ANTENNA

SYSTEM
Antenna
A structure that is generally a metallic object, often a wire or group of wires,
used to convert high frequency signals into electromagnetic waves and vice
versa.
A device whose function is to radiate electromagnetic energy and intercept
electromagnetic radiation.
A metallic conductor system capable of radiating and receiving
electromagnetic waves.
Used to interface a transmitter to free space or free space to receiver
A passive reciprocal device
Basic Consideration: Maximum Power Transfer
Source Impedance: 70 (coax) and 300 (twin lead)
Load Impedance: 377 (atmosphere)
T=1/f
=c/f
Where:
T-period, sec
f-frequency, Hz
C-light velocity, m/s
-wavelength, m
General Characteristics of Antenna
Radiation Pattern
A line drawn to join points in space which have equal field intensity due to the
source.
Is a polar diagram or graph representing field strength or power densities at
various angular positions relative to an antenna
Absolute Radiation Pattern if the radiation pattern is plotted in terms of
electric field strength and for power density
Relative Radiation Pattern if it plots field strength or power density with
respect to the value at a reference point
Factors which determine the radiation pattern of an antenna.
Antenna length
Power losses
Terminations at its end, if any
Thickness of the antenna wire
Radiation Pattern
1. Radiation pattern are taken in the horizontal plane (from the top)
2. Radiation pattern are taken in the vertical plane (from the side)

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Two Kinds of Lobe:
Major Lobe - the direction of maximum radiation.
Minor Lobe - the direction of minimum radiation.
Several Lobes
Front Lobe the primary lobe
Side Lobe lobes adjacent to the front lobe
Back Lobe the lobe which direction is exactly opposite the front lobe
Front-to-back ratio ratio of the front lobe power to the back lobe power
Front-to-side ratio ratio of front lobe power to side lobe power
Line of shoot the line bisecting the major lobe or pointing from the center of the
antenna in the direction of maximum radiation
Relative Field Strength
dB=20 log ( / max)
Relative Power Density
dB=20 log (Pd / Pd max)
Omnidirectional Antenna
Antenna that radiates energy equally in all directions
The radiation pattern is simply a circle
No front, back and side lobe
Radiation Field
1. Near field refers to the field pattern that is close to the antenna (inductive field)
2. Far field refers to the field pattern that is at great distance (radiation filed)
Antenna Resistance
2 Components
A. Radiation Resistance, Rr
The ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the square of the current at the
feed point; ac resistance.
Not all the power supplied are radiated some of it is converted to heat and
dissipated
Rr=P/i2
Where:
Rr-radiation resistance, ohms
P- power radiated by the antenna, Watts
i-antenna current at its feedpoint

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B. Resistance Due to actual losses in the antenna, Rd

Power may be dissipated as a result of (1) antenna and ground resistance,
(2)corona effect or discharge, (3) losses in imperfect dielectric very near the antenna and
(4)eddy current induced in metallic objects within the induction field of the antenna.
Antenna Efficiency
Is the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of power radiated and
power dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the total
input power.
=Rr/(Rr+Re) or =Pr/(Pr+Pd)
Where:
-antenna efficiency=1, for lossless antenna, unitless
Rr -Radiation resistance, ohms
Re-Effective antenna resistance. ohms
Pr-Power radiated by the antenna, watts
Pd-Power dissipated by the antenna, watts
Directive Gain
The ratio of the power density in a particular direction of one antenna to the
power density that would be radiated by an omnidirectional antenna (isotropic
source), assuming both antennas are radiating the same amount of power.
D=Pd/(Pd ref)
Where:
D- directive gain, unitless
Pdr Power density at same point with a given antenna (w/m2)
Pd ref-Power density at the same point with a reference antenna (w/m2)
Isotropic antenna
A standard reference antenna, radiating equally in all directions, so that its
radiation pattern is spherical.
Gain: Hertzian Dipole Antenna
1.5:1 (1.76 dB)
Half-wave Dipole Antenna 1.64:1 (2.15 dB)
Note:
a. The longer the antenna, the higher the directive gain.
b. Nonresonant antennas have higher directive gain than resonant antenna.
c. The directive gain of all practical antennas is greater than unity.
Directivity
The maximum directive gain and the gain in the direction of one of the major
lobes of the radiation pattern.

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Power Gain
Ratio of the power which must be fed to the directive antenna to develop the same
field strength at the same distance in its direction of maximum radiation to the
power that must be radiated by an isotropic antenna to develop certain field
strength at a certain distance.
Is the same as directive gain except that the total power fed to the antenna used
(that is, antenna efficiency is taken into account).
It is the given antenna and the reference antenna have the same input power and
that the reference antenna is lossless (=100%)
For lossless antenna: Ap=D
Ap= D
Where:
Ap =power gain, unitless
D=maximum directive gain, unitless
=antenna efficiency=1, for lossless antenna, unitless
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
Is defined as an equivalent transmit power.
ERP(Effective Radiated Power) is equivalent power that an isotropic antenna
would have to radiate to achieve the same power density in the chosen direction at
a given point as another antenna.
EIRP= PrAt
Where:
EIRP=Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, watts
Pr=total radiated power, watts
At=transmit antenna directive gain, unitless
EIRP (dBm)= 10 log (PrAt/0.001)
Where:
EIRP=Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
Pr=total radiated power, watts
At=transmit antenna directive gain, unitless
EIRP= PinAp
Where:
EIRP=Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, watts
Pin=total power input, watts
Ap= power gain, unitless

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Received Power Density
The captured power density by a receiving antenna.
C= PdAr
Pd= (PtAt/4r2)
Where:
C=Received Power density, watts/m2
Pd= Power density at given point with a given antenna (w/m2)
At=transmit antenna directive gain, unitless
Ar=received antenna directive gain, unitless
Pt=power transmitted by transmitter anatenna, w
r=distance between the transmitter and the receiver, m
Beamwidth
Degree of concentration of the antennas radiation
The angular separation between the two half-power points on the power density
radiation pattern.
The angular separation between the two 3-dB down points on the field strength
radiation pattern of the antenna.
Is the measure of a unilateral antennas directional properties of directivity. It is
measured from the radiation pattern as the angle between the two points on either
side of maximum radiation where the field strength drops 3dB. (Measured in halfpower point or -3dB point)
= 70
fB
Where:
-beamwidth,
f-frequency, Hz
B-parabola antenna diameter, ft
Bandwidth
Operating frequency range of the antenna.
Refers to the frequency range over which operation is satisfactory and is generally
taken between the half power points.
Polarization
Space orientation of the waves that the antenna radiates.
Refers to the direction in space of the electric vector of the EM wave radiated
from an antenna and is parallel to the antenna itself.

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Antenna Input Impedance
Impedance at the feedpoint that represents an ac load to the transmission line.
Feedpoint is the point on the antenna where the transmission line is connected
Zin= Ein/Iin
Where:
Zin= input impedance, ohms
Ein=antenna input voltage, volts
Iin= antenna input current, amperes
Zin= Re+Rr
Where:
Zin= input impedance, ohms
Rr=radiation resistance, ohms
Re= effective resistance, ohms
Field Strength (Field Intensity)
A quantity which is inversely proportional to the distance from the source, hence,
it is proportional to the square root of power density.
The field strength of the antennas radiation, at a given point in space, is equal to
the amount of voltage induces in a wire antenna 1m long, located at that given
point.
Aperture (of a unidirectional) antenna
The portion of plane surface near the antenna, perpendicular to the direction of
maximum radiation through which the major path of the radiation passes.
Radiated Waves/Incident Waves
When these are in phase; SWR is best, but when these out of phase, SWR is very
poor.

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SYSTEM

Types of Antennas
Basic Antenna Types
Hertzian- the half wave antenna
Marconi- the grounded antenna
Elementary Doublet
A theoretical antenna shorter than a wavelength used as a standard to
which all other antenna characteristics can be compared.
It is considered electrically short compared to one-half wavelength.
Note:
The impedance varies along the length of the antenna, being highest
where the current is lowest and lowest where the current is highest.
At the center of a half-wave antenna, the impedance is approximately
73 and increases to about 2500 at either end.
To achieve maximum power transfer, this antenna must be connected
to a 72 transmission lines.
= 60 le I sin /r
Where:
=wavelength, m
le=antenna length, m
I= dipole current, Amp (rms)
r=distance from the dipole, m
=magnitude of field strength, V/m
=angle of axis of the wire and the point of maximum radiation or angle
between the axis of the antenna and direction of radiation, degree
P d rel=2/120 = 30 (le I sin )2/(r)2
Where:
P d rel=relative power density, w/m2
=wavelength, m
le=antenna length, m
I= dipole current, Amp (rms)
r=distance from the dipole, m
=magnitude of field strength, V/m
=angle of axis of the wire and the point of maximum radiation or angle
between the axis of the antenna and direction of radiation, degree

Engr. Marlyn Q. Camingal

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Half Wave Dipole

Most widely used antennas at frequency above 2MHz
Also known as Hertzian antenna
It is a resonant antenna
A dipole with the total length of the 2 wire as a half wavelength
Standing waves of voltage and current exists along a resonant antenna
Z= 73 to 2500 ohms and Rr=68 and 70 ohms
Dipole - an antenna made up of 2 wires bent at 90 to each other so as to be
in the same line and signal is fed at the center.
Ground Effect on a Half-wave Dipole
In earth atmosphere, wave propagation is affected by antenna
orientation, atmospheric absorption and ground effects such as
reflection.
Grounded Antenna
A monopole (single pole) antenna one-quarter wavelength long
mounted vertically with lower end either connected directly to ground
or grounded through the antenna coupling network.
Also known as Marconi antenna
Mounted directly on earths surface, the actual antenna and its image
combine and produce exactly the same as the standing waves patterns
as those of /2 ungrounded or Hertzian antenna.
To reduce power losses since there is high current flow through
ground, the ground should be a good conductor, such as rich, loamy
soil. If the ground is poor conductor such as sandy or rocky terrain, an
artificial ground plane system made of heavy wires spread out radially
below the antenna may be required.
Another way of artificially improving the conductivity of a ground
area below the antenna is a counterpoise.
Counterpoise is a wire structure placed below the antenna and erected
above the ground.

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Directional HF Antennas
Dipole Arrays
A. Antenna Array a radiating system consisting of individual radiators or
elements placed close together so as to be within each others induction
field.
Driven Element - element of an array connected to the output of the
transmitter.
Parasitic Element - radiation not directly connected to the output of
the transmitter. Receives energy through the induction field of a
driven element.
Two types of Parasitic Elements:
1. Reflector- a parasitic element longer than the driven element and
close to it reduces signal strength in its own direction and increases it
in the opposite direction.
2. Director- a parasitic element shorter than the driven one from
which it receives energy; tends to increase radiation in its own
direction.
B. Broadside Array a simplest which consists of a number of dipoles of
equal size, equally spaced along a straight line with all dipoles fed into the
same phase from the source.
Typical antenna length: 2 to 10/s
Typical Spacing : /2 or /4
Number of Elements: dozens
C. End Fire Array a physical arrangement is the same as the broadside
array although the magnitude of the current in each element is still the same
as in every other element, there is now a phase difference between these
currents.

Engr. Marlyn Q. Camingal

ANTENNA
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Non-resonant Antennas
Rhombic Antenna a very interesting and widely used antenna array
especially for point to point working; consist of non resonant elements
arranged differently; planar rhombus
Length of equal radiators: 2 to 8s
Angle of tilt : 40 to 75
Rt: 800
Rin: 650 to 700
Non-resonant Antenna
One in which there are no standing waves and radiation pattern
is directional.
Standing waves are suppressed by the use of a correct
termination to ensure that no power is reflected, so that only a
forward traveling wave will exist.
Resonant Antenna
Standing waves exist, caused by the presence of both a reflected
traveling waves and the forward wave.
Special Purpose Antenna
1. Folded Dipole A single antenna which consists of 2 or 3 elements, one
is fed directly and the other coupled conductively at the ends.
2. Yagi-Uda Antenna An array consist of a driven element and one or
more parasitic elements arranged collinearly and close together.
3. Log-periodic Antenna
Main feature is frequency independence for both radiation
resistance and pattern
Bandwidths of 10:1 are achievable with ease
Directive gains obtainable are low to moderate
Radiation patterns: uni-and bi-directional
Dipoles or other basic elements are arranged in some form of
constant angle array in which the active part of the antenna
effectively moves from one end to the other as the operating
frequency changed.
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ANTENNA
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R1/R2=R2/R3=R3/R4==11/l2=l2/l3=l3/l4
Where:
R-resistance, ohms
l-current, Amperes
-design ratio (<1) Typically 0.7 when =30

4. Loop Antenna
A single turn coil carrying RF current
Used for direction finding because it do not radiate in a direction at
right angles to the plane of the loop.
For portable domestic receivers
5. Phased Array
Groups of antennas connected to the one transmitter or receiver,
whose radiation beam can be adjusted electronically without any
physically moving parts
Used in radars
6. Helical Antenna
A broadband VHF and UHF which is used when it is desired to
provide circular polarization characteristics.
Consists of a loosely would helix backed up by a ground plane,
which is simply a screen made of chicken wire.
Mode of Radiation:
a. Normal (Perpendicular) radiation is in a direction at right angles
to the axis of the helix.
b. Axial produces a broadband, fairly directional radiation in the
axial direction.
7. Discone Antenna
Combination of a disk and a cone in close proximity.
A ground plane antenna evolved from the vertical dipole and
having a similar radiation pattern.
Characterized by an enormous bandwidth for both input impedance
and radiation pattern.
A constant angle, low gain antenna, but it is omnidirectional.

Engr. Marlyn Q. Camingal

ANTENNA
SYSTEM

Often employed as a VHF and UHF receiving and transmitting

antenna especially at airports where communication must be
maintained with aircraft that come from any direction.
UHF & Microwave Antennas
1. Parabolic Antenna Works in principle of a parabola.
Parabola- a plane curve defined as the locus of a point which
moves so that its distance from the another point (called focus)
plus its distance from a straight line (directrix) is constant.
All waves coming from the source and reflected by the parabola
will have traveled the same distance by the time it reach the
directrix, no matter from what point on the parabola it will be
reflected.
Properties of Paraboloid Reflectors:
Beamwidth
=70/D
Where:
=wavelength, m
=beamwidth between half power points, degrees
o=2, beamwidth between nulls, degrees
D-mouth diameter, m

Gain of the Parabolic Antenna

The gain of an antenna using a paraboloid reflector is influenced by
the aperture ratio (=D/) and the uniformity of the illumination.
Effective Radiated Power The product of power fed to the antenna
and its power gain.
Ap=(D/)2
Where:
=wavelength, m
Ap=power gain, unitless
D=mouth diameter,m
= efficiency of the antenna, unitless

Engr. Marlyn Q. Camingal

ANTENNA
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Perp=Pt *Ap
Where:
Perp=effective radiated power, w
Ap=power gain, unitless
Pt=power at the transmitter, w

Feed Mechanism
1. Center feed
2. Horn feed
3. Cassegrain feed
2. Horn Antennas
Ideal as primary feed antennas for parabolic reflectors and lenses.
a. Sectoral Horn flares out in one direction only.
b. Pyramidal Horn flares out in both directions and has shape of a
truncated pyramid.
c. Conical Horn logical termination for a circular waveguide
3. Lens Antennas
Used as a collimator of frequencies in excess of 3 GHz and works
in the same way as glass lens in optics.
Other Elementary Antenna
1. Long wire Antenna
2. Whip Antenna

Engr. Marlyn Q. Camingal