hold
the

trim

air-

the
tab

must

(if adjustable).

Some

above.

moments

or

is on the grounda control

in a
fixed position
pilot

trim

in a fixed

pilot

control

are

devices

used

do not fall

in unusual

spoilers,

flight

all-moving

into the

conventional

circumstances

or for

surfaces,

reaction

added

controls,

and

tail.

Spoilers,
or

to reduce

to fly in this

for the

Other

set

deflection.

be readjusted

categories

tab

surface

tab operation.

r--/g

with

in the

direction

Tab

surface

but

surface

Fixed

to deflect
to the control

the

previously
lift on a wing

discussed

gliders

to vary

the

reduce

lift quickly

lift-drag
to prevent

with

by altering
ratio
the

respect

the

pressure

for altitude
airplane

to subsonic

from

control

flow,

distribution.
and on airliners

bouncing

into

the air.

are

used

They

are

to reduce
useful

on landing
But,

they

on
to

are
175

also useful in lateral (roll) control. At low speeds,ailerons are the primary lateral
control devices. At high speeds,however, they may causebending momentson the
wing that distort the wing structure. At transonic speedscompressibility effects may
limit their effectiveness. Spoilers may be used to avoid these disadvantages. As
shownin figure 155by reducing the lift on one wing, the spoiler will cause a net rolling momentto roll the airplane aboutits longitudinal axis.
Control effectiveness may be increased by increasing the chord length of the
control surface relative to the entire surface to which it is fitted. The limiting case
is the all-moving control surface. Whereas the conventional control surface changed
lift by a changein camber, the all-moving control surface controls lift by angle-ofattack variations. Examples are to be seenon the horizontal-tail surfaces of the F-4
Phantomand the F-14A airplanes (fig. 156). By being able to changeits angle of
attack, the all-moving surfaces can remain out of a stalled condition. The conventional control surfaces are considerably less effective at high speedswhere compressibility effects are dominant. The all-moving horizontal tails may be movedindependently as well to provide lateral control.
At low dynamic pressures aerodynamic control surfaces becomelargely ineffective becauseonly small forces and momentsare present. Under these conditions,
reaction control devices may be used. These are small rockets placed at the extremities of the aircraft to produce the required momentsnecessary to turn the airplane
about eachof its axes. At zero or low speeds,the Hawker Harrier VTOL airplane
uses reaction rockets placed in the nose, wing tips, andtail as shownin figure 157.
*Large

lift

lift

z ....

_-

f_

Ailerons
Spoiler

up

to

dump

one

speed

Figure
176

155.-

Lateral

wing-

used

lateral

control

control

used

lift
at

on

as

high
device

with spoilers.

low

speeds

,G

All moving
"stabilator"

F-4

Phantom

all-moving

control

surfaces

Tomcat

_"

Figure

156.-

control

Examples

J[

The North
of such
the

American

low air

same

reason

manner,

The
trol

lems

its

since
claimed

stability.

Shuttle

(fig.

are

the

reduced

used

use

roll

control

yaw,

up or down,

thruster

control

reaction

thruster

control

system.

reaction

controls

surfaces

were

reaction

controls

(fig.

variation

of the

is an interesting

weight

surfaces.

when

it flew

useless

at altitudes

(fig.

158(a)).

158(b))

for

In

the

same

attitudes.

functions

of the pitch,
To pitch

will

and

159(a))

it combines

in cross-coupling

dynamic

aerodynamic

yaw,

Roll

All-moving
surfaces

thrust

Harrier

the

pitch,
tail

Hawker

Engine

plane

Space

V Pitch

/------_

rocket

that

the

butterfly

system

advantages

X-15

density

to change

157.-

_,_

Roll
control
thruster

Figure

of all-moving

of the vertical

and drag.
and
both

roll

and horizontal

However,
motions

control

conventional

there
and

surfaces

are

reduced
are

tall.
increased

conThe
pro-

directional

moved

up or down

177

together
moved

(fig.

This
influence

brief
the

a compromise
airplanes,
final

159(b)).

in opposite

arbiters

To yaw

directions
introduction

design

or left
equal

to stability

of an airplane.

to often
the

right
through

conflicting

compromises

the

and control

It must
more

has

shown
that

As one
frequent.

Cost

and

many

lr

Roll

(a) X-15

(b) Space
Figure

thrusters

reaction

Shuttle
158.-

wings

controls.

reaction
Reaction

on

Yaw

controls.
controls.

thrusters

are

that

design

competition

h thrusters

called
159(c).

factors

towards

of design.

are

in figure

the final

moves

___c

1'/8

as they

as shown

be stressed

parameters.

become

"ruddervators"

deflections

is at best

multimissioned
are

the

Butterfly
or
"V" tail

Bonanza

(a)

(b)

Both elevators
airplane
pitches

Both elevators
airplane
pitches

down;
down

up;
up

(c)
I
Right
rudder;
airplane
yaws

Figure

Left
rudder;
airplane
yaws

right

159.-

Butterfly

tail

left

operation.

179

180

APPENDIX

AERONAUTICAL

NOMENC

General
aircraft

any

machine

heavier

aerodyne

that
lift

airplane

(aeroplane)

Definitions

air)

a subset

fixed-wing

the

science
ous

that

aerodynamic

class

support

are

heavier

deals

and

of the

in relative

of aircraft
chiefly

than

specifically,

reaction

that

fluids,

bodies
aerostat

from

aircraft,

by the dynamic
aerodynamics

heavier

of aerodynes,

of the

from

air

air

air,

and deriving

forces

acting

its

driven

is supported
its wings

of air

and other

on bodies

with

buoyancy

which

against

motion

lighter

or

forces

air,

with the

being

by the

a mechanically

than

motion

lighter

action

being

chiefly

(whether

to be supported

or by dynamic

of aircraft

in flight

device

designed

by bouyancy

class

LATURE

or weight-carrying
than

either

respect

than

to such

air

derived

when

gasethe
fluids

and deriving

from

its

aerostatic

forces
airship

a subset

of aerostats,

specifically,

a propelling
system
direction
of motion
aerostatics

the

aeronautics

the

and with

an aerostat
a means

of controlling

science
that deals with the equilibrium
and of bodies
immersed
in them
science

and

art

of designing,

provided

the

of gaseous

constructing,

and

with

fluids

operating

aircraft

Aircraft
Figure
airships

160 presents

(dirigibles)

sketches
nonrigid

of the aircraft
(blimp):

envelope,

types

defined

a lighter-than-air

or skin

or reinforced
internal

Types

that

craft

is not supported

by stiffening.

pressure

herein.

of the

Its
gas

shape

with which

having
by any

a gas

bag,

framework

is maintained

by the

it is filled.

181

APPENDIX

semirigid

(sometimes

envelope

Continued

blimp):

reinforced

a dirigible having

by a keel but not having

its main

a completely

rigid framework.
rigid:

a dirigible having

in an envelope

several

supported

gas bags or cells enclosed

by an interior rigid framework

structure.
an airplane designed

amp_bi_

to rise from

and alight on either water

or land
a rotary-wing

autogyro

aerodyne

flight by air forces

through
balloon

material

than-air.

It is an aerostat
having

currents

in which

is lighter-

without a propelling system.

or supporting

surfaces,

one

the fuselage

(hull) is especially

flotation on water
into air

that keep it aloft

a type of rotary-wing

approximately
a light frame,

an aerodyne

from

whose

liftand forward

airfoils mechanically

thrust

rotated about an

vertical axis
covered

to be flown in the wind

which

the shape

aerodyne

usually of wood,

and designed
body

gas which

airplane flown by being manipulated

are derived

lifting

of the craft

of silk or other light, tough,

filled with some

two wings

to provide

an engineless

kite

the motion

its

the other

a type of airplane
designed

helicopter

made

nonporous

located above

glider

throughout

the air

an airplane

flying

rotor is turned

resulting from

a bag, usually spherical,

biplane

boat,

whose

derives

most

with paper

or cloth

at the end of a string

or all of its liftin flight from

of its fuselage, the wings

being essentially

nonexistent
monoplane

an airplane

ornithopter

a type of aircraft achieving

from

parachute

having

its chief support

consisting of a canopy

basically produces

of a falling body

182

or supporting

surface
and propulsion

the bird-like flapping of its wings

a cloth device,
which

but one wing

a drag

and suspension

lines,

force to retard the descent

APPENDIX
paraglider

a flexible-winged,
recovery

pusher

airplane

an airplane

rotary-wing

aircraft

a type

airplane

with the

an airplane

airplane

are

which

short

VTOL

vertical

V/STOL

an airplane

for use

or propellers

rotating

the devices

incorporated

with

take-off

is supported

or blades

in a

aft of the

main

which

about

used

air

wholly

a substantially

to obtain

stability

or in
ver-

and

or propellers

forward

of the

surfaces

and landing

take-off

in the

in the wing

the propeller

supporting

STOL

designed

vehicles

propeller

in which

an airplane
main

vehicle

launch

surfaces

by wings
axis

control
tractor

for

of aerodyne

part
tical

Continued

kite-like

system

supporting

tailless

A -

and landing
has

both

airplane
airplane
STOL

and

VTOL

capabilities

Amphibian
Grumman

srihgii'pd

Rigid

SA-16A

Albatross

airship

,_,,, ""

_-_

_----

Autogyro

Biplane

_Balloon

Bristol

Figure

160.-

Examples

of aircraft

F2B

types.

183

APPENDIX A - Continued

Flying

boat..-----------_*

Shin

Meiwa

PX-S

Glider

Schweizer

1-23

Helicopter

Sikorksky

CH-3C

Kite

HL-IO

Lifting

body

7..-

Flapping

wing

ornithopter

Figure

184

160.-

Continued.

APPENDIX

A -

Continued

Paraglider
Parachutes

Modified

ring-sail

Disk-Gap-Band

aircraft
.q____Rotary-wing

Bell

XB-42

Jet

Ranger

Tailless
airplane

airplane
Tailles_

Tractor
airplane
Boeing

Figure

377

Stratocruiser

160.-

Continued.

185

APPENDIX

A -

Concluded

and landing
airplane
(STOL)
Short
take-off

DHC-6
win

Vertical
and
airplane

Figure

186

160.-

Concluded.

Otter

take-off
landing
(VTOL)

APPENDIX

DIMENSIONS

There

is a fundamental

represents

the

definition

of the particular
matter
the

scheme

present

edge

in a lump

of a book

A unit

in kilograms

or slugs

on the

system

choice

of units

of the book

its

rather

to denote
has

than

are

called

ture.

are
the

They

four

basic

may

property

which
For

dimension

arbitrary

A dimension

remains

example,

of mass

scheme

mass

of matter

and the

length

of the

selected.

independent

the quantity

and the

kilometers

book

that

used

in the

physical

the

is,

to denote

lump

of
size

of

magnitude

may

in meters

quantity

meters

the

of metal

expressed

Usually

to be employed,

basic

and units.

of length.

be expres-

or feet

to be measured

or feet

to measure

influthe

length

or miles.

Basic
There

dimensions

the

of units

UNITS

measure.

the

particular,

Thus,

ences

the

used

the

depending

between
physical

the dimension

property.

AND

of an inherent

of metal

represents

of a physical
sed

has

difference

dimensions

or primary

Dimensions

of general

dimensions

be abbreviated

by using,

interest

and

are

to aerodynamicists.

length,

respectively,

mass,

time,

M,

T, and

L,

These

and

tempera-

8.

Derived Dimensions
The
tities

dimensions

expressible

derived
times

of all other

in terms

or secondary
a length

namics

and

The
tended

or

their

arc

of the basic

dimensions.
L 2.

A list

dimensions

measure

circle

central

divided

may

in table

Angular

Measurement
of a circle

by the radius,

measure

is dimensionless

but is assigned

ally

one

express

in degrees

about

57.3 .

The

less means
that
units to another.

the

fact

the

angle

that

numerical

both

area

common

included

angle

radian
value

that

of an angle

These

of quan-

are

may

be represented

quantities

encountered

known

as

as a length
in aerody-

II.

is defined

as the ratio

is,

of two lengths.

a ratio

a special

by noting

measure

to be combinations

dimensions.

example,

more

this

may

be found

or primary

For
of the

are

of the

of the

quantities

name

that

does

of radians.

an angle

and degree

from

are

sub-

Thus,
Addition-

of 1 radian

measure

not change

of the

equals

dimension-

one system

of

187

APPENDIX B - Continued
Systemsof Units
There are two basic engineering systems of units in use in aerodynamics. They
are the International Systemof Units (SI) andthe British Engineering Systemof Units
(B.E.S.). In 1964the United StatesNational Bureau of Standardsofficially adoptedthe
International Systemof Units to be used in all of its publications. The National
Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration has adopteda similar policy and this is the system of units used in this report. Table II lists the SI and B.E.S. units for both the
basic dimer_._ionsand some of the more commonaerodynamic quantities.
Vectors and Scalars
Vectors are quantities that haveboth a magnitudeand a direction. Examples of
physical quantities that are vectors are force, velocity, and acceleration. Thus, when
one states that a car is moving north at 100kilometers per hour, with respect to a
coordinate system attachedto the Earth, oneis specifying the vector quantity velocity
with a magnitude(100kilometers per hour) and a direction (north).
Scalars are quantities that have a magnitudeonly. Examples of physical quantities that are scalars are mass, distance, speed,and density. Thus, whenone states
only the fact that a car is moving at 100kilometers per hour onehas specified a
scalar, speed,since only a magnitude(100kilometers per hour) is given (that is, no
direction is specified).
To represent a vector on a diagram, an arrow is drawn. The length of the
arrow is proportional to the magnitudeof the vector and the direction of the arrow
corresponds to the direction of the vector. Figure 161showsthe side view of a wing
called the airfoil cross section (or simply airfoil section). Two aerodynamic forces
are knownto act on the section: lift and drag. They are vectors andmay be drawn to
act through a special point called the center of pressure discussedin the text. In the
first step a scale is chosenandthe force magnitudesare scaled. The secondstep is
to place the vectors at the center-of-pressure point in the directions specified from
the physical definition that lift always acts perpendicularly to the incoming velocity of
the air V_ and drag always acts parallel to andawayfrom the incoming velocity of
the air.
:
Vectors may be addedtogether (composition) to form onevector (the resultant)
or one vector may be broken down (resolution) into several components. In figure 161
the lift and drag havebeen composedinto the resultant shown. The resultant can be
resolved back into the lift anddrag components.

188

APPENDIX

TABLE

B - Continued

II.-SYSTEMS

OF

UNITS

Units
Quantity

Basic dimensions
SI

B.E.S.

Length

meter

foot

Mass

kilogram

slug

Time

second

second

Temperature

oc

(relative)

OF (relative)

K (absolute)

OR (absolute)

Units
Quantity

Derived

dimensions
SI

B.E.S.

Area

L2

meters

feet 2

Volume

L3

meters

feet 3

Velocity

LT- 1

meters/second

Acceleration

LT-2

meters/second

Force

feet/second
2

feet/second

MLT-2

newton

Pressure

ML-IT-2

newtons/meter

pounds/foot

Density

ML-3

kilogram/meter

slugs/foot3

Kinematic

L2T - 1

viscosity

Momentum

MLT-

newton-

Energy

joule

ML2T-3

watt
radian

feet2/second

second

Power
Angle

pound

meters2/second

ML2T-2

pound-second
foot-pound
foot-pound/second

or degree

radian

Angular

velocity

T-1

radians/second

Angular

acceleration

T-2

radians/second

Moment

of inertia

ML 2

kilogram-meter

or degree

radians/second
radians/second
slug-fl

2
2

189

APPENDIX

B -

Continued

Assume:

Lift

= 400

Drag

newtons

= 100

newtons

v_
Incoming
velocity

free-stream
vector
Airfoil

100

200

section

I
300

I
400

Magnitude

i
500

I
600

1
700

scale

I
I
i

Step 1
Set magnitude
of vectors

Lift

= 400

newtons
_J

-I

I
100

Drag

I
I

newtons

--i

Re sultant
O

Step 2
Set directions
of vectors

/
II

v.

Center

of pre

Figure

161.-

Vector

representation.

Motion
Motion is the movement

or change in position of a body.

respect to a particular observer.

One may adopt two points of view.

Motion is always with

Consider the flightof an aircraft through the air.

First an observer fixed in the air sees the aircraft

approach at velocity Voo. (See fig. 162(a).) On the other hand an observer fixed on
the aircraft sees the air (or observer fixed in air) approach him at velocity V,o from
the opposite direction. (See fig. 162(b).) The two observers read the same

magnitude

of velocity (thatis, speed) but indicate opposite directions. In many cases, for example, in the use of a wind tunnel, the second point of view is adopted where the aircraft
or airfoilis fixed in the tunnel and air is forced to flow past it. (See fig. 162(c).)

190

APPENDIX B -

Observer
in

Concluded

fixed
air

(a) Observer

fixed

in air.

Observer
fixed
on aircraft

(b) Observer

Wing

",:::Top

fixed

on aircraft.

in tunnel

of tunnel'

Observer'
stationary
with
respect
to wing/

(e) Wind-tunnel

operation
over
Figure

wing

wing
162.-

fixed

in place

with velocity
Relative

and

air

placed

in motion

V_.
motion.

191

192

APPENDIX

COORDINATE

A point in space
point

is considered
what

is known

point

is then

located

vector
its

from

three

nate

components

They

are

in space

along

employing

the

Cartesian

system

the

X,

Y, and

right-handed

Earth-axis

system,

of units

tail

rectangular

the

along

body-axis

each

(See

known

which

con-

unknown

of the three

as
a

may

be resolved

fig.

163(b).)

Three

coordi-

generally

used.

axes,

and the

are

wind-axis

into

system.
y-

axes

Additionally,

origin

Cartesian
system,

The

The

163(a).

at the

axes.

lines

system.

in figure

is set
Z

point.

perpendicular

coordinate

is shown

whose

it to a known

mutually

the number

This

at random

systems,

of three

as a rectangular

origin.

SYSTEMS

by referencing

origin

by specifying

the

oriented

be located

to be the

stitute

measured

may

)onent

COIE

Origin

Point

(a) Location

system
point

and second

along

fingers

in a right-hand

coordinate

Right-hand
axes

of a point

rectangular

(b) Location

system.
X,

rectangular

Y,

thumb,

in a right-hand

Cartesian

system.

first

of right

of a vector

Resolution

coordinate
into

components.

hand,

respectively.
Figure

163.-

Rectangular

Cartesian

Earth-Axis
In the Earth-axis
X

and

pointing
east.
ure 164.

axes

system

the

lie in the geometric

The

Z-axis

points

Earth

system.

System

is considered

plane
down

coordinate

of the

toward

the

Earth,
center

to be fiat
X

and nonrotating.

pointing

of the

Earth

north

and

as shown

The
Y
in fig-

193

APPENDIX C - Continued
X_t Lie in geometric
y_)
Earth's
surface
E }

p- Nonrotati.ng

Figure

164.-

Earth-axis

Body-Axis
In the
that

the

tudinal

X-axis
axis

craft

aircraft.

points

Z-axis
The

Roll:

Pitch:

nose

The

is perpendicular
of the

point

aircraft

system

the

system

out of the
X

is taken

to define

axis

is oriented

and is coincident

is directed
to both

entire

it is useful

Cartesian

of the

Y-axis

system.

System

the rectangular

out of the

origin

At this

pitch,

system

of the aircraft.

and the

downward.

roll,

body-axis

plane of

and

right

axes

to be the

the important

with
wing

such

the longiof the air-

and is directed

center

angular

of gravity
displacement

of the
terms

and yaw.
the airplane

rotates

positive

is defined

roll

the

right

wing

the

airplane

the

Z-axis

about

its

longitudinal

as the Y-axis

axis

turning

(that is,
toward

the

X-axis).
Z-axis,

A
that

is,

drops.
rotates

turning

about

the

Y-axis.

toward

the

X-axis,

the

Z-axis.

A positive
that

is,

pitch

the nose

is defined

as

of the airplane

rises.
Yaw:

the

airplane

X-axis

turning

(clockwise

194

rotates

when

about

towards
viewed

the Y-axis,
from

above).

A positive
that

is,

the

yaw is defined
nose

moves

as the

to the right

APPENDIX

The
figure

body-axis

system

and

the

C -

concepts

Continued

of roll,

pitch,

and

yaw

are

illustrated

in

165.

YB

XB

Roll

Yaw

ZB

Figure

165.-

Body-axis

Wind-Axis
In the
is

at the

center

oncoming
airplane

The

Y-axis

Y-axis

of gravity

and
is

The

system

ure

166(b)).

of the

airplane
the
out

then

X-axis
of the

is termed

the

The
The

to the
to both

motion
also
right

X-axis

Z-axis

X-axis

the

of the

and

in the

geometric

lies

in the

plane

The

simplified

Z-axis
wind-axis

rectangular
points

lies

and

is

wing.
the

System
origin

aircraft.
vector.

perpendicular

perpendicular

so that
points

system,

velocity

is

of interest

motion)

wind-axis

free-stream

the

lems

general

system.

is
Z

Cartesian

into

in the

directed

the

166(a)).

plane

of symmetry

of symmetry.

This

again

plane

system

in the
and

of the

of symmetry

generally

(fig.

is

direction

plane

axes

system

of

downward.
In many
(no

means

prob-

yawing
that

the

of symmetry.

is illustrated

in fig-

195

APPENDIX

C - Concluded

Yw

Zw
Relative
the

(a) General

wind

plane

of

not

in

symrnetry//_

wind-axis

)'7 jc/Xw

(i"
system.

Z-axis

in plane

of symmetry.

Yw

(b) Simplified

wind-axis

system.

Figure

196

166.-

and

Wind-axis

axes
system.

in plane

of symmetry.

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Abbott, Ira H.; andVon Doenhoff,Albert E.: Theory of Wing Sections. Dover Publ.,
Inc., e.1959.
Alelyunas, Paul: L > D Spacecraft. Space/Aeronaut.,vol. 47, no. 2, Feb. 1967,
pp. 52-65.
Anderton, David A.: Aeronautics: Spacein the Seventies.' NASAEP-85, 1971.
Anon.: The Lore of Flight.

Tre Tryckare Cagner & Co. (Gothenburg),c.1970.

Anon.: U.S. StandardAtmosphere Supplements,1966. Environ. Sci. Serv. Admin.,

NASA,andU.S. Air Force, 1966.
Applegati, L. Burnell; Benn,Omer; et al.: Fundamentalsof Aviation and Space
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Archer, Robert D.: Evolution of the SupersonicShape. Space/Aeronaut.,vol. 48,
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Ayers, Theodore G.: Supercritical Aerodynamics: Worthwhile Over a Rangeof
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Estimation. Aerodynamic Drag, AGARDCP No. 124, 1973.
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Charles
McCutchan

Collis,

Corning,

Science

Pub.

Corp.

c.1970.

Treating

1970,

Sonic

the Aviation

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Maintenance

Astronaut.

Technician.

& Aeronaut.,

vol.

by author

(College

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6,

Aerospace

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Design.

Published

Park,

c. 1964.

Dommasch,

Daniel

namics.

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Pitman

Pub.

Neville;

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