3.

Shear Lag in Wide Flanges

ln a box girder (Fig. 3.1a), the web and ftange plates are interconnected so that
relative displacements cannot occur. Therefore, at the junction of the web with
the ftange the longitudinal strain in the web (ex,w) must be equal to that in the
ftange (ex,r). A shear ftow develops between the web and the ftange which causes
(a)

(tJ)

Fig. 3.1. Shear lag effects: (a) distribution of longitudinal normal stresses
across ftange widths, (b) warping of the c:ross-section.

87

Shear Lag in Wide F/anges

shear deformation of the flange plate. The longitudinal displacements in the

parts of the flange remote from the webs lag behind those nearer the webs (Fig.
3.1b). This effect leads to a non-uniform distribution of the longitudinal normal
stresses across the flange width (Fig. 3.1a). The effect is particularly pronounced
in wide flanges and in flanges with longitudinal stiffeners.
This phenomenon, termed shear lag, results in a considerable increase of the
longitudinal stresses (J in the regions of the flange clo se to the webs in comparison with those given by the elementary theory of bending (Fig. 3.1a). Thus
neglect of shear lag would lead to an underestimation of the stresses developed
in the flange plates at positions adjacent to the webs, and hence to an unsafe
design. The shear lag may also significantly influence the girder deflections.
It is an accepted practice in structural engineering to represent the effect of shear
lag by adopting an effective breadth concept. The actual width of the flange plate b
is replaced by a reduced width bef over which the longitudinal stresses may be
considered uniformly distributed, and the application of the elementary theory of
bending to the transformed girder cross-section gives the correct value of a maximum longitudinal stress (Je (Fig. 3.1a). A similar procedure may also be carried out for
deflections. However, when the structure is subjected to large concentrated loads, the
concept of effective breadth gives reliable information only in those parts of the
structure that are not very close to the point of application of the load or the support
reaction. In the immediate neighbourhood of a point load, the actual stress state can
differ rather substantially from that resulting from any simplified analysis, including
the effective breadth concept.

3.1 Methods of Analysis

Extensive analysis of the shear lag effect has been carried out during the last
few decades. An analytical method has been given by Girkmann [3.1]. More
recently many analytical models and methods have been developed. Among
these are numerical solutions based on finite element or finite difference methods, exact and approximate methods based on folded plate theory, and approximate methods based on simplified structural behaviour.

3.1.1 The Finite Element Method

The finite element method has become practically universal for the solution
of mechanics problems in recent years. The continuum is replaced by an assembly of finite elements interconnected at nodal points. Stiffness matrices are
developed for the finite elements based on assumed displacement patterns, and
then an analysis based on the direct stiffness method may be performed to
determine nodal point displacements and, subsequently, the internal stresses in

88

Methods oj Ana/ysis

the finite elements. As this method is well doeumented in the literature, no

attempt is made to review it here in detail.
Moffat and Dowling [3.2] produeed a eomprehensive parametrie study ofthe
shear lag effeet in box girders; this study was based on the use of the finite
element method. They found that while only one mesh division over the depth
of a girder was suffieient,fine mesh divisions had to be used over the girder width
and length, partieularly in the region of a point load or a support.
Although a finite element solution is eapable of giving a eomprehensive and
adequate pieture of the stress distribution, it requires the use of large eomputers
and is too eostly, partieularly if repeated analyses are required at the preliminary
design stage.

3.1.2 The Folded Plate Theory

Steel box girders are usually of eonstant eross-seetion and, henee, the folded
plate theory is ideally suited to predieting shear lag effeets. This theory, deseribed fully above in Chapter 2, takes advantage of harmonie analysis and may
be applied to a variety of support eonditions. Use of the folded plate theory
results in a eonsiderable saving of eomputer time over the finite element method.

3.1.3 The Finite Strip Method

A direet applieation of the theory of elastieity to determine the stiffnessmatrix
of eurved folded plate elements beeomes exceedingly eomplex. A theory known
as the finite strip method [3.3], [3.4], [3.5] may be used in these eases. This
method may be eonsidered as a speeial form of the finite element method. ft
approximates the behaviour of eaeh plate by an assembly of longitudinal finite
strips for whieh seleeted displaeement patterns, varying as harmonies longitudinally and as polynomials in the transverse direction, are assumed to
represent the behaviour of the strip in the total strueture. With this assumption,
the displaeement at any point in the strip ean be expressed in terms of eight
nodal point displaeements and, hence, the element stiffness matrix determined.
The remaining proeedure is similar to that used in the folded plate method.

3.1.4 Harmonie Analysis of Shear Lag in Flanges with

Closely-Spaeed Stiffeners and in Composite Flanges
This Seetion deseribes a simple method, employing harmonie analysis, whieh
enables shear lag effeets in wide flanges to be predieted from hand ealeulations
[3.6]. This approaeh is presented here in more depth than the preeeding general
89

Shear Log in Wide Flanges

methods, which are well documented elsewhere. The method is suitable for the
analysis of girders with flanges which are not stiffened, as in the case of concrete
girders or flanges of composite girders, and of girders where the stiffeners are so
clo sely spaced that it is reasonable to assume the stiffener properties to be spread
evenly (or smeared) over the flange width. This is indeed the case for many
bridge and aircraft girders. The method may be applied to multi-cellular girders,
as well as to girders with inclined web plates and with overhanging or cantilevered flanges.
Although the method is suitable for hand calculations, it has been programmed for a personal computer for added convenience; a suitable program is
included in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1. Basic Listing oj a Program Jor a Personal Computer Jor Harmonie Analysis oj Shear
Log in Flanges with Closely Spaeed Stiffeners and in Composite Flanges

10 LET Wl = O
20 INPUT U,R,E,B,T,I,L,P,Y,X,Y,J9
30 FOR J = 1 TO J9 STEP 2
40 LET F = (U-R)tO.5
50 LET K = J.PhF/L
60 LET A = K.Y
70 LET O = K.B/2
80 LET C = (EXP A + EXP(-A)).0.5
90 LET S = (EXP 0EXP (-0)).0.5
100 LET Q = 2.P.L.T.B.E.SIN(J.PhV/(2.L))
.SIN(J.PI/2)/(V.Jt2.Plt2.1)
110 LET W = -F.Q.SIN(J.PI.X/L).C/(S.T)
120 LET Wl = Wl + W
130 NEXT J
140 PRlNT "HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF SHEAR LAG IN STlFFENEO STEEL
FLANGES WITH A CONCRETE LAYER"
150 PRlNT "t(ax).E/t(sh).G ="; U
160 PRlNT "coefficientr ="; R
170 PRlNT "distance from neutral axis to fiange ="; E
180 PRlNT "breadth of fiange = ft; B
190 PRlNT "modified fiange thickness ="; T
200 PRlNT "second moment ofarea ="; I
210 PRlNT "span="; L
220 PRlNT "load ="; P
230 PRlNT "loaded length ="; V
240 PRlNT "x coordinate at which the stress is desired ="; X
250 PRlNT "y coordinate at which the stress is desired =" ; Y
260 PRlNT "STRESS ="; Wl

90

Methods oj Ana/ysis

mtm
I

l
Ip

I.

.1

[t-----9J

W
I

modified thiekness T
Fig.3.3.
475
8.044
0.24277
8.987
6000
150
300
25
xthe
R
E
39
X
eoefficien
3.0784
t62
rcoordinate
U
Y
Tflange
of whole
distance
number
e1000
of
from
hannonies
neutral
in
the
Ref.
second
moment
transverse
yerossfor
Fig.3.3.e
re- 3.22
3.10
Example
Input
Quantity
magnitude
loaded
length
of
the
a 106
load
Bq.
breadth
b27.37
of
Fig.3.3d
span
length
TE/t*G
Lpreseribed
Fig.3.3e
quantity
position
of
Fig.
3.3b, e
3.17
Eq.3.1
B
p of whole
eross-section
ineI.
stiffeners
used
axis
eross-section
sults
x
section
for results

p
L
J9

Notation

Result of the example: STRESS

7.257

91

Shear Lag in Wide F/anges

A continuous girder with various support conditions can be approximated by

an assembly of simply supported beams and cantilevers, as shown in Fig. 3.2.
The bending moment and shear force diagram s are established from continuous
beam analysis in the fi.rstinstance, as in Fig. 3.2b, thereby defining the points at
which the bending moment becomes zero and the shear force is known. The
shear lag analysis is then carried out for each individual portion of the beam, as
in Fig. 3.2c.

I"", .... ""'''''''

:
1\

I\....,~
:
::
1

II

: :

::

:\J

I I

I I
I I
:I II
II

pIIIIIIIIlI:

TT'

/o~r;"""
I I .."...,,""~I:..,,..~ a) ContinfJOusgirder

:I ~
: '-""'"
I I

AI;'--:
i I :
I

I I
I I
II II
II
I I
: :

I
I
I
I
I
I:

I I!
I

...
bm

J"" II II 111111111.

IJ)Bending
diagram moment

I
I
I
I
I
I
:

I
c)tguira/ent

system

Fig. 3.2. Representation of a continuous girder by an assembly

of simply supported beams and cantilevers.

This process is slightly approximate, since the additional flexibility due to

shear lag itself alters the overall bending moment and shear force diagrams in
statically indeterminate structures. However, for girders of practical proportions, this effect is insignificant and is neglected in this simple method.
Harmonie analysis can be applied directly to the case of simply supported
girders. However, cantilevers may also be analysed according to the idea presented in Section 2.4, Le. by first establishing a substitute beam, as shown in Fig.
2.24.
ln addition to unstiffened flanges (Fig. 3.3a), this method may be applied to
the analysis of stiffened flanges provided the stiffeners are sufficiently dosely
spaced to allow their properties to be smeared over the flange width (Fig. 3.3b),
and to analysis of a quite general case of flanges with both stiffeners and a
concrete layer (Fig, 3.3c) as described in Section 3.2.7.
It is assumed that the shear effects are transmitted by the composite flange
plateitself, but the longitudinal axial forces are carried by the stiffeners, the steel

92

Methods oj Ana/ysis

. a) 6ird4r with
unstJflMet/ (Iangu

a a

rT1,t
. __

._

:4$ _._.

) 6irder wllh

sflflenet/ (Ionges

C) 6irder with

stJflened
flanges
ani}
a concrefe
laJer

q,[

d) 6irt/er with
f/anges
e.iuiyotent unsflffened

y
Fig. 3.3. Idealization or ftange plate.

93

Shear Log in Wide Flanges

flange sheet and the concrete layer. It is, therefore, necessary to introduce a
modified flange thickness t(Fig. 3.3d) for the axial force-carrying action, defined
by:

(3.1)

where As is the cross-sectional area of each stiffener and a is the stiffener spacing,
as in Fig. 3.3b, te is the thickness of the concrete layer (Fig. 3.3c), and E, Ee
represent Young's moduli of steel and concrete, respectively.
A shear flow q and a normal force nx per unit width act on a typical element
of the flange, as in Fig. 3.3e. The equation governing the equilibrium in the
longitudinal direction is

-onx + -oq = O.
ox

(3.2)

oy

The direct strains in the longitudinal direction are given by

(3.3)

If the small transverse forces in the flange are neglected and if it is assumed
that the transverse direct strains of the steel sheet and the concrete layer must
be the same, then
(3.4)

in which snx and enx are the portions of the normal force in the flange transmitted
by the steel and concrete components respectively, and vand ve are Poisson's
ratios.
Since
(3.5)

we have
(3.6)

94

Methods oj AnaJysis

from which

-+-

(3.7)

Ve

tsE

teEe

Considering the above relations, we get

snx

nx

(3.8)
8y

= -v

tsE

ve (

-VVe

+~
As)

vt~e

which can be written in the following simple form:

(3.9)
in which

r=

(3.10)

ve (t

~s) E

vt~e

Note that for a steel flange (without the concrete layer) r = v, while for a possible
concrete flange itself r = ve'
The shear strain in the composite flange may be approximated as
q
y=----,

tG

(3.11 )

teGe

which can be written in the form

--,
q

(3.12)

Y - t*G
where the modified ,thickness of the composite flange corresponding
action is

to the shear

Ge

t*

= t + te Ci'

(3.13)

95

Shear Log in Wide F/anges

It is seen that whilst the modified flange thickness t, which includes the
stiffener contribution, has been used in the expressions for direct strains in Eq.
(3.3), the shear strain is dependent upon the thickness t*. This is because the
stiffeners cannot participate in the shear-carrying action of the flange.
The condition of compatibility may be expressed as

(3.14)

Substituting the strains from Eqs. (3.3), (3.9) and (3.12),

a2n
a2n
--r-=---,
x

al

ax2

t1\

a2q

t*G ax ay

and substituting for the shear flow q from Eq. (3.2)

(3.15)
It was noted earlier, and is shown in Fig. 3.2, that a girder with various
support conditions can be idealized as an assembly of simply supported spans.
To satisfy the corresponding boundary conditions, the normal force nx at any
point may be expressed by the following Fourier series
(3.16)

where L is the length of the simply supported span.

By considering thej-th term ofthe series only and substituting into the partial
differential equation (3.15), the following ordinary differential equation is ob
tained

(3.17)

where ,.
J

= -L

j1t~-1\t*G

r.

Note that for an unstiffened steel flange (i.e.

96

t = t* = t), 'i = (i1t/ L) ~

Methods oj Analysis

The general solution of Eq. (3.17) gives the amplitude of the normallongitudinal fotce as
(3.18)
where C1j and C2j are constants to be evaluated from the appropriate boundary
and loading conditions.
Shear lag analysis is carried out for loads which are placed symmetrically on
the girder cross-section. Take the origin of the transverse coordinate y to be at
the mid-width of the flange, i.e. at the axis of symmetry as in Fig. 3.3e. Then
from symmetry,
C2j

O,

so that, from Eq. (3.18), the distribution

width is given by

of the normal force across the flange

(3.19)
The value of the remaining constant C1j can be determined from the shear
loading condition at the edge of the flange. Combining Eqs. (3.2), (3.16) and
(3.19),
aq

anx

- = - ay

ax

j1t

00

j1tX

= - L Niy) - cos -

j=1

00

j1t

= - L -

j=1

j1tX

C1j

cosh 'jY cos -

so that by integrating with respect to y and substituting for 'j from Eq. (3.17)
the shear flow at any point may be expressed as
q(x, y)

= -

( t*G
t-E

)-1/2 j=1
00

At the edge of the flange, where y

Therefore, from Eq. (3.20)

X,-

(b) 2

qe(x)

= -

( t*G
fE

= b12,
- r

J1tX

C1j

(3.20)

sinh 'jY cos-.

the shear flow will be denoted by qe(x).

) -1/2 j=1
00

C1jsinh'j-cos-.
2b

From simple beam theory, the shear flow qe(x) transmitted

the edge of the flange can be approximated as

j1tX
L

(3.21)

from the web to

tbe

qe(x)

V(x) -.
21

(3.22)

97

Shear Log in Wide F/anges

(Note that for a double-symmetrical cross-section, we have simply qe(x) =

= V(x) (tbd/4I)). There V(x) is the total shear force acting on the beam
cross-section at position x, I is the second moment of area of the complete
cross-section, induding stiffeners and concrete parts (reduced by the ratio EjE,
see Fig. 3.3), d is the depth of the web and e is the vertical distance from the
cross-section neutral axis to the mid-thickness of the flange (Fig. 3.3b, c).
The shear flow transmitted at the edge can also be expressed in the form of
a Fourier series. For the case of simply supported ends, the series takes the form

(3.23)
where
Qej

= -

L2 f.Lo

qe(x)

cos -

j1tX
L

dx = V(x) cos dx.

tbe
j1tX
IL f.Lo
L

(3.24)

The values of the coefficient Qej' evaluated according to this equation, are listed
in the first column of Table 3.2 for three typical cases.

Table 3.2. Va/ues oj (hl' Coetficil'l/I

Qc.i fr Differcnt

II

Types or Loading.

ae,/ .
.2
.1 tLI
I.1.loadlng
PL(tb
L f.
As)e
.jrOjr,!
Lw
(to
r. +Seet/on
As)
e . SIn-SIn-jlJlJrlJ
JrII
pa
/r2J
Sin
LjJr
.2.li./JrlJ
Sin
SIn-U
.2.2 oe
.l
2JStn
Type
0/
jl JrlJ
.2
SlnTStnu
L
w
loe
/
Jr
.2
t?L
lengtll
tf
(symmetrico/
(ot
generol
posil/on)
L
I
2~SS I
(for.2 pa
: ~be 7l .sLjJr'l'
- : )j,,5
{oreeP
Juted
oysr d/str/IJuted oyer
.A-

98

2L

jJro
PL(torIAs)e

. jr

. jJr

Methods oj Ana/ysis

By equating the two expressions for qe(x) from Eqs. (3.21) and (3.23), the
remaining eonstant C 1'; is obtained as

CI';

= -

r)1/2

( t*G
tE -

(3.25)

Q.eJ b
sinh 'j2

Having thus determined the two eonstants of integration, the amplitude of the
normallongitudinal
force for any partieular harmonie ean be obtained from Bq.
(3.19) as
-E
t
Nj(y)

~ -

-r

)1/2

Qej eosh 'jYb

(,'G

sinh

(3.26)

Cj:2

The magnitude of this force varies across the width of the flange; its peak
value occurs at the edge, Le. where Y = bl2
Nj

2
(b)

= -

( ~G
tE

)1/2

'j-.
2
b

Qej cotanh

(3.27)

Knowing the amplitude Nj, the value of the longitudinal normal foree per unit
width, nx(x, y), may be determined from Eq. (3.16) for any position on the
flange. Also, the shear flow at any point q(x, y) may be determined from Eq.
(3.20) to complete the solution.
The evaluation of the amplitude Nj can be simplified by introducing a new
term k defined as:
(3.28)
and k is then simply caleulated as the produet of the number of the harmonie
and the quantity

2L~
7tb

t*0-

r,

which is a constant for any partieular girder. Substituting for k in Eq. (3.27), the
amplitude Nj is obtained as
_ 2LQej kj cotanh kj

(3.29)

j7tb

99

Shear Lag in Wide F/anges

The values of the product k cotanh k have been calculated for a large 'range of
values of k and the results are listed in Table 3.3. It may be noted that for values
of k in excess of 2, cotanh k is approximately unity; and advantage can be taken
of this when evaluating the contribution of terms involving higher values of j.
Table 3.3 Va/ues oj the Product k cotanh k - see Eq. (3.29)
k

2.4
4.4013
4.1023
4.2019
3.9032
3.6054
3.5064
2.5339
2.4398
2.3467
6.800
6.500
6.700
6.300
3.4076
3.210
3.0149
5.5002
2.8203
2.7245
2.6288
5.100
4.900
4.501
6.000
5.700
5.200
5.000
4.700
2.057
2.0218
1.9524
1.7682
1.7521
1.987
1.5665
1.5373
1.918
1.4945
1.8842
1.4667
1.834
1.4394
1.800
1.4128
1.7845
1.3869
1.3741
1.720
1.6884
1.611
1.5229
1.313
1.2785
1.2565
1.2457
1.167
1.082
1.0885
1.3013
1.204
1.195
1.1496
1.141
1.1329
1.125
1.1172
1.1024
1.24
1.54
1.42
1.46
1.32
1.26
1.06
1.44
1.40
1.36
1.80
1.28
1.78
1.76
1.22
1.20
1.18
1.16
1.66
1.14
1.12
1.10
1.58
1.00
1.50
1.92
1.86
1.72
1.70
1.68
1.64
1.62
3.4
3.2
3.1
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.3
2.1
3.9
3.7
3.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
4.2
6.0
4.8
6.3
5.9
5.7
5.5
5.2
4.9
6.9
6.7
5.3
5.1
5.0
4O
81k
4.3016
4.0027
3.8038
3.704
2.255
6.6000
6.4000
3.3099
3.1126
2.9176
5.400
5.300
2.0746
2.1639
6.900
6.200
6.100
5.900
5.800
4.800
4.6009
cotanh
2.0394
2.004
5.6002
1.9696
1.672
1.5962
1.581
1.551
1.9352
1.5086
1.901
1.8674
1.8506
1.453
1.817
1.426
1.3998
1.736
1.361
1.704
1.6572
1.3249
1.641
1.6265
1.4805
1.3492
1337
1.2674
1.2898
1.2352
1.2248
1.2147
1.1855
1.1582
1.1097
1.0954
1.1762
1.48
1.04
1.96
1.94
1.38
1.34
1.84
1.82
1.30
1.60
1.08
1.56
1.02
1.98
1.90
1.88
1.74
1.52
4.0
2.9
2.0
3.3
3.0
2.8
2.2
3.8
3.5
6.2
6.1
4.7
4.5
4.6
6.4
5.8
5.6
6.8
6.6
6.5
5.4
572318O
4936781kO
kkcotanh

Also, the function k cotanh k can be expressed, for low values of k, in series
form as:
k

For values of
neglected, Le.

<

cotanh

k2

3k4

135

+- - -

+ ....

(3.30)

1.5, the third and successive terms of the series may be

k2

cotanh

k ~

+ -.
3

100

(3.31 )

Methods oj Ana/ysis

Whenj = 1, the value of k = 1.5 corresponds to a width/span ratio bjL of

approximately 2/3; most practical girders will have ratios below this value, so the
simplification in Eq. (3.31) can be used.
For a steel girder without concrete layers, EjG = 2.6 and v = 0.3, so that the
value of k from Eq. (3.28) becomes

kj

= jreb
2L

(3.32)
~ ~ 2.6 ; - 0.3 .

Then, making use of the approximation for k cotanh k from' Eq. (3.31) and
substituting into Eq. (3.29), the expression for the amplitude in the steel girder
is simplified as
Nj

(b)2

= -Qej -'reb + -2L

[j2L

jreb (

0.87 - - 0.1
t

)] .

(3.33)

For example, for a steel box girder having the cross-section shown in Fig. 3.6,
and with a span length of 18.29m, the accurate value of Nj obtained from Eq.
(3.27) is -6.398 N/mm, whenj = 1. The corresponding value obtained from
the simplified expression in Eq. (3.33) is - 6.406 N/mm, the difference being only
0.1 %.
The flanges of plated girders with general arrangements of cross-sections
(multi-cellular girders, overhanging flanges, flanges with thickness variable in the
transverse direction, flanges of girders with inclined webs, etc., Fig. 3.4a) are
considered as systems of longitudinal strips (Fig. 3.4b). The general expression

(a)

(C)

Fig. 3.4. (a) Cross-section of a multicellular girder, (b) strip layout of the
top ftange, (c) shear ftow diagram.

~I[Ir
101

Methods oj Ana/ysis

When = 1, the value of k = 1.5 corresponds to a width/span ratio biL of

approximately 2/3; most practical girders will have ratios below this value, so the
simplification in Eq. (3.31) can be used.
For a steel girder without concrete layers, EIG = 2.6 and v = 0.3, so that the
value of k from Eq. (3.28) becomes

kj

= j7tb
2L

(3.32)
'./ ~ 2.6 ; - 0.3.

Then, making use of the approximation for k cotanh k from Eq. (3.31) and
substituting into Eq. (3.29), the expression for the amplitude in the steel girder
is simplified as
Nj

(b)2

= -

Qej

'7tb
82L

+ -2L

j7tb (

0.87 - - 0.1
t

(3.33)

)] .

For example, for a steel box girder having the cross-section shown in Fig. 3.6,
and with a span length of 18.29m, the accurate value of Nj obtained from Eq.
(3.27) is - 6.398 N/mm, when = 1. The corresponding value obtained from
the simplified expression in Eq. (3.33) is - 6.406 N/mm, the difference being only
0.1 %.
The flanges of plated girders with general arrangements of cross-sections
(multi-cellular girders, overhanging flanges, flanges with thickness variable in the
transverse direction, flanges of girders with inclined webs, etc., Fig. 3.4a) are
considered as systems of longitudinal strips (Fig. 3.4b). The general expression

(a)

()

...

::

Fig. 3.4. (a) Cross-section of a multicellular girder, (b) strip layout of the
top flange, (c) shear flow diagram.

,~'.,

Li! IL.JULJL.JUU
Lm-th

(C)

.""

strip

ttI[rr
101

Shear Lag in Wide F/anges

of the amplitude of the normal longitudinal force in the m-th strip - characterized by coeffi.cient m(j - is given in accordance with Eq. (3.8) as
mNAY)

mClj

cosh

m(jY

mC2j

sinh

m(jY'

(3.18a)

Tbe shear flow in the m-th strip is expressed as

which represents a general form of Bq. (3.20).

Tbe shear flows ~qe(x) and ~qe(x), which are transmitted to the left and right
!edges ofthe m-th strip (Fig. 3.4c), are again evaluated by the simple beam theory
and expressed in the form of Fourier series
(3.23a)

00

~qe(x)

j=l

j1tX

~Qej cos -

(3.23b)

If the origin of the local transverse coordinate y for the m-th strip is located in
the middle of the width b of the strip, then the following system of two equations
for the constants mClj and mC2j can be formed:

--

coshm(j
mC2j
cos~(j
2b

rlj

sin~(j

~+

,b2
=

O,

'hose solution is

(3.25a)

(3.25b)

102

Methods oJ Ana/ysis

Having thus determined the two constants for the m-th strip, the amplitude
of the normal longitudinal force for any particular harmonic is obtained by
substituting them into Eq. (3.18a) and the remaining calculation is .similar to the
case for the symmetrical arrangement.
When applying this theory to a particular girder, the fi.rst step in the calculation of the shear lag effect is to evaluate the coefficient Qej appropriate to the
specified loading and support conditions. Table 3.2 can be used for some loading
cases frequently encountered.
This is then substituted into Eq. (3.27) or, for a steel girder, into the approximate altemative form, Eq. (3.33), to give the amplitude of the normal force for any
harmonic. This, in tum, is substituted into Eq. (3.16) to give the normal force
per unit width at any position on the ftange nxtx, y).
The corresponding value of longitudinal stress in the stee1 component (the
sheet and stiffeners) is then obtained simply as:
(3.34a)
and the longitudinal

stress in the concrete layer may be evaluated as

(3.34b)

Should the shear stress values also be required, Eq. (3.20) can be evaluated to
give the shear ftow at any position, q(x, y). The corresponding shear stress in the
steel sheet is obtained as:

sr(x,

y)

q(x, y)

t*

'

(3.35a)

and the shear stress in the concrete layer is

cr(x,

y)

= sr(x,

Gc
y) -.

(3.35b)

It should again be noted that the modified ftange thickness t(see Eq. (3.1)),
which includes the contribution of the stiffeners and that of the concrete layer
to the axialload-carrying
capacity of the ftange is used in Eq. (3.34). Since the
stiffeners do not contribute to the shear-carrying capacity, the ftange thickness
t* is used in Eq. (3.35).
The numerical calculations are seen to be very simple. However, for added
convenience, a program in BASIC for a personal computer is presented in Table

103

Shear Lag in Wide F/anges

3.1 together with its imput data requirements. The program given is intended
for the analysis of a simply supported girder under a loading distributed over
a prescribed length, thus covering a range of practical cases from the
uniformly distributed to the concentrated loading case. Figure 3.5 illustrates
how different loading and support conditions can be taken into consideration.
The accuracy of the normal force per unit width obtained from Eq. (3.16)

a)

~ 09

~ =

09/2

lS.'lllllllllllllrlllllll~

~
09/2

09

C)

gmn

g)
=
LJ
d)H
~~,
= ~E'" "'" ~
11 <

g"lllllllllllllllllllll

9/2

-n

Fig. 3.5. Applieation

-~<~<~ ~
g

09

:
999'L 11
11
~

R-909l/J

ljfO

104

glllllllllllllllllllll~

9
mmn

--

I fl/JI c?1/JIc?q'J.1
.

d'"II1III1I1II1I1II1II1~

WS~~~~~

R-2gl

of harmonie analysis to a variety of loading and

support eonditions.

Methods oj Ana/ysis

depends upon the number of series terms taken. The rate of convergence of the
solution depends on three factors:
.

(a) The type oj loading

The convergence is very much more rapid for a case of distributed loading
than for a concentrated load. This is ilIustrated in Fig. 3.6, where the values of
the longitudinal stresses at the edge of the flange, calculated using different
numbers of series terms, are expressed as the ratio of the calculated value to the
correct one and plotted for three loading conditions. The convergence is rapid,
both for the case when the load is distributed over the full span length and when
the load is distributed over one-quarter of the span. However, the rate is
considerably slower when the load is distributed over only one-tenth ofthe span.
Jt should be noted that, in each case, the proposed solution converges to the
value given by Moffat and Dowling [3.2].

If-o.zl

-'-'-

c.!!Eom

......

,.

90

........

/ /'

...

.....

,-

..

"\..

80

.~
70

.L1-Li'o

60

50

7
9
ff
~
~
Applied number 01 ferms o( rOllrier

n
series

Fig. 3.6. Convergence of harmonie solution for different loading cases.

(b) The widthlspan ratio (biL)

The argument of the cotanh term in Eq. (3.27) is a function of biL. Since the
value of cotanh 'Jb12 converges rapidly to I, the values of Nj(bI2) for the higher
vaIues of the width/span ratio cease to be dependent on the number of terms O)

105

Shear Lag in Wide Flanges

and are governed only by the coefficient Qej. In Fig. 3.7, the inftuence of the
widthjspan ratio upon the convergence of the solution is shown for the uniformly distributed loading case. For all values of widthjspan ratio ranging from 0.2
to 0.8, convergence is seen to be rapid.
Unlformly distributed load

;DIC
mct IfO
%

b-J658mm

t:;f'S."mmmj
~

. ./".
yb/L
b/L -0.8
-0.#
~

12.7

bjL= 0.3

25.1,mm

biL - 0.2

fOO

90

80
70

60

50

Applied numer of terms

of rour/er series

Fig. 3.7. Convergence of harmonie

solution for different width/span
ratios.

(c) The cross-sectional area oj the stiffeners (A )

This factor inftuences the ratio t/t* in Eq. (3.1) and thus the coefficient Ci in
Bq. (3.27); high values of Ci are obtained when the cross-sectional area of the
stiffeners is large. Since the coefficient Ci appears in the argument of the cotanh
term in Eq. (3.27), the effect of a large stiffener area upon the convergence is
similar to that of a high widthjspan ratio, as discussed in point (b).
It is not possible to establish specific rules to define the rate of convergence
for allloading and support conditions, but the three factors discussed above have
the greatest inftuence. In any analysis, additional terms of the series should be
taken until a satisfactory degree of convergence has been achieved.
Obviously, the number of terms used in any calculation will depend upon the
required degree of accuracy. Since the method is intended for preliminary design
calculations, only a few terms of the series will normally be required. For
distributed loading, only the first and third terms will usually be needed to
achieve an accuracy of around 3 %.

106

Methods oj Ana/ysis

One source of approximation in the method presented has already been noted
and discussed; this related to the effect of the additional flexibility due to shear
lag upon the overall bending moment and shear force diagrams for statically
indeterminate structures, as in Fig. 3.2.
There is an additional approximation arising from the fact that the method
employs an expression obtained from simple beam theory, Eq. (3.22), to determine the shear flow qe(x) transmitted from the web to the flange. This simple
formula assumes a uniform distribution of longitudinal normal stress across the
flange width, Le. that there is no shear lag. As a consequence, the calculated
values of edge shear flow are slightly overestimated and the longitudinal edge
stresses resulting from shear lag are also overestimated.
This approximation could be removed by using an iterative approach. In this
approach, the results of the first shear lag analysis by this method could be used
to provide a more accurate picture of the edge shear flows and a second shear
lag analysis could then be carried out; the process could be repeated until
satisfactory convergence was obtained. However, this added complexity is not
considered to be justified because the method is intended for use as a design tool.

3.1.5 Harmonie Analysis of the Shear Lag Effeet

in Stiffened Flanges
The previous method (Section 3.1.4) was developed primarily for unstiffened
flanges. However, it may also be applied to flanges with closely-spaced stiffeners
as in Fig. 3.3b, where the properties of the stiffeners can be assumed to be
distributed continuously, or "smeared", over the flange width. Such an approximation is not justified for the more typical, practical case of a flange plate
stiffened by a few, widely-spaced, large stiffeners, as in Fig. 3.8.
b

-I

I 1

Fig. 3.8. Flange with widely-spaced stiffeners.

ln such a case, the markedly non-homogeneous character of the system of

plate panels and stiffeners has a significant influence upon the shear lag effect.
ft is evident that different stiffener arrangements, such as those shown in Fig. 3.9,
will cause different shear lag characteristics within the flange itself even though
they may provide the same total cross-sectional stiffener area and the same
second moment of area of the complete box cross-section. These local shear lag

107

Shear Lag in Wide F/anges

effeets, which are dependent upon the aetual stiffener arrangement, eannot be
taken into aeeount by any approaeh that idealizes the flange as a homogeneous
plate.
The method presented in this Seetion has been developed to deal with the ease
of a flange plate stiffened by a few, widely-spaeed, large stiffeners [3.7]. The
method has the great advantage that, by employing harmonie analysis, it enables
the shear lag effeets to be predieted direetly from hand ea1culations. It is
assumed that the axialload-earrying eapacity of the stiffened flange is eoncentrated at a number of longitudinal bar elements, situated at the stiffener
positions as shown in Fig. 3.10, and the eentroid of eaeh bar is assumed to be
loeated at the mid-thiekness ofthe flange plate. The flange sheet itselfis assumed
to be eapable of earrying shear stresses only. The shear flow within eaeh
individual segment of the sheet, between longitudinal bars, must then be eonstant and the variation of the shear flow aeross the flange width may be represented by a step diagram, as in Fig. 3.10e.

.......
n
a

H7f
OJ

...

"H'~
a

a"1 a 'I

r1

C)

.1.,.2.~
i (j) 0

II

d)
Fig. 3.9. Idealizations for common stiffener arrangements.

108

Methods oj Ana/ysis

The equivalent area A of eaeh bar is taken as the eross-seetional area A. of

the stiffener, together with the area of the adjaeent flange sheet. Thus, as shown
in Fig. 3.10,

A = A. + ta,

(3.36)

where t is the thiekness of the sheet and a is the stiffener spacing.

Since the longitudinal stress at the edge of the flange must normally be
determined, the last bar (Le. the r-th) is situated at the edge of the flange, as
shown in Figs. 3.9 and 3.10. Figure 3.9 also illustrates the idealizations for
different stiffener arrangements. Eaeh segment of the sheet, in between the bars,
is in a state of plane stress. Thus, the shear strain y may be expressed in terms
ofthe displaeements u, v in the longitudinal (x) and transverse (y) directions as
au

=-

av
+-.

ay

(3.37)

ax

Harmonie analysis ean be applied directly to the ease of simply supported

beams. Also, as diseussed in Section 3.1.4, eantilevers and eontinuous beams
.may be analysed by fi.rstestablishing a system of substitute beams.
ln harmonie analysis, all desired funetions may be expressed in the form of
Fourier series with unknown amplitudes. Since the applied extemalloads can
also be expressed by Fourier series, the entire analysis ean be eondueted for eaeh
b

I" a

(h)

1
1

(a)As
I

~
I~ _~
'I

a"1

j, -As+fa

I,

1[A,

(C)
Fig. 3.10. Idealization of a typical flange: (a)
actual flange, (b) idealized flange, (c) shear
flow diagram.

109

Shear Lag in Wide F/anges

term of the series independently and the results simply added together. In this
way,it becomes possible to operate only with the amplitudes of the series terms
instead of having to deal with the fulI funetions.
Using the equations derived in detail in Seetion 3.1.4, the longitudinal strain
developed at any position x, y in any portion of the tlange sheet may be
expressed in the following form for eaeh harmonie:

= to eosh [j1tL v~]2 +

tx

v y

L;

(3.38)

sin j1tX

where
is the number of a Fourier series term, and
L is the length of simply supported span.
The eorresponding transverse strain is

and, sinee ty

ty

= -

ovjoy,

= -

Vtx

eosh [j1t
L

vto

v~]2 +

v y

sin j1tX

the transverse displaeement may be written as

.

= _ }1tft+;
VtoL

J1t

~~

[' L

ft+;

Y] sin J:X

so that
.

o~

J1t

vj1tto
L v~+v
~sInh

[' _
LV~TVY
~

L
SIn-o
. j1tX

(3.39)

sin-

(3.40)

From Bq. (3.38)

Otx
oy

=-

to V 2

j1t
L

v2 +

sinh -

1t Y

[j1t;;:;-;-:]
L

j1tX
L

and by eomparing Eqs. (3.39) and (3.40)

o2V
OX2

otx

v oy

(3.41)

Equation (3.37) ean be differentiated to give

oy
OX

110

o (Ou)
oy
OX

o2v
ox2

otx
oy

o2v
OX2

Methods o! Ana/ysis

and, by substituting

from Eq. (3.41),

a')' 2(1 +
-----ax

v)

aex

ay

By rearranging this equation, the rate of change of longitudinal strain ex in the

sheet with respect to the transverse coordinate direction y may be expressed in
terms of the rate of change of the shear strain ')'with respect to the longitudinal
aXlS x as
aex
-=

ay

+v
2(1 + v)
2

Thus, the total change in longitudinal strain

may by expressed as

Aex

aex

= -Ay
ay

-a')'
ax
across any width Ay ofthe sheet

Aex

= ----Ay.
2(1 + v)

a')'
(3.42)

ax

The normal elastic stress-strain relationships enable the shear strain ')' in the
sheet to be expressed in terms of the shear flow q as
_ q _ q 2(1 +
')'------tG
t
E

v)

Equation (3.42) then gives

Aex

2 + vaq
= ---Ay.
tE

ax

(3.43)

If a typicallongitudinal
bar i has a cross-sectional area Aj (see Eq. 3.36) and
carries an axial10ad Fj, then the direct axial strain in the bar may be written as

(3.44)

where uj is the longitudinal displacement of the bar. Displacements of typical

elements of sheets and bars are shown in Fig. 3.11. For compatibility of longitudinal displacements, the difference in the longitudinal strains in two adjacent

111

Shear Log in Wide F/anges

bars, as obtained from Eq. (3.44), must be equal to the total change in longitudinal strain in the area of sheet connecting the two bars, as given in Eq. (3.43).
Thus, for bars i and (i + 1), separated by a sheet of width aj,

ex,i+l -

ex,j

= E1

(Fj+l
Ai+l

It is not necessary for the spacing

..~
15+-'

II

Il

-J i/

Idx
d/5!li+,dx

F,.

dx

ill
+

(3.45)

v ox
oq aj'

between the bars to be uniformo

Vi., dX x
y;.,+
I I (b)
I dv,.., d
I J-L

dx v:+!ft.
dUj.,I
,adx , dx
liidXf

aj

Fj)
Aj

II

II
~Uj,,'

Fig. 3.11. Typical sheet and bar elements: (a) typical sheet element, showing dispacements,
(b) typical bar element, showing forces.

By considering the equilibrium of an elementallength dx of a typical har (i),

as in Fig. 3.11h, another expression relating the axial force in the bar to the shear
ftows in the adjacent sheet segments can be obtained
dF.
_I
dx

qj _ qj-l

(3.46)

O.

For simply supported end conditions, the axial forces in the bars and the shear
ftows in the sheet segments may be written in the form of the Fourier series:
OCJ

bar force,

F.I

"S j.sm.
J
L.

j1CX

.
J=l

'

OCJ

sheet shear ftow,

112

q.1

= .L.
"
J=l

Q jj cos j1Cx
- .

Methods 01 Ana/ysis

Equation (3.45) may then by written for any term of the series as

-- - - sm= - --a.-Q ..sml1tx

2 + v j1t
. j1tX
-

(Si+lj
Aj+l

Sij),
Aj

IJ

(3.45a)

and, similarly, Eq. (3.46) may be written as

j1t

j1tX

S .. - cos IJ L
L

j1tX
(Q .. IJ

Q. 1') cos 1-

These two equations can be simplified and rearranged

S'+I'
I

A'+1
_1

A.1
(Sjj

- aa -1 J 2 +
t

Q ..
v

O.

(3.46a)

to give
(3.45b)

IJ )

and
(3.46b)
where (X,j = j1t/ L.
The solution of these equations depends partly upon the arrangement of the
stiffeners. The most common stiffener arrangements are shown in Fig. 3.9.
ln the two cases illustrated in Figs. 3.9a and b, where a bar is situated at the
mid-width position of the flange, the shear flow in the sheet segments on either
side of the middle stiffener (Le. sheets 1 and 1') will be equal and opposite
because of transverse symmetry. Thus

so that, from Eq. (3.46b),

(3.47)
Thus the unknown amplitude ofthe shear flow in the first sheet segment Qlj has
been expressed in terms of the unknown amplitude of the axial force in the
central bar Slj"
.
By substituting from Eq. (3.47) into Eq. (3.45b), the unknown amplitude of
the axial force in the second bar may be expressed as

Thus, the force in the second bar has again been expressed in terms of the
unknown force in the central bar.

113

Shear Log in Wide F/anges

This procedure may be continued and the general equations (3.46b) and
(3.45b) utilized to relate the shear ftows in all the sheet segments and the axial
forces in all the bars to the first unknown bar force Slj'
The value of Slj is determined from the last equation established, Le.when the
edge of the ftange is reached. At the edge, the shear ftow Qrj on the outside of
the last (Le.the r-th) bar may be equated to the known amplitude of shear ftow
Qej transmitted from the web to the edge of the ftange, i.e. flOm Eq. (3.46b)
(3.49)
The calculation of the edge shear ftow Qej was described fully in Section 3.1.4
and the values for certain loading cases that frequently occur in practice are
presented in the second column of Table 3.2.
Once the values of the forces in each of the bars are known, the axial stresses
in the bars are simply ca1culated, e.g. for the edge bar
(3.50)

The shear ftow in each individual sheet segment may also be calculated if
required.
The two bar arrangements shown in Figs. 3.9c and 3.9d differ from those of
Figs. 3.9a and 3.9b in that there is no stiffener positioned at the mid-width of
the ftange plate. In such a case, the shear stresses developed in the central sheet
segment are zelObecause of symmetry. Therefore QOj = O, and from Eq. (3.46b)
(3.47a)
This equation replaces Eq. (3.47)for a ftange that does not have a stiffener at the
mid-width position.
By substituting from Eq. (3.47a) into Eq. (3.45b), the unknown amplitude of
the axial force in the second bar S2j is obtained as

The remainder of the ca1culation plOcedure is then as described earlier for the
ftange with a central bar. The required ca1culations can be carried out directly
on any pocket ca1culator without the need to solve any large systems of equations.
The most-convenient procedure to adopt is to assume, in the first instance,
that the amplitude of the axial force in the first bar is unity, Le. Sj = 1. Then
using Eqs. (3.47), (3.48) (or (3.47a) and (3.48a) for the alternative bar arrange114

The Main Features oj Shear Lag and the lnfluence oj Various Parameters

ment), (3.46b) and (3.45b), the amplitudes ofsheet shear tlows Qj' Q2j' ... , and
bar forces S2j' S3j' ... , corresponding to the assumed unit value of Sj, can be
determined.
Working systematically through the successive bars and sheets, the amplitude
ofthe last shear tlow Q'rj is eventually obtained, corresponding to the assumed
unit value of Sj. Since the actual amplitude of the edge shear tlow Qej is known
(see Table 3.2), the following equation can be written
Q;jSlj

Qej'

so that the actual amplitude of the force in the fi.rst bar is obtained as
(3.51 )
Having obtained S lj' the corresponding trne values of all the other bar and sheet
forces can be calculated.
These numerical calculations must be carried out for each term of the Fourier
series taken and the accuracy of the solution depends upon the number of terms
of the series considered. The rate of convergence of the solution depends upon
three factors, viz.
(a) the type of loading - the convergence is more rapid for a distributed
loading case (where the fi.rst and third terms ofthe series are normally sufficient)
than for a concentrated load,
(b) the tlange widthjspan ratio of the girder - an increase in this ratio leads
to a slower rate of convergence,
(c) the cross-sectional area of the stiffeners - an increase in stiffener area
again reduces the convergence rate.
The convergence characteristics are very similar to those for the method
presented in Section 3.1.4 (Figs. 3.6 and 3.7), where the results of parametric
studies of convergence rate were discussed. It should be appreciated that, even
if several terms of the series have to be considered, the calculations involved for
each term are very simple, so the complete solution can still be obtained very
conveniently.

3.2 The Main Features of Shear Lag and the

Influence of Various Parameters
3.2.1 Variation or WidthjSpan Ratio
It is well known that as the tlange width increases in relation to the span, the
shear lag effect becomes more pronounced. This finding is of general validity
and can be clearly illustrated, for example, by using the simple analytical method

115

The Mam Features oj Shear Lag anihe lrifluence oj Various Parameters

presented in Section 3.1.4. The results of such a parametric study are shown in
Fig. 3.12, where the edge stress (Je for a box girder under distributed loading is
plotted against the girder span. The calculated stress is compared to the stress
(Jo predicted by simple beam theory.

%
1.75
1.5
1.25
1.0

5m

fOm

f5m

S'Pan

20m

Fig. 3.12. Influence of span length upon the shear lag effect.

3.2.2 The Type and Position of Loading

The non-uniformity of distribution of longitudinal stresses increases rapidly
in the region of a point load or a support (see also Section 3.2.4). Moving the
load system away from the mid-span results in a reduction of the effective
breadth ratios (Moffat and Dowling [3.2]). The effectivebreadth ratios are only
sensitive to the loaded length if this length is less than half of the span.

3.2.3 Effect of Stiffeners

Because stiffeners contribute to the axialload-carrying capacity of a flange
without increasing its shear capacity, shear lag is more pronounced in a stiffened
flange than in a flange without stiffening. As an example, Fig. 3.13 shows the
results of a parametric study investigating the influence of the variations of the
ratio tJt in a steel girder (without any concrete layer) where, as in Eq. (3.1),
= t + AJa. The unstiffened steel girder is represented by the case when
= t and the ratio is then increased to a value of 2, representing a heavily

t
t

116

Shear Lag in Wide F/anges

stiffened girder. Within this range, the stress at the edge of the flange is seen to
increase almost linearly.
For practical purposes, it is desirable to simplify the numerical analysis by
smearing the stiffener properties over the flange width. This approach must be
verified from the point of view of:
(i) the number of longitudinal ribs;
(ii) the effect of th~ir own flexural rigidities and the eccentricity of their
connections to the flange sheet;
(iii) the regularity of stiffener spacing;
(iv) the shape of the cross-section of longitudinal ribs.

~8
0.26
0.25

0.24

[~mm~.

~
([."'112.7 (."';t"t
12.7 ]l~
f

on UfJs!tffened ~f
girder
~

~~'"''

\ glrder
. \ a .lIeaYl1y stlffene
\
':

.......~.MOff~t I. lJow/i/}.!l[.ul
0.2

tjt

Fig. 3.13. Influence of flange stiffening upon the shear lag effect.

It is obvious that with an increase in the number of stiffeners, the moment of

inertia of the whole cross-section also increases and, consequently, the magnitude of the stress drops. It has been found, however that, in spite of the
influence of the rate of flange stiffening discussed above, the general character
of the stress distribution remains similar. This is c1early seen from Fig. 3.14,
which, as an example, gives the distribution oflongitudinal normal stresses over
the flange breadth for various numbers of longitudinal flat ribs. Hence, it seems
that the concept of smearing the stiffener properties is acceptable not only for
closely-spaced stiffeners but also, with little loss of accuracy, for large, rather
widely-spaced stiffeners. The conditions for the acceptability of such an approach are the regularity ofthe stiffener arrangement (see Section 3.1.5) and the
assumption that the stiffeners are concentrated in the flange plane (Fig. 3.l5a).
Longitudinal stiffeners are generalIy welded to the inner side of the flange
sheet (Fig. 3.15b). Due to the eccentricity ofthe stiffener connection, individual
portions of the flange with stiffeners, which are eccentricalIy affected by shear
flowsacting in the plane of the flange sheet (Fig. 3.15c),tend to exhibit additional flexure, as shown in Fig. 3.16d.

117

The Main Features oj Shear Lag and the /njluence oj Various Parameters

p::1.

lY

(HPa)

0.04

0.06

o.ot,

0.02

Fig. 3.14. Distribution oflongitudina! normal stresses for various numbers of longitudina1 fiat ribs.

'J, I'~J'
It

Q)

1.1111

.1

Fig. 3.15. Stiffeners concentrated at the Hangc sheet pla:ne

and eccentrica1ly-connected stiffeners.

118

Shear Lag in Wide Flages

, a

a) I f2.7

~ tf
OJ

~
IW/2

b-J58mm

t-

~r

IJ)

SWfening fOctor
(Maffa! &. Dowling !;r'lf) (C -f.o

C)

d)

l'flange

dellection

Fig. 3.16. Influence of eccentrically-connected

stiffeners upon
the stress distribution and deflections.

The influence of eccentricity of the stiffener connection is illustrated in Fig.

3.16. A steel box girder without intermediate diaphragms, under uniform loading (w = 1 N/mm), with span L = 9144 mm and the cross-section shown in Fig.
3.16a is studied. The distribution oflongitudinal stresses across the flange width
is shown by the solid line in Fig. 3.16b; the dashed line corresponds to that of
the stiffeners concentrated in the flange sheet. Different flexural actions of
individual stiffeners with adjacent flange portions are shown in Fig. 3.16c, which
depicts distributions of the longitudinal stresses along the stiffener depths.
It can be seen from Fig. 3.16c that the eccentrical1y connected stiffeners,
particularly those near the mid-point of the flange, exhibit stress distribution
tending to that of a beam stressed by bending. The eccentricity of the stiffener

119

The Main Features oj Shear Lag and the lnjluence oj Various Parameters

connections thus results in a loss of efficiency of the total stiffened flange. This
is also the reason why the solid line in Fig. 3.16b, indicating the stress distribution for the eccentrically connected stiffeners, falls completely (Le. along the total
width of the flange) above the dashed curve, which corresponds to a fully acting
flange with stiffeners concentrated at the flange sheet.
The transverse flexure of the stiffened flange due to stiffener eccentricity is
shown in Fig. 3.16d. This kind of additional deformation is only partially
restrained by a rather flexible flange.
It is seen that the stiffener eccentricity influences the distribution of the
longitudinal stresses adversely, unless closely-spaced sufficiently rigid transverse
diaphragms are used to ensure equal deflection of all stiffeners. Thus the
diaphragms indirectly influence the shear lag effects. Their presence is essential
to allow use of the methods that do not regard stiffener eccentricity.
It has been found that the regularity of stiffener spacing (even in cases of the
same total cross-sectional area of stiffeners and thus the same total second
moment of area of the whole cross-section) influence the shear lag behaviour of
the stiffened plate.

~e = -a 088 N/mm2
Fig. 3.17. Inftuence of stiffener positions.

Figure 3.17 shows the cross-section of two steel box girders having a span
9144 mm, with stiffeners atdifferent postitions, loaded by uniformly distributed loading of an intensity w = 1 N/mm. Although the longitudinal stress on
the edge of the flange at mid-span for the case shown in Fig. 3.17a is - 0.087 55
N/mm2, the stress for the stiffener arrangement shown in Fig. 3.17b reaches a
magnitude of - 0.081 8 N/mm2 only. According to Moffat and Dowling [3.2],

L=

where no distinction is made between the stiffener arrangements, for the !stress)
effective breadth ratio 0.67 the corresponding stress is - 0.082 N/mm . This
represents an excellent agreement with the results obtained for the case shown in
Fig. 3.17b. Here, the stiffeners are situated at mid-points of adjacent flange
portions in accordance with a regular stiffener system asassumed in [3.2].

120

Shear Log in Wide Ffanges

\~

However, the stiffener arrangement shown in Fig. 3.17a (with the same
distances between all stiffeners and between the first stiffener and the web),
where the stiffeners are situated more at the middle region of the ftange, results
in a 7 % increase in the values of the longitudinal stresses compared with the
case shown in Fig. 3.17b. The reason for this is that the shear lag effect depends
on shear deformability of those ftange segments where the shear stress is of
highest intensity, Le. in the regions close to the webs. The width of the ftange
segment between the web and the first stiffener (and thus its shear deformability)
is considerably lower in the case shown in Fig. 3.17b than in that shown in Fig.
3.17a.
The results clearly confirm the necessity of accounting for the actual stiffener
positions for ftanges with large, widely spaced stiffeners, e.g. by using the method
presented in Section 3.1.5. This fact cannot be accounted for by any method of
analysis which assumes a regularly arranged structure, even if the finite element
method is used.
Most studies of the impact of the shear lag phenomenon characterize longitudinal ribs solely by their area, and the effect of stiffener configuration is not
taken into account.
Investigations dealing with the stability problem of longitudinally stiffened
ftanges, in Chapter 5, proved the great inftuence of stiffener cross-sectional shape
upon the buckling of ftange plates. Thus it is of interest to find out whether the
stiffener cross-section configuration also shows a significant effect on the shear
lag phenomenE>n.
For this reason, the effect of various stiffener shapes was investigated, while
other stiffener parameters (the number and location of stiffeners, and - at least
approximately - the moment of inertia) were kept constant. Four stiffener
configurations were studied: (i) a ftat stiffener (Fig. 3.18a), (ii) an angle stiffener
(Fig. 3.18b), (iii) a T-section stiffener (Fig. 3.18c) and (iv) a trapezoidal closedsection stiffener (as shown in Fig. 3.18d). The overall dimensions of the girders
analysed are shown in Fig. 3.14.
a)

C)

12Hm!>
==::;==~
~.\)(.,J'--176 mm

STI"
-II-

f2.7mm

lO

Fig. 3.18. The stiffener configurations

in the study.

considered

~;FJ!mm
ltci

7~mm

121

The Mam Features oj Shear Log and the lnftuence oj Various Parameters

The results show that, unlike the case of flange buckling, the effect of stiffener
configuration (when the stiffener area is kept constant and its moment of inertia
does not vary much either) is not significant. This means that the torsional
rigidity of the stiffeners does not play a substantial role in the phenomenon of
shear lag.

3.2.4 Shear Lag in Support Regions of Continuous Beams

When analysing the shear lag in box girders, the differences in performance
of the top and bottom flanges are usually tacitly ignored in practice. It has
been found, however, that this concept gives satisfactory results only for box
girders of ordinary dimensions (i.e. for girders which are not too short) wmch
are subjected to uniformly distributed and similar loadings. In reality, the
extemalloading is usually first transmitted by a system of transverse ribs to
the upper edges of webs, while on the other hand the lower edges of the webs
are subjected to support reactions representing very large point loads (Fig.
3.19a,b)
The webs of box girders are usually reinforced by vertical stiffeners located at
the cross-section of application of the reaction, Fig. 3.19a,b. Substantial portions of the support reactions are transmitted (as shear flows) by these vertical
stiffeners into the webs (Fig. 3.19c). In order to evaluate the influence ofvarious
distributions of these shear flows upon the shear lag effects, the influence lines
of the peak values of the longitudinal normal stresses at the edges of the bottom
and top flanges of the cross-section above the support can be constructed. Such
an influence line thus indicates by its ordinates the value of the peak stress due
to a unit vertical force acting at the support cross-section at the vertical position
tJ (Fig. 3.20a).
As an example, the influence lines of the peak stresses in the flanges of a girder
with cross-section having dimensions as indicated in Fig. 3.12 are shown in Figs.
3.20b,c. The full curves indicate the stresses occurring directly at the support
cross-section. It is seen there that the application of a load very close to the
flange investigated results in a considerable increase in the peak stresses. This
fact is also documented in Fig. 3.20d, where the distribution of longitudinal
normal stresses across the flange breadth is plotted for several position tJ of the
force acting. On the other hand, it has been found that this stress increase has
only a local character, disappearing very fast as one proceeds further away from
the support cross-section. For instance, the influence lines for the peak stress at
cross-sections close to the support are shown in Fig. 3.20b,c by dashed lines.
ln practice, cases are also encountered where the girder is supported under

122

Shear Lag in Wide Flanges

(a)
[xtema/ /oad

(b)

(C)

Fig. 3.19. (a) Action of extemalload on box girder bridges, (b)

action or reactioDSin tbe support cross-section witb vertical
stiffeners, (c) shear tlow transmitted from the vertical stiffener
into tbe web.

123

The Mam Features oj Shear Lag and the Injluence oj Various Parameters

(b)

II

I,
.L.- f.006.,(O4
Fig. 3.20 a, h, c

124

(C)

Shear Lag in Wide Flanges

-f.006K(0-~

[N/mm~

"I-o

-0.297.fO -#

;1_0.2J4.l0-+
tJ-o.2MO-+
~:
TI

y
Fig. 3.20. Influence lines of longitudinal normal stress values at
the flange edges: (a) construction of the influence lines - positions of a unit loading force, (b) influence line of the value of
longitudina! norma! stress at the edge of the botton flange, (c)
influence line of the va!ue of longitudina! normal stress at the
edge of the top flange, (d) distributions of longitudinal norma!
stresses for various positions of the unit loading force.

diaphragms, which then transfer the reactions into webs (Fig. 3.21). The distribution of the shear flow acting between the diaphragm and the web depends on
the positions of the supports. When the support is situated just under the web
(Fig. 3.22a), the shear flow is distributed very non-uniformly, and the distribution of longitudinal stresses across the bottom flange is quite different
\

125

The Main Features oj Shear Lag and the lnjluence oj Various Parameters
p

(a)

II'

'"

"'"'''''r''' "uu, '" "" ""

.1

i~~:"'"
"''''
"'"

111111

LIL

(D)

(t)

Support
diaphragm

(d)

Fig. 3.21. (a) A continuous beam with many spans, (b) action of a
support diaphragm, (c) a support diaphragm in a single-cellbox girder,
(d) a diaphragm supporting the central girder.

126

a)

.99.6

Shear Lag in Wide Flange.l

,
'92.6
0.5

~.

15.26
+O

-lli

III

t
I.
I:

0.86

6:+.91

l.

I ()
I

x-ZffJZ.5mm

ITwmm~

1.5
t"[N/mJ

li
I!I

I l

(C)

1
I,

Fig. 3.22 a, b, c

0.5

/I

355 ~

127

The Main Features

oj Shear Log and the Injluence oj Various Parameters
I'

(d)

x-2ffJ2.5mm
+

/1

)II iX5.22
a5
o fJ2;5 mm
-2f
~I
z

I.

J~
~I
I
I'I,
I!

j5.25

I'

LfJ

!5.2.3

'829

Fig.3.22.Effect of a diaphragm supported at various positions(no connection to tlanges): (a), (c),

(e) shears loading the web, (b), (d), (f) corresponding longitudinal normal stress distributions.

128

Shear Lag in Wide Flages

(Fig. 3.22b) from that in the top flange. An improvement is achieved when the
diaphragm is supported at some distance from the web (Fig. 3.22c,d), and the
best state occurs with the support located in the middle of the diaphragm (Fig.
3.22e,f).
These results (Fig. 3.22) are based on a study carried out for a continuous
beam with rather long spans. The effects discussed would be much more pronounced with girders having higher width-to-span ratios and/or flanges with
longitudinal stiffeners.

3.2.5 Influence of Loads Acting above Longitudinal Stiffeners

When calculating shear lag effects, it is usually assumed that the load acts directly
above the webs. This requires a perfect transfer of allloads in the transverse direction
(usually through a system of transverse diaphragms). However, cases may be encountered in design practice where short-span bridges provided with rather stiff
longitudinal ribs (e.g. railway bridges) are loaded directly above these stiffeners.

/II

g'"

,/.

=fN/mm
~

"A

L -11## mm

x dl'ph"',,,,

C) tF
0.02 .
0.0t,
0.061

[N/mm~
a)

e
I
I

.-'-.-. -.-. -+-.-.-. -. -.-.

I
Fig. 3.23. Effect of direct loading of longitudinal

stiffeners.

129

The Main Features oj Shear Log and the lnfluence oj Various Parameters

An example of such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.23b. Here, a uniformly

loaded girder with central transverse diaphragm is considered. The distribution
of longitudinal stresses at the quarter-span is compared in Fig. 3.23c for a load
acting above the stiffeners (Fig. 3.23b) and the more common case when the load
acts above the webs (Fig. 3.23a). An entirely different character of the stressdistribution pattern is apparent. The directly loaded stiffeners behave almost as
independent girders with typical stress distribution along their depths accompanied by their own shear lag effects.

3.2.6 Inftuence of Overhanging Flanges

It is common practice in the design:of steel box girder bridges that the webs
and flanges are interconnected as shown in Fig. 3.24c. The influence of this
arrangement upon the distribution of longitudinal stresses in comparison with
the distribution corresponding to the case usually considered (Fig. 3.24b) is
shown in Figs. 3.24d and e. As can be expected, the interconnection shown in
Fig. 3.24c exhibits a favourable influence upon the distritution of longitudinal
stress (in this case, a decrease in the peak value by 9 %).

Q)
~.T

W-fN/mm

, ............

-I

~ 9fltltmm

C)

j
;;;1
~.

c::il

...,

I
J8f

f.U

B -fUDmm

~_
Fig. 3.24. Effect of the arrangement

130

of interconnection

'Ha
of flanges to webs.

I
~