Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Giáo trình Xử lý ảnh
Giáo trình Xử lý ảnh
X L NH
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa)
Lu hnh ni b
H NI - 2006
X L NH
Bin son :
LI NI U
Trong cc trng i hc, cao ng, x l nh tr thnh mt mn hc chuyn ngnh
ca sinh vin cc ngnh Cng ngh Thng tin, Vin thng. Gio trnh v ti liu v lnh vc ny
nc ta cn ang hn ch. p ng kp thi cho o to t xa, Hc vin Cng ngh Bu chnh
Vin thng c gng kp thi bin son ti liu ny cho sinh vin, c bit h o to t xa hc
tp. Trong qu trnh bin son, chng ti c tham kho cc ti liu ca i hc Bch khoa H ni
[1] gio trnh gn gi v tnh cng ngh vi Hc vin. Mt s gio trnh khc ca i hc Quc
gia thnh ph H Ch Minh [2], ti liu trn mng v cc ti liu nc ngoi bng ting Anh [5, 6,
7] cng c tham kho v gii thiu sinh vin o to t xa c thm.
Ti liu ny nhm hng dn v gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn, cc khi nim, nh
ngha tm tt. Mt s thut ng c ch gii bng ting Anh hc vin c bng ting Anh d
dng, trnh hiu nhm khi chuyn sang ting Vit.
Ti liu gm cc chng sau:
-
Chng 1. Nhp mn x l nh
Chng 7. Nn d liu nh
Cn nhiu vn khc nh cc cng c ton hc, k thut bin i nh, truyn nh, cc
phn mm x l v.v cha cp c trong phm vi ti liu ny. ngh cc bn c tm hiu
thm sau khi c nhng kin thc c bn ny.
Tuy c tham gia ging dy mn x l nh cp i hc mt s nm, nhiu lp c trnh
khc nhau; ch nhim mt s ti nghin cu C bn Nh nc, ti cp B lin quan
nhng X l nh l mn hc c s kt hp nhiu gia nhiu lnh vc khoa hc v cng ngh
nn c th coi l mn hc kh. Nhiu c gng cp nht kin thc nhng thi gian, iu kin,
kh nng c hn nn ti liu chc chn cn nhiu thiu st. Chng ti mong nhn c nhiu
kin ng gp ti liu c hon thin hn cho cc ln ti bn sau.
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
CHNG 1: NHP MN X L NH
Hc xong phn ny sinh vin c th nm c:
1. ngha, mc ch mn hc; cc ng dng ca x l nh trong cng nghip, i sng
2. Cc thnh phn: x l v phn tch nh. Cc khi chc nng, ngha ca n trong quy
trnh x l v phn tch nh.
3.
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
Thu nhn
nh
Tin x
l nh
Phn
on nh
Biu din
v m t
Nhn dng
v ni suy
C s tri thc
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
Nhn dng nh l qu trnh xc nh nh. Qu trnh ny thng thu c bng cch so
snh vi mu chun c hc (hoc lu) t trc. Ni suy l phn on theo ngha trn c s
nhn dng. V d: mt lot ch s v nt gch ngang trn phong b th c th c ni suy thnh
m in thoi. C nhiu cch phn loai nh khc nhau v nh. Theo l thuyt v nhn dng, cc
m hnh ton hc v nh c phn theo hai loi nhn dng nh c bn:
-
Mt s i tng nhn dng kh ph bin hin nay ang c p dng trong khoa hc v
cng ngh l: nhn dng k t (ch in, ch vit tay, ch k in t), nhn dng vn bn (Text),
nhn dng vn tay, nhn dng m vch, nhn dng mt ngi
f) C s tri thc (Knowledge Base)
Nh ni trn, nh l mt i tng kh phc tp v ng nt, sng ti, dung
lng im nh, mi trng thu nh phong ph ko theo nhiu. Trong nhiu khu x l v
phn tch nh ngoi vic n gin ha cc phng php ton hc m bo tin li cho x l,
ngi ta mong mun bt chc quy trnh tip nhn v x l nh theo cch ca con ngi. Trong
cc bc x l , nhiu khu hin nay x l theo cc phng php tr tu con ngi. V vy,
y cc c s tri thc c pht huy. Trong ti liu, chng 6 v nhn dng nh c nu mt vi
v d v cch s dng cc c s tri thc .
g) M t (biu din nh)
T Hnh 1.1, nh sau khi s ho s c lu vo b nh, hoc chuyn sang cc khu tip
theo phn tch. Nu lu tr nh trc tip t cc nh th, i hi dung lng b nh cc ln v
khng hiu qu theo quan im ng dng v cng ngh. Thng thng, cc nh th c c
t (biu din) li (hay n gin l m ho) theo cc c im ca nh c gi l cc c trng
nh (Image Features) nh: bin nh (Boundary), vng nh (Region). Mt s phng php biu
din thng dng:
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
Phng php ny thng dng biu din ng bin nh. Mt ng bt k c chia
thnh cc on nh. Ni cc im chia, ta c cc on thng k tip c gn hng cho on
thng to thnh mt dy xch gm cc on. Cc hng c th chn 4, 8, 12, 24, mi hng
c m ho theo s thp phn hoc s nh phn thnh m ca hng.
Biu din bng m t phn
Phng php m t phn c dng m ho cho vng nh. Vng nh u tin c
chia lm bn phn thng l bng nhau. Nu mi vng ng nht (cha ton im en (1) hay
trng (0)), th gn cho vng mt m v khng chia tip. Cc vng khng ng nht c chia
tip lm bn phn theo th tc trn cho n khi tt c cc vng u ng nht. Cc m phn chia
thnh cc vng con to thnh mt cy phn chia cc vng ng nht.
Trn y l cc thnh phn c bn trong cc khu x l nh. Trong thc t, cc qu trnh
s dng nh s khng nht thit phi qua ht cc khu ty theo c im ng dng. Hnh 1.2
cho s phn tch v x l nh v lu thng tin gia cc khi mt cch kh y . Anh sau
khi c s ha c nn, luuw lai truyn cho cc h thng khc s dng hoc x l tip
theo. Mt khc, nh sau khi s ha c th b qua cng on nng cao cht lng (khi nh cht
lng theo mt yu cu no ) chuyn ti khu phn on hoc b tip khu phn on
chuyn trc tip ti khu trch chn c trng. Hnh 1.2 cng chia cc nhnh song song nh: nng
cao cht lng nh c hai nhnh phn bit: nng cao cht lng nh (tng sng, tng phn,
lc nhiu) hoc khi phc nh (hi phc li nh tht khi nh nhn c b mo) v.v
Cnh quan
(Scene)
Nn
nh
Lu
nh
Truyn
nh
Nng cht
lng nh
Thu
nh
Phn
on
S
ha
nh tng t
nh c
ci tin
Trch
chn
c
trng
nh
s
Thu nhn nh
Khi phc
nh
Phn
tch
thng
k /
cu
trc
M t
v ni
suy
Trch
chn
quan
h
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
chng. Mi mt im nh vy gi l im nh (PEL: Picture Element) hay gi tt l Pixel. Trong
khun kh nh hai chiu, mi pixel ng vi cp ta (x, y).
nh ngha:
im nh (Pixel) l mt phn t ca nh s ti to (x, y) vi xm hoc mu nht
nh. Kch thc v khong cch gia cc im nh c chn thch hp sao cho mt ngi
cm nhn s lin tc v khng gian v mc xm (hoc mu) ca nh s gn nh nh tht. Mi
phn t trong ma trn c gi l mt phn t nh.
1.2.3 Mc xm ca nh
Mt im nh (pixel) c hai c trng c bn l v tr (x, y) ca im nh v xm ca
n. Di y chng ta xem xt mt s khi nim v thut ng thng dng trong x l nh.
a) nh ngha: Mc xm ca im nh l cng sng ca n c gn bng gi tr s
ti im .
b) Cc thang gi tr mc xm thng thng: 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 (Mc 256 l mc ph
dng. L do: t k thut my tnh dng 1 byte (8 bit) biu din mc xm: Mc xm dng 1
byte biu din: 28=256 mc, tc l t 0 n 255).
c) nh en trng: l nh c hai mu en, trng (khng cha mu khc) vi mc xm
cc im nh c th khc nhau.
d) nh nh phn: nh ch c 2 mc en trng phn bit tc dng 1 bit m t 21 mc khc
nhau. Ni cch khc: mi im nh ca nh nh phn ch c th l 0 hoc 1.
e) nh mu: trong khun kh l thuyt ba mu (Red, Blue, Green) to nn th gii
mu, ngi ta thng dng 3 byte m t mc mu, khi cc gi tr mu: 28*3=224 16,7 triu
mu.
Chng ta c c thm sch tham kho c thm thng tin v cc khi nim ny.
1.2.4 nh ngha nh s
nh s l tp hp cc im nh vi mc xm ph hp dng m t nh gn vi nh tht.
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
Mt nh s gi s c biu din bng hm f(x, y). Tp con cc im nh l S; cp im
nh c quan h vi nhau k hiu l p, q. Chng ta nu mt s cc khi nim sau.
a) Cc ln cn ca im nh (Image Neighbors)
* Gi s c im nh p ti to (x, y). p c 4 im ln cn gn nht theo chiu ng v
ngang (c th coi nh ln cn 4 hng chnh: ng, Ty, Nam, Bc).
{(x-1, y); (x, y-1); (x, y+1); (x+1, y)} = N4(p)
trong : s 1 l gi tr logic; N4(p) tp 4 im ln cn ca p.
ng
Ty
Nam
(x -1, y-1)
(x, y-1)
(x+1, y-1)
(x -1, y)
(x, y)
(x+1, y)
Bc
(x-1, y+1)
(x, y+1)
(x+1, y+1)
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
nh ngha: Khong cch D(p, q) gia hai im nh p to (x, y), q to (s, t) l hm
khong cch (Distance) hoc Metric nu:
1. D(p,q) 0 (Vi D(p,q)=0 nu v ch nu p=q)
2. D(p,q) = D(q,p)
3. D(p,z) D(p,q) + D(q,z); z l mt im nh khc.
Khong cch Euclide: Khong cch Euclide gia hai im nh p(x, y) v q(s, t) c
nh ngha nh sau:
De(p, q) = [(x - s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2
Khong cch khi: Khong cch D4(p, q) c gi l khong cch khi th (CityBlock Distance) v c xc nh nh sau:
D4(p,q) = | x - s | + | y - t |
Gi tr khong cch gia cc im nh r: gi tr bn knh r gia im nh t tm im nh
n tm im nh q khc. V d: Mn hnh CGA 12 (12*2,54cm = 30,48cm=304,8mm) phn
gii 320*200; t l 4/3 (Chiu di/Chiu rng). Theo nh l Pitago v tam gic vung, ng
cho s ly t l 5 phn (5/4/3: ng cho/chiu di/chiu rng mn hnh); khi di tht l
(305/244/183) chiu rng mn hnh 183mm ng vi mn hnh CGA 200 im nh theo chiu dc.
Nh vy, khong cch im nh ln cn ca CGA 12 l 1mm.
Khong cch D8(p, q) cn gi l khong cch bn c (Chess-Board Distance) gia im
nh p, q c xc nh nh sau:
D8(p,q) = max (| x-s | , | y-t |)
u o
B s ha
My tnh s
B hin th
Hnh 1.3 Cc thnh phn chnh ca h thng x l nh.
Theo quan im ca quy trnh x l, chng ta th hin cc khi c bn trn Hnh 1.1,
cc khi chi tit v lung thng tin trn Hnh 1.2. Theo quan im ca h thng x l trn my
tnh s, h thng gm cc u o (thu nhn nh); b s ha ; my tnh s; B hin th; B nh.
Cc thnh phn ny khng nhc li y (c thm gio trnh cu trc my tnh).
Mt h thng x l nh c bn c th gm: my tnh c nhn km theo v mch chuyn
i ho VGA hoc SVGA, a cha cc nh dng kim tra cc thut ton v mt mn hnh
c h tr VGA hoc SVGA. Nu iu kin cho php, nn c mt h thng nh Hnh 1.4. bao gm
9
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
mt my tnh PC km theo thit b x l nh. Ni vi cng vo ca thit b thu nhn nh l mt
video camera, v cng ra ni vi mt mn hnh. Thc t, phn ln cc nghin cu ca chng ta
c a ra trn nh mc xm (nh en trng). Bi vy, h thng s bao gm mt thit b x l
nh en trng v mt mn hnh en trng.
nh mc xm c p dng trong nhiu lnh vc nh sinh vt hc hoc trong cng
nghip. Thc t ch ra rng bt k ng dng no trn nh, mc xm cng ng dng c trn nh
mu. Vi l do , h thng ban u nn ch bao gm cc thit b thu nhn v hin th nh en
trng. Vi nh mu, nn s dng mt h thng mi nh Hnh 1.3, tr trng hp bn cn mt
camera TV mu v mt mn hnh a tn s (v d nh NEC MultiSync, Sony Multiscan, hoc
Mitsubishi Diamond Scan) hin th nh mu. Nu kh nng hn ch, c th dng PC km theo
v mch VGA v mn hnh VGA, dng nh c.
C a m e r a
truyn hnh
vi ng knh
c kh nng
phng to, thu
nh.
n thit b
nhn nh
Mn hnh
ho v
vn bn
n mn
hnh video
Thit b
nhn nh
Mn
hnh
video
My tnh c nhn
10
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
1.3.2 Nn nh
nh d dng no vn chim khng gian nh rt ln. Khi m t nh ngi ta a k
thut nn nh vo. Cc giai on nn nh c th chia ra th h 1, th h 2. Hin nay, cc chun
MPEG c dng vi nh ang pht huy hiu qu. Mt s phng php, thut ton nn cp
cc chng 7.
CU HI N TP
1. Trnh by cc thnh phn v lu thng tin gia cc khi trong qu trnh x l nh.
2. Nu khi nim v nh ngha im nh.
3. Th no l phn gii nh, cho v d?
4. Trnh by nh ngha mc xm, cho v d.
5. Nu quan h gia cc im nh.
6. Trnh by v khong cch o v phn loi khong cch gia cc im nh.
7. Nu ngha ca cc php bin i nh, lit k mt s php bin i v cho v d.
11
2.1.1 B cm bin nh
My chp nh, camera c th ghi li hnh nh (phim trong my chp, vidicon trong
camera truyn hnh). C nhiu loi my cm bin (Sensor) lm vic vi nh sng nhn thy v
hng ngoi nh: Micro Densitometers, Image Dissector, Camera Divicon, linh kin quang in
bng bn dn. Cc loi cm bin bng chp nh phi s ho l phim m bn hoc chp nh.
Camera divicon v linh kin bn dn quang in c th cho nh ghi trn bng t c th s ho.
Trong Micro Densitometer phim v nh chp c gn trn mt phng hoc cun quang trng.
Vic qut nh thng qua tia sng (v d tia Laser) trn nh ng thi dch chuyn mt phim hoc
quang trng tng i theo tia sng. Trng hp dng phim, tia sng i qua phim.
By gi chng ta cp n tt c cc khi trong h thng.
Thit b nhn nh.
Chc nng ca thit b ny l s ha mt bng tn s c bn ca tn hiu truyn hnh cung
cp t mt camera, hoc t mt u my VCR. nh s sau c lu tr trong b m chnh.
B m ny c kh nng c a ch ha (nh mt PC) n tng im bng phn mm. Thng
thng thit b ny c nhiu chng trnh con iu khin c th lp trnh c thng qua ngn
ng C. Khi mua mt thit cn ch ccc im sau:
1. Thit b c kh nng s ha nh t nht 8 bit (256 mc xm) v nh thu c phi c
kch thc t nht l 512512 im hoc hn.
2. Thit b phi cha mt b m nh lu tr mt hoc nhiu nh c phn gii
512512 im nh.
3. Thit b phi c km mt b y th vin cc chng trnh con c kh nng giao
din vi cc chng trnh C vit bng Turbo C hoc Microsoft C.
4. S tay hng dn s dng phi c km theo, gm c dng cha trn a v khi in.
12
2.1.2 H ta mu
a) Khi nim
T chc quc t v chun ha mu CIE (Commission Internationale dEclairage) a ra
mt s chun biu din mu. Cc h ny c cc chun ring. H chun mu CIE-RGB dng 3
mu c bn R, G, B v k hiu RGBCIE phn bit vi cc chun khc. Nh nu trn, mt
mu l t hp ca cc mu c bn theo mt t l no . Nh vy, mi pixel nh mu k hiu Px,
c vit: (T: trong cng thc d y l k hiu chuyn v)
13
Blue (l)
(0,0,1) l
(1,0,1) tm
(0,1,1) tm xanh
(1,1,1) trng
(0,0,0) en
(0,1,0) lc
Green (lc)
Red ()
RCIE
R NTSC
14
2.2 LY MU V LNG T HA
2.2.1 Gii thiu
Mt nh g(x, y) ghi c t Camera l nh lin tc to nn mt phng hai chiu. nh cn
chuyn sang dng thch hp x l bng my tnh. Phng php bin i mt nh (hay mt hm)
lin tc trong khng gian cng nh theo gi tr thnh dng s ri rc c gi l s ho nh. Vic
bin i ny c th gm hai bc:
Bc 1: o gi tr trn cc khong khng gian gi l ly mu
Bc 2: nh x cng (hoc gi tr) o c thnh mt s hu hn cc mc ri rc gi
l lng t ho.
2.2.2 Ly mu
Ly mu l mt qu trnh, qua nh c to nn trn mt vng c tnh lin tc c
chuyn thnh cc gi tr ri rc theo ta nguyn. Qu trnh ny gm 2 la chn:
- Mt l: khong ly mu.
- Hai l: cch th hin dng mu.
La chn th nht c m bo nh l thuyt ly mu ca Shannon. La chn th hai
lin quan n o (Metric) c dng trong min ri rc.
Khong ly mu (Sampling Interval)
nh ly mu c th c m t nh vic la chn mt tp cc v tr ly mu trong khng
gian hai chiu lin tc. u tin m t qua qu trnh ly mu mt chiu vi vic s dng hm
delta:
0 khi x 0
khi x = 0
(x x0 ) =
( x x 0 ) dx =
x0 +
x0
( x x 0 ) dx = 1
(2-1)
(2-2)
Comb( x) =
( x rx)
(2-3)
r =
vi r l s nguyn, x : khong ly mu
Nh vy, hm rng lc l chui cc xung rng lc t (- n +). Gi s hm mt
chiu g(x) c m t (gn ng) bng g(r x ) tc l:
g ( x ) g (r x )
(2-4)
g s ( x) = g ( x)comb( x) = g ( x) ( x rx)
(2-5)
r =
15
g (rx) ( x rx)
g s ( x) =
(2-6)
r =
(2-7)
Gs ( x ) .
Gs ( x ) =
1
k
G ( x )
x K =
x
(2-8)
(2-9)
2x
comb(x,y)=
( x nx)( y my)
(2-10)
n = m =
g s ( x, y ) = g ( x, y )comb( x, y ) = g ( x, y )
( x nx, y my)
(2-11)
n = m =
1
2x
; y
1
2y
(2-12)
a) Mu im nh ch nht
b) Mu im nh tam gic
c) Mu im nh lc gic
2.2.3 Lng t ha
Lng t ho l mt qu trnh lng ho tn hiu tht dng chung cho cc loi x l tn
hiu trn c s my tnh. Vn ny c nghin cu k lng v c nhiu li gii l thuyt
di nhiu gi nh ca cc nh nghin cu nh Panter v Dite (1951), Max (1960), Panter (1965)
[5].
Cc gi tr ly mu Z l mt tp cc s thc t gi tr Zmin n ln nht Zmax. Mi mt s
trong cc gi tr mu Z cn phi bin i thnh mt tp hu hn s bit my tnh lu tr hoc x
l.
nh ngha: Lng t ho l nh x t cc s thc m t gi tr ly mu thnh mt gii
hu hn cc s thc. Ni cch khc, l qu trnh s ho bin .
Zmin
l1
Zmax
l2
l3
l4
lN-1 lN
17
(2.14)
2.3.1 M lot di
Phng php ny hay dng biu din cho vng nh hay nh nh phn. Mt vng nh R
c th biu din n gin nh mt ma trn nh phn:
1 khi (m, n) R
u (m, n) =
0 khc
(2.15)
2.3.2 M xch
M xch thng c dng biu din bin ca nh. Thay v lu tr ton b nh, ngi
ta lu tr dy cc im nh nh A, BM. Theo phng php ny, 8 hng ca vect ni 2 im
bin lin tc c m ha. Khi nh c biu din qua im nh bt u A cng vi chui cc
t m. iu ny c minh ha trong hnh di y:
3
2
1
0
5
1
A
2
0 1
18
7
6
5 4
2.3.3 M t phn
Theo phng php m t phn, mt vng nh coi nh bao kn mt hnh ch nht. Vng
ny c chia lm 4 vng con (Quadrant). Nu mt vng con gm ton im en (1) hay ton
im trng (0) th khng cn chia tip. Trong trng hp ngc li, vng con gm c im en v
trng gi l vng khng ng nht, ta tip tc chia thnh 4 vng con tip v kim tra tnh ng
nht ca cc vng con . Qu trnh chia dng li khi mi vng con ch cha thun nht im en
hoc im trng. Qu trnh to thnh mt cy chia theo bn phn gi l cy t phn. Nh vy,
cy biu din nh gm mt chui cc k hiu b (black), w (white) v g (grey) km theo k hiu
m ha 4 vng con. Biu din theo phng php ny u vit hn so vi cc phng php trn,
nht l so vi m lot di. Tuy nhin, tnh ton s o cc hnh nh chu vi, m men l tng i
kh khn.
2.4 CC NH DNG NH C BN
2.4.1 Khi nim chung
nh thu c sau qu trnh s ha thng c lu li cho cc qu trnh x l tip theo
hay truyn i (xem li Hnh 1.2). Trong qu trnh pht trin ca k thut x l nh, tn ti nhiu
nh dng nh khc nhau t nh en trng (vi nh dng IMG), nh a cp xm cho n nh
mu: (BMP, GIF, JPEG). Tuy cc nh dng ny khc nhau, song chng u tun theo mt cu
trc chung nht. Nhn chung, mt tp nh bt k thng bao gm 3 phn:
- Mo u tp (Header)
- D liu nn (Data Compression)
- Bng mu (Palette Color)
a) Mo u tp:
Mo u tp l phn cha cc thng tin v kiu nh, kch thc, phn gii, s bit dng
cho 1 pixel, cch m ha, v tr bng mu
b) D liu nn:
S liu nh c m ha bi kiu m ha ch ra trong phn Header.
c) Bng mu:
Bng mu khng nht thit phi c v d khi nh l en trng. Nu c, bng mu cho bit
s mu dng trong nh v bng mu c s dng hin th mu ca nh. Mt s cc nh dng
khc, cu hnh, c trng ca tng ng dng v cc tham s, hc vin c th tham kho thm ti
liu khc (v d [1]).
19
2.5.2 K thut in nh
Ngi ta dng k thut na cng th hin nh trn sch bo, tp ch. Theo k thut
ny, mt nh to nn bi mt chui cc im in trn giy. Thc cht, mi im nh thng gm
mt hnh vung trng bao quanh mt chm en. Do vy, nu chm en cng ln nh s cng xm
mu. Mu xm c th coi nh chm en chim na vng trng. Vng trng l vng gm mt
chm cc im nh c rt t hoc khng c chm en.
T c im cm nhn ca mt ngi, s thay i cng chm en trong cc phn t
nh trng to nn m phng ca mt nh lin tc. Nh vy, mt ngi cm nhn t mt nh m
mu bin i t en qua xm ri n trng. Tng s cng duy nht hin din s xc nh cc
kch thc khc nhau ca chm en. Thng thng, bo nh to nh na cng vi phn
gii t 60 n 80 dpi (dot per inchs : s im nh trn mt inch), sch c th in n 150 dpi.
Tuy nhin, cc my in ghp ni vi my tnh khng c kh nng sp xp cc chm en c
kch thc khc nhau ca nh. Do , ngi ta dng mt s k thut bin i nh: phn ngng,
chn mu, dithering (dithering s nh ngha di y).
a) Phn ngng:
K thut ny t ngng hin th cc tng mu lin tc. Cc im trong nh c so
snh vi ngng nh trc. Gi tr ca ngng s quyt nh im c c hin th hay khng.
Do vy nh kt qu s mt i mt s chi tit. C nhiu k thut chn ngng p dng cho cc i
tng khc nhau :
- Hin th 2 mu: ch dng nh en trng c 256 mc xm. Bn cht ca phng php ny
l chn ngng da trn lc mc xm ca nh. n gin c th ly ngng vi gi tr l
127. Nh vy :
20
Mn hnh monochrome
(n sc)
Mn hnh
mu
en
en
Xm m
Xm nht
Xanh
Trng
Vng
10
12
14
11
15
13
21
Pixel
or PEL
2.6.1 nh en trng
22
2.6.2 nh mu
nh mu theo l thuyt ca Thomas l nh t hp t 3 mu c bn: (R), lc (G), l (B)
v thng thu nhn trn cc di bng tn khc nhau. Vi nh mu, cch biu din cng tng t
nh vi nh en trng, ch khc l cc s ti mi phn t ca ma trn biu din cho ba mu ring
r gm: (red), lc (green) v lam (blue). biu din cho mt im nh mu cn 24 bit. 24 bit
ny c chia thnh ba khong 8 bit. Mi mu cng phn thnh L cp mu khc nhau (thng
L=256). Mi khong ny biu din cho cng sng ca mt trong cc mu chnh.
Do , lu tr nh mu ngi ta c th lu tr tng mu ring bit, mi mu lu tr
nh mt nh a cp xm. Do , khng gian nh dnh cho mt nh mu ln gp 3 ln mt nh a
cp xm cng kch c.
CU HI N TP
1. Trnh by cc thit b thu nhn nh .
2. Th no l ly mu v lng t ha nh?
3. Trnh by phng php m ha lot di.
4. Trnh by cc phng php m ha m xch, m t phn.
5. Trnh by cc phng php m ha t phn.
6. Nu cc nh dng nh c bn.
7. Trnh by khi nim nh en trng v nh mu.
8. Mc xm l gi? K thut th hin mc xm vi nh a cp xm v nh mu ?
9. K thut ti hin nh l g? Trnh by cc k thut ti hin nh
23
(3-1)
24
u<a
u
f (u ) = (u a ) + v a a u < b
(u b) + v u < L
b
(3-2)
f (u ) = u
L
0u<a
au<b
(3-3)
ub
f (u ) = L u to m bn
(3-4)
4) Ct theo mc
L a u b
f (u ) =
0
5) Trch chn bit.
f (u ) = (in 2in 1 ) L
vi in = Int it / 2 n 1 , n=1, 2, , B
(3-5)
nh kt qu trng vi nh gc
dn tng phn.
co tng phn
25
Vb
va
f (u ) = ( X [m, n])
(3-6)
Lc xm
f (u ) = L u
v
26
(3.7)
C nn:
Khng nn:
L
f (u ) =
u
khi a u b
L
f (u ) =
0
khi a u b
(3-8)
a) Khng nn
b) C nn
(3-9)
trch chn bit c ngha nht: bit th n v hin th chng, dng bin i sau:
L
f (u ) =
0
khi k n = 1
(3-10)
27
3.1.6 Tr nh
Tr nh c dng tch nhiu khi nn. Ngi ta quan st nh 2 thi im khc nhau,
so snh chng tm ra s khc nhau. Ngi ta dng thng 2 nh ri tr i v thu c nh mi.
nh mi ny chnh l s khc nhau. K thut ny hay c dng trong d bo thoi tit, trong y
hc.
3.1.7 Nn di sng.
i khi do di ng ca nh ln, vic quan st nh khng thun tin. Cn phi thu nh di
sng li m ta gi l nn gii sng. Ngi ta dng php bin i logarit sau:
v(m,n) = c log10( + u(m,n))
(3-11)
f (u ) =
P (x )
x1 = 0
(3-12)
h( xi )
vi Pu ( xi ) =
L 1
h( x
i =0
(3-13)
f (u ) =
( x1 )
( x1 )
x1= 0
L 1
x1= 0
1/ n
u
1/ n
u
vi n = 2, 3,
f (u ) = log ( 1 + u ) ; u0
f(u) = u1/n
u 0, n = 2, 3,
(3-14)
(3-15)
(3-16)
28
Nhiu cng
Nhiu cng thng phn b khp nh. Nu gi nh quan st (nh thu c) l Xqs, nh gc
l Xgc, nhiu l , nh thu c c th biu din bi:
Xqs = Xgc +
(3-17)
Nhiu nhn
Nhiu nhn thng phn b khp nh v nh thu c s biu din vi cng thc:
Xqs = Xgc *
(3-17)
Nhiu xung
3.2.1 Lm trn nhiu bng lc tuyn tnh: lc trung bnh v lc di thng thp
Do c nhiu loi nhiu can thip vo qu trnh x l nh nn cn c nhiu b lc thch hp.
Vi nhiu cng v nhiu nhn ta dng cc b lc thng thp, trung bnh v lc ng hnh
(Homomorphie); vi nhiu xung ta dng lc trung b, gi trung v, lc ngoi (Outlier).
a. Lc trung bnh khng gian
Vi lc trung bnh, mi im nh c thay th bng trung bnh trng s ca cc im ln
cn v c nh ngha nh sau:
v(m, n) =
a (k , l ) y (m k , n l )
(3-18)
( k ,l ) W
Nu trong k thut lc trn, ta dng cc trng s nh nhau, phng trnh trn s tr thnh:
v(m, n) =
1
N
y (m k , n l )
(3-19)
( k ,l ) W
1
v Nw l s im nh trong ca s lc W.
Nw
Lc trung bnh c trng s chnh l thc hin chp nh u vo vi nhn chp H. Nhn chp
H trong trng hp ny c dng:
29
1 1 1
1
H = 1 1 1
9
1 1 1
Trong lc trung bnh, thng ngi ta u tin cho cc hng bo v bin ca nh khi b
m khi lm trn nh. Cc kiu mt n c s dng ty theo cc trng hp khc nhau. Cc b
lc trn l b lc tuyn tnh theo ngha l im nh tm ca s s c thay bi t hp cc im
ln cn chp vi mt n.
Gi s u vo biu din bi ma trn I:
4
5
I = 6
5
5
7 3 7 1
7 1 7 1
6 1 8 3
7 5 7 1
7 6 1 2
23
35
1
Y = 36
9
36
24
26
39
43
48
35
31
46
49
48
33
19
31
34
34
22
16
27
27
22
11
Mt b lc trung bnh khng gian khc cng hay c s dng. Phng trnh ca b lc
c dng:
Y [m, n] =
1
1
2
4
0 1 0
1
H t1 = 1 2 1
8
0 1 0
1 b
1
b b 2
Hb =
2
(b + 2)
1 b
1
b
1
Ta d dng nhn thy khi b =1, Hb chnh l nhn chp Ht1 (lc trung bnh). hiu r hn
bn cht kh nhiu cng ca cc b lc ny, ta vit li phng trnh thu nhn nh di dng:
30
Y [m, n] =
1
Nw
X
k ,l W
1
hay: Y [m, n] =
Nw
qs
2n.
(3-21)
(m k , n l ) + [m, n]
X
k ,l W
qs
(m k , n l ) +
n2
Nw
(3-22)
(3-23)
(3-24)
(3-25)
R rng, nhiu nhn c trong nh s b gim. Sau qu trnh lc tuyn tnh, ta chuyn v nh
c bng php bin i hm e m.
(3-26)
v[1]=Trungvi(2,3,8)=3;
v[3]= Trungvi(8,4,2)=4;
v[2]=Trungvi(3,4,8)=4;
31
khi | u ( m , n ) ( w )
(3-27)
(3-28)
Lc thng cao
Lc thng thp
(3-29)
(3-30)
(3-31)
u(m,n)
Lc thng thp
v(m,n)
1 1 1
(1) 1 9 1
1 1 1
0 1 0
( 2) 1 5 1
0 1 0
1 2 1
(3) 2 5 2
1 2 1
33
1 1
H =
1 1
Kt qu thu c : v(m,n) = u(k,l) vi k=[m/2] v l=[n/2]
Chn hng 0, ct
0
1 3 2
4 5 6
1
1
1
1
4
4
3
3
5
5
3
3
5
5
2
2
6
6
1
0
2
2
6
0
0
0
0
3
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
6
0
0
0
0
Chp H
(3-32)
(3-33)
(3-34)
(3-35)
vi 0mM-1, 0nN-1,
Nu dng mt n dng:
1 / 4 1 / 4 1 / 4
H = 1 / 2 1 1 / 2
1 / 4 1 / 2 1 / 4
34
{tnh OR logic}
if
then ImaOut(x,y)<-1
FOR(x, y)
Do cht lng.
v(m, n) =
N 1 M 1
(3-36)
k =0 l =0
trong :
u (m, n)
l nh gc;
v(m, n)
l nh ghi c;
h( m k , n l )
V = Hu +
(3-37)
(3-38)
(3-39)
Nhiu (m, n) c th gm hai phn: nhiu tch 1(m, n) , nhiu cng 2 (m.n) u c gi
thit l nhiu trng Gauss c lp tng h vi trung bnh 0:
(3-40)
trong : cc hm g(.), f(.) l cc bin i (ni chung l phi tuyn) c trng cho qu trnh pht
hin v lu tr nh. T (3-40) m hnh c biu din theo hnh khi nh sau:
W(m,n)
U(m,n)
h(m,n)
g(.)
1(m,n)
f(.)
2(m,n)
v(m,n)
(3-41)
Thnh phn 2 (m, n) biu din nhiu gy ra do nhit v thng c m hnh ha theo nhiu
trng.
(3-42)
(3-43)
khi phc nh. gii quyt theo phng php tng ng (hay gn ng) ngi ta dng gi tr
trung bnh khng gian w thay cho w tc l:
w = W (m, n)
(3-44)
37
(3-45)
(3-46)
Trong phm vi ti liu ny khng m t chi tit v dng nhiu ny. ngh tham kho cc
ti liu [1, 4, 5].
3.3.2 Cc b lc
a) K thut lc ngc (Inverse Filter)
U(m,n
)
h(.,.)
w(m,n
)
g(.,.)
v(m,n)
-1
g (.,.)
W(m,
n)
h-1(.,.)
u(m,n
)
g T ( x) = g 1 [ g ( x)] vi g 1 ( x) = x
h T ( x, y, k , l ) = h 1 ( x, y, k , l )
+
(3-47)
(3-48)
(3-49)
H ( w1 , w2 ) H T ( w1 , w2 ) = 1
do :
H T ( w1 , w2 ) = 1
H ( w1 , w2 )
(3-50)
v = Hu + hay = v Hu
(3-51)
38
y (u ) =
= v Hu
min
(3-52)
= T ; v hu
= (v ' Hu ) T (v Hu )
(3-53)
y (u )
= 2 HT (v Hu ) = 0
(u )
Gi s ta c:
(3-54)
u = ( H T H ) 1 H T v
(3-55)
u = H 1 ( H T ) 1 H T v
(3-56)
CU HI N TP CHNG 3
Cho nh s v cc nhn chp sau:
5
I = 6
5
5
7 2 7 1
7 1 7 13
6 30 8 3 ;
7 6 1 2
7 6 1 2
1 1 1
H tt = 1 9 1 ;
1 1 1
1 2 1
H tc = 2 4 2
1 2 1
39
a, ng bin l tng
b, ng bin bc thang
c, ng bin thc
40
nh u ra
ca tin x l nh
Trch chn
c trng
Phn on
Phn loi
Gii thch
Ngoi ra, ngi ta cn s dng phng php i theo ng bao da vo cng c ton hc
l nguyn l quy hoch ng v ng gi l phng php d bin tng th. Phng php d bin
trc tip c hiu qu v t b tc ng ca nhiu.
b, Phng php pht hin bin gin tip: Nu bng cch no y, chng ta thu ng cc
vng nh khc nhau th ng phn cch gia cc vng chnh l bin. Ni cch khc, vic xc
nh ng bao ca nh c thc hin t nh c phn vng. Phng php d bin gin tip
kh ci t nhng p dng tt khi s bin thin sng nh.
Ch : K thut d bin v phn vng nh l hai bi ton i ngu ca nhau.
41
f ( x, y )
f ( x + dx, y ) f ( x, y )
= f 'x
x
dx
(4-1)
f ( x, y )
f ( x, y + dy ) f ( x, y )
= f 'y
y
dy
(4-2)
Trong dx, dy l khong cch gia 2 im k cn theo hng x, y tng ng (thc t chn
dx= dy=1). y l phng php da theo o hm ring bc nht theo hng x, y.
Gradient trong ta gc (r,), vi r l vc t, : gc
df (r , ) f dx f dy
=
+
= f ' x cos + f ' y sin
dr
x dr y dr
f()
df (.)
f(.) t cc i khi
=0
dr
tc:
(4-3)
fy
f 'x
sin
=
cos
f'y
f 'x
v f max =
f'y
r = arctg
fx
x
2
f 'x + f ' y
(4-4)
(4-5)
(4-6)
(4-7)
y
42
y+1
g x = I ( x + 1, y ) I ( x, y )
g y = I ( x, y + 1) I ( x, y )
(4-8)
0 1
Hx =
1 0
1 0
Hy =
0 1
Hng dc (y)
(4-9)
(4-10)
1 0 1
H x = 1 0 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
0
H y = 0 0
1
1
1
Hng dc (y)
Mt n Prewitt
Ton t c Prewitt a ra vo nm 1970 c dng:
1 0 1
H x = 2 0 2
1 0 1
1 2 1
0
0
H y = 0
1
2
1
Hng dc (y)
Mt n ng hng:
Mt mt nn khc cng c nu nh di y gi l mt n ng hng (Isometric).
1 0
H x = 2 0
1 0
2
1
1 2
Hy = 0
0
1
2
0
1
Hng dc (y)
43
-1
Theo hng x
Theo hng y
Ty-Bc
ng-Bc
Ty
ng
Ty-Nam
ng-Nam
Nam
2
2
H x = 2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
Hy = 0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
Hnh 4.7 Ton t Sobel 5x5.
44
H B
5
5
5
5
3 5
= 3 0 3 ; H ng B = 3 0
5 ;
3 3 3
3 3 3
H ng Nam
H Ty
H ng
3 3 5
= 3 0 5 ;
3 3 5
3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3 3
= 3 0
5 ; H Nam = 3 0 3 ; H Ty Nam = 5
0 3 ;
3 5
5
5
5
5
5
5 3
5 3 3
= 5 0 3 ;
5 3 3
H Ty B
5 3
5
=5
0 3
3 3 3
i=1, 2, , 8.
(411)
Ton t la bn khc:
Ngoi ton t la bn Kirsh, mt s ton t la bn khc s dng b mt n 8 hng khc nh:
Bc
1
= 1
1
H ng Nam
H Ty
1
2
1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 ; H ng Bc = 1 2 1 ; H ng = 1 2 1 ;
1
1 1
1 1 1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
= 1 2 1 ; H Nam = 1 2 1 ; H Ty Nam = 1 2 1 ;
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
= 1 2 1 ;
1 1 1
H Ty B
1 1 1
= 1 2 1
1
1 1
hoc:
45
H B
2
1
1 2
1
0
1 0 1
= 0
0
0 ; H ng B = 1 0 1 ; H ng = 2 0 2 ;
1 2 1
2 1 0
1 0 1
H ng Nam
H Ty
2 1 0
1 2 1
0 1 2
= 1 0 1 ; H Nam = 0
0
0 ; H Ty Nam = 1 0 1 ;
0
1
2 1
2
1
1 2
0
1 0 1
= 2 0 2 ;
1 0 1
H Ty B
0
2 1
= 1 0 1 .
0 1 2
A( x, y ) = Max( Wi T I ( x, y ) ) vi i=1, 2, , n.
(4-12)
2 f =
2 f 2 f
+
x 2 y 2
(4-13)
0 1 0
H 1 = 1 4 1 ;
0 1 0
1 1 1
H 2 = 1 8 1 ;
1 1 1
1 2 1
H 3 = 2 5 1
1 2 1
2 f
= 2 f ( x, y ) f ( x 1, y ) f ( x + 1, y )
x 2
2 f
= 2 f ( x, y ) f ( x, y 1) f ( x, y + 1)
y 2
do :
46
2 f =
2 f 2 f
+
= 4 f ( x, y ) f ( x 1, y ) f ( x, y 1) f ( x + 1, y ) f ( x, y + 1)
x 2 y 2
(4-14)
f = (G I ) = f x + f y
(4-15)
f = (G I ) x + (G I ) y = (G x I ) + (G y I )
(4-16)
Ly o hm ring theo x v y ca G ta c:
G x (x, y) =
G y (x, y) =
Gx(x)
x2+ y2
x
exp
2
2 2
x2 + y2
y
exp
2
2 2
(4-17)
(4-18)
G(y)
fx
Arctan fy / fx
I(x,y)
fy
Gy(x)
f x2 + f y2
G(x)
G x ( x, y ) = G x ( x) G ( y ) v G y ( x, y ) = G y ( y ) G ( x)
(4-19)
f x ( x, y ) = G x ( x) G ( y ) I v f y ( x, y ) = G y ( y ) G ( x) I )
(4-20)
T ta c:
Vi bin v hng tnh theo cng thc trn, thut ton c minh ha trn Hnh 4.9.
47
B
C
k =1
k =1
k =2
S (x1 ,..., x N , N ) = g ( x k ) ( x k ) ( x k 1 ) d ( x N , x N 1 )
(4-21)
vi:
d(x ,y): khong cch gia 2 nh x v y tnh theo cc nh ngha tng ng v khong
cch;
v l cc hng s khng m.
ng bao ti u s nhn c bng cch ni cc nh x k , k =1, , N no sao cho
S(x1,, xN, N ) t cc i.
nh ngha hm nh sau:
( x N , N ) = Max {s ( x1 ,..., x N , N )}
x1,..., xN 1
(4-22)
(4-23)
(4-24)
( x k , k ) = Max {S ( x1 ,..., x k , k ) + f ( x k 1 , x k )}
x1,..., xN 1
= Max { ( x k 1 , k 1) + f ( x k 1 , x k )}
x1,..., xN 1
48
(4-25)
( xk , k )
4 E 7
D
6
A5
5
C
A(5
I(8
)
2
2
F(23)
D(11,12 E(16
6
G(8)
3
1
H(8,10)
J(13,10)
49
P7 (x,y)=yP3(x,y);
2
2
; P4(x,y)=xy;
P5 ( x, y ) = y 2 ;
3
3
P8(x,y)= P5(x,y)P3(x,y)
I ( L G ) ( x, y ) = a n Pn ( x, y )
(4-26)
n =0
P ( x, y) I ( x, y)
=
P (i, j )
L G
an
2
n
(4-27)
A h( x)dx
n0
(4-28)
( x)dx
A h' (0)
n0
50
( x)dx
(4-29)
x max = 2
h'
( x)dx
h' '
(4-30)
2
( x)dx
Rng buc u tin () nhm tm hm h(x) phn i xng sao cho t s gia tn hiu v
nhiu l cc i. Rng buc th hai ( ) nhm cc tiu ha phng sai. Rng buc th ba nhm
hn ch im cc tr cc b vi mc ch cung cp ch mt ng bao.
CU HI V BI N TP
1, Hy vit biu thc tnh o hm bc hai mt theo mt n.
2, Cho nh s I:
1
1
I = 11
2 1 1 2
5 5 7 3
5 5 7 3
5 7 7 6
8 7 6 8
51
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
L mc xm
Phng php cc b
53
PhanDoan (Zi)
End
Else exit
End
Tiu chun xt min ng nht y c th da vo mc xm. Ngoi ra, c th da vo
lch chun hay chnh gia gi tr mc xm ln nht v gi tr mc xm nh nht. Gi s
Max v Min l gi tr mc xm ln nht v nh nht trong min ang xt. Nu :
|Max Min| < T (ngng)
ta coi min ang xt l ng nht. Trng hp ngc li, min ang xt khng l min ng nht
v s c chia lm 4 phn.
Thut ton kim tra tiu chun da vo chnh lch max, min c vit :
Function Examin_Criteria(I, N1, M1, N2, M2, T)
/* Gi thit nh c ti a 255 mc xm.
(N1, M1), (N2, M2) l ta im u v im cui ca min; T l ngng. */
Begin
1. Max=0 ; Min=255
2. For i = N1 to N2 do
If
Then
If
Then Max=I[i,j] ;
3. If
ABS(MaxMin)<T
Then Examin_Criteria=0
Else Examin_Criteria=1 ;
End
a) 4 lin thng
b) 8 lin thng
Thut ton t mu (Blob Coloring) : s dng khi nim 4 lin thng, dng mt ca
s di chuyn trn nh so snh vi tiu chun ni.
M (k , l ) = (m 1 ) k (n 2 )r (m, n)
m
(5.1)
1 = mr (m, n) v 2 = nr (m, n)
vi :
ACF
u(m,n)
Lc di tng quan
Phn tch lc
c tnh si
56
(5.2)
(5.3)
Trung bnh :
d = g k hh ( g k , d )
(5.4)
k =1
Phng sai :
d2 = ( g k d ) 2 hg ( g k , d )
(5.5)
k =1
tng phn :
c d = g k2 hg ( g k , d )
(5.6)
k =1
H g = hg ( g k , d ) ln(hg ( g k , d ))
(5.7)
k =1
57
c k ,l = P ( k , l , d ) =
n k ,l
n
(5.8)
p d = max ( k ,l ) C k ,l
- Xc sut cc i :
(5.9)
Entropy :
N
H d = C k ,l ln(C k ,l )
(5.10)
k =1 l =1
D dng thy c entropy cc i khi xc sut lin hip P(k,l,d) c phn phi u.
M men bc m :
N
I d = k l C k ,l
m
(5.11)
k =1 l =1
Id cc tiu khi cc phn t ca ma trn C tp trung trn ng cho chnh v khong cch
|k-l| rt nh, Id nh c ngha l kt cu kh th. Ngi ta cng cn a vo mt s o khc
nh hm t tng quan, ph nng lng.
m
58
CU HI N TP CHNG 5
1. Th no l vng nh ? Mc ch ca phn vng nh l g ?
2. Th no l phn vng nh theo ngng bin ? Cho v d ?
3. Th no l phn vng nh theo min ng nht ? Cho v d ?
4. Trnh by phng php tch cy t phn phn vng nh ?
5. Trnh by phng php hp phn vng nh ?
6. Trnh by phng php tng hp (tch v hp) phn vng nh ?
7. Th no l phn vng nh da vo kt cu?
59
Chng 6: X l nh
6.1.1 Khng gian biu din i tng, khng gian din dch
a) Khng gian biu din i tng
Cc i tng khi quan st hay thu thp c thng c biu din bi tp cc c trng
hay c tnh. Gi s i tng nh X (nh, ch vit, du vn tay,) c biu din bi n thnh
phn (n c trng): X={x1,x2xn}; mi xi biu din mt c tnh. Khng gian biu din thng
c gi tt l khng gian i tng X c nh ngha:
X = { X1, X2,Xm}
60
Chng 6: X l nh
Trong mi Xi biu din mt i tng. Khng gian ny c th l v hn. tin xem
xt chng ta ch xt tp X l hu hn.
b) Khng gian din dch
Khng gian din dch l tp cc tn gi ca i tng. Kt thc qu trnh nhn dng ta xc
nh c tn gi cho cc i tng. Mt cch hnh thc gi l tp tn i tng:
={w1, w2, wk} vi wi, i=1,2k l tn cc i tng.
Qu trnh nhn dng i tng f l mt nh x f:
X vi
f l tp cc quy lut
61
Chng 6: X l nh
- P l lut sn xut;
- S l dng (k hiu bt u).
Th d, i tng nh gm mi v tng, mi l mt tam gic gm 3 cnh l 3 on thng,
tng l mt hnh ch nht gm 4 cnh vung gc vi nhau tng i mt s c m t thng qua
cu trc m t da vo vn phm sinh nh ch trong hnh di y:
Nh
(1)
(3)
(6)
(2)
Mi
Tng
(4)
on 1 on 2 on 3 on 3 on 4 on 5 on 6
(5)
Hnh 6.1 M hnh cu trc ca i tng nh
b) Bn cht
Qu trnh nhn dng gm 3 giai on chnh:
- Chn m hnh biu din i tng.
- Chn lut ra quyt nh (phng php nhn dng) v suy din.
- Hc trong nhn dng.
Trong vic la chn biu din i tng, i tng c th c xc nh theo cch
nh lng (m hnh tham s) hay nh tnh (m hnh cu trc). Khi i tng c xc nh,
qu trnh nhn dng chuyn sang giai on th hai-giai on hc (Learning). Hc l giai on
cung cp tri thc cho h thng. Mc ch hc nhm ci thin, iu chnh vic phn loi tp i
tng thnh cc lp. Nhn dng l tm ra quy lut v cc thut ton c th gn i tng vo
mt lp hay ni mt cch khc gn cho i tng mt tn.
Hc c thy: k thut phn loi nh kin thc bit trc gi l hc c thy. c im c
bn ca k thut ny l ngi ta c mt th vin cc mu chun. Mu cn nhn dng s c em
so snh vi mu chun xem n thuc loi no. Vn ch yu l thit k mt h thng c
th i snh i tng trong nh vi mu chun v quyt nh gn cho chng vo mt lp. Vic
i snh nh vo cc th tc ra quyt nh da trn mt cng c gi l hm phn lp hay hm ra
quyt nh.
Hc khng c thy: k thut ny phi t nh ra cc lp khc nhau v xc nh cc tham
s c trng cho tng lp. Hc khng c thy ng nhin l gp kh khn hn. Mt mt, do s
lp khng c bit trc, mt khc nhng c trng ca lp cng khng c bit trc. K
thut ny nhm tin hnh mi cch gp nhm c th v chn la cch tt nht. Bt u t tp d
liu, nhiu th tc x l khc nhau nhm phn lp v nng cp dn t c mt phng n
phn loi.
Nhn chung, d l m hnh no v k thut nhn dng ra sao, mt h thng nhn dng c
th tm tt theo s sau:
62
Chng 6: X l nh
Trch chn c
trng
Phn lp
Qu trnh tin x l
nh gi
C i C j = vi i j v C i =
y l trng hp l tng khi tp
(6-1)
khng gian biu din tch c tng phn. Nh vy, phn loi l da vo vic xy dng mt nh
x f: X D. Cng c xy dng nh x ny l cc hm phn bit (Descriminant Functions).
(6-2)
trong :
- Wi l trng s gn cho cc thnh phn Xi;
- W0 l trng s hng.
Trong trng hp hm g(.) l tuyn tnh, ngi ta ni vic phn lp l tuyn tnh (trong
trng hp mt hay hai chiu) hay siu phng (trong trng hp nhiu chiu). Cc hm phn bit
thng c xy dng da trn khi nim khong cch hay da vo xc sut c iu kin.
Phn lp da theo khong cch (Distance) l mt cng c tt xc nh i tng c
gn nhau v mt c trng no hay khng. Nu khong cch nh hn mt ngng no y
th ta coi hai i tng l ging nhau. Nu chng ging nhau ta gp gp chng, nu chng khc
nhau v ta tch thnh hai hoc nhiu lp phn bit.
63
Chng 6: X l nh
Phn lp da theo xc sut c iu kin (Conditional Probability). Trong mt s trng
hp, ngi ta da vo xc sut c iu kin phn lp cho i tng. L thuyt xc sut c iu
kin c Bayes nghin cu kh k lng v c dng phn bit i tng.
exp
2 2
2 2
f(x) =
(6-3)
X ={Xl, l=1,2,,L},
l <>k, l=1,2,,r.
(6-4)
k , j P (C j
/ X)
(6-5)
j =1
P ( X / C j ) P (C j )
P( X )
(6-6)
rk ( X ) = l k , j P( X / C j ) P(C j )
j =1
64
(6-7)
Chng 6: X l nh
Vy, quy tc ra quyt nh da trn l thuyt Bayes c tnh n sai s c pht biu nh
sau:
(6-8)
65
Chng 6: X l nh
Gi s hm phn bit cho mi k hiu l ga(X), gb(X), tng ng vi cc k hiu a, b,
d dng hnh dung, ta gi s c t abcd c biu din bi mt dy k t X={x1, x2, x3,
x4}, khi hm phn bit tng ng nhn c l:
ga(x1)+ gb(x2) + gc(x3) + gd(x4)
Cc php cng y c th p dng ton t OR. Trn c s tnh gi tr cc i ca hm
phn bit, vic xc nh (quyt nh) X c thuc lp cc t abcd hay khng. Trong cch tip
cn ny, i tng ca ta c th xem l tng ng vi mt cu hay mt mnh .
Th tc phn loi v nhn dng y gm hai giai on:
b:
c:
-:a-b
x:axb
*:a*b
66
d:
Chng 6: X l nh
Vn phm sinh ra cc m t trong ngn ng PLD c nh ngha nh sau:
GA = {Vn, VT, P, S}
Vi Vn = {A, B, C, D, E} v VT = {a, b, c , d}. S l k hiu bt u v P l tp lut sn
xut.
Ni cch khc, vic ra quyt nh phn lp da vo phn tch cu Gk biu din lp Ck..
Vic nhn dng da theo cu trc vn cn l mt tng v cn nhiu iu cn nghin cu.
67
Chng 6: X l nh
Introduction to Computational Geometry ch ra nhng gii hn trong mng Perceptron mt lp
n v ngh khc phc trong mng Perceptron nhiu lp. Nhng nm 1970 ni bt vi cc s
kin: cc mng lin kt ca Kohonen v Anderson (1972), Cognitron mng t t chc nhiu lp
u tin do Kunihiko Fukushima ngi Nht gii thiu nm 1975. Thi k pht trin vt bc ca
qu trnh nghin cu mng nron l nhng nm 80 vi s ra i ca mt lot cc mng nron c
gi tr: mng Hopfied ca John Hopfield (1982), SOM (Self-Organization Map) ca Kohonen,
my Boltzmann ca Ackley, Hinton v Sejnowski. Tip theo l s ra i ca mng BackPropagation nm 1986 do D. Rumelhart, G. Hilton v R. Williams gii thiu, sau l mng ART
(Adaptive Resonance Networks) vo nm 1987 ca Gail Carpenter v Stephen Grossberg ti i
hc Boston. Trong nhng nm 1990 vic ng dng cc m hnh mng nron vo phc v cc lnh
vc trong cuc sng c pht trin mnh m.
NRON SINH HC V NRON NHN TO
Mng nron nhn to c thit k da trn m hnh mng nron thn kinh vi cc
phn t nron nhn to ca n l s m phng nron sinh hc. Cc mc t chc b no v cu
trc mng nron sinh vt c th c tham kho trong ti liu. Trong phn ny chng ta ch tp
trung tm hiu cu to ca nron sinh hc v nron nhn to thy c s tng quan gia
chng.
Cu trc nron sinh hc
Nron sinh vt c nhiu dng khc nhau nh dng hnh thp, dng t ong, dng r cy.
Tuy khc nhau v hnh dng, chng c cu trc v nguyn l hot ng chung. Mt t bo nron
gm bn phn c bn:
Cc nhnh v r: Cc nhnh v r l cc b phn nhn thng tin, cc u nhy hoc cc
u ra ca cc nron khc bm vo r hoc nhnh ca mt nron. Khi cc u vo t ngoi ny c
s chnh lch v nng K+ , Na+ hay Cl- so vi nng bn trong ca n th xy ra hin tng
thm t ngoi vo trong thng qua mt c ch mng thm c bit. Hin tng thm thu nh vy
to nn mt c ch truyn t thng tin vi hng ngn hng vn li vo trn mt nron sinh vt,
ng vi hng nghn hng vn lin kt khc nhau. Mc thm thu c c trng bi c ch
mng tng trng bng mt t l. T l c gi l t trng hay n gin gi l trng
(Weight).
Thn thn kinh (Soma): Thn thn kinh cha cc nhn v c quan tng hp protein. Cc
ion vo c tng hp v bin i. Khi nng cc ion t n mt gi tr nht nh, xy ra qu
trnh pht xung (hay kch thch). Xung c pht cc u ra ca nron. Dy dn u ra xung
c gi l dy thn kinh.
Dy thn kinh (Axon): Dy thn kinh l u ra. l phng tin truyn dn tn hiu.
Dy thn kinh c cu to gm cc t v c th di t micro mt n vi mt tu tng kt cu
c th. u ra ny c th truyn tn hiu n cc nron khc.
Khp thn kinh l b phn tip xc ca u ra nron vi r, nhnh ca cc nron khc.
Chng c cu trc mng c bit tip nhn cc tn hiu khi c s chnh lch v nng ion
gia bn trong v bn ngoi. Nu lch v nng cng ln th vic truyn cc ion cng nhiu
v ngc li. Mc thm thu ca cc ion c th coi l mt i lng thay i tu thuc vo
nng nh mt gi tr o thay i c gi l trng.
68
Chng 6: X l nh
Trong no ngi c khong 15 t nron, mi nron c ni vi nhiu nron khc bng
nhng khp thn kinh (synapses), mt nron c th c n hn nghn synapses, v s synapses
tng cng li c c lng khong 1 triu t. Tn hiu c truyn qua thn nron ti cc
synapses, v tu theo trng thi ca chng m mt hay nhiu nron khc s c kch thch
tip tc truyn tn hiu. l mc thp nht, nhng t t chc ln cc tng trn nh th no,
c th c c mt bn chi tit ca mt b no ti tng nron khng?
Mng nron sinh vt t chc thnh tng lp (layer). Ta c:
+ Mng mt lp: l tp hp cc phn t nron c u vo v u ra trn mi mt phn
t. Nu mng ni u ra ca cc phn t ny vi u vo ca phn t kia gi l mng t lin kt
(autoassociative).
+ Mng hai lp: gm mt lp u vo v mt lp u ra ring bit.
+ Mng nhiu lp: gm mt lp u vo v mt lp u ra ring bit. Cc lp nm gia
lp u vo v lp u ra gi l lp n (hidden layers).
+ Mng truyn thng: l mng hai hay nhiu lp m qu trnh truyn tn hiu t u ra
lp ny n u vo lp kia theo mt hng.
+ Mng truyn ngc: l mng m trong mt hoc nhiu u ra ca cc phn t lp
sau truyn ngc ti u vo ca lp trc.
+ Mng t t chc: l mng c kh nng s dng nhng kinh nghim ca qu kh
thch ng vi nhng bin i ca mi trng (khng d bo trc). Loi mng ny thuc nhm
h hc, thch nghi khng cn c tn hiu ch o t bn ngoi.
Bng sau y a ra nhng con s c th c th so snh nhng u vit ca b no con ngi so
vi mt my tnh c nhn mc trung bnh hin nay.
Bng 6.1: So snh kh nng lm vic ca b no v my tnh
My tnh
B no ngi
n v tnh ton
B nh
1011 nron
B nh ngoi
Thi gian x l
10-8 giy
10-3 giy
Thng lng
109 bit/giy
1014 bit/giy
Cp nht thng
tin
105 bit/giy
1014 nron/giy
69
Chng 6: X l nh
Nron sinh hc c nhiu dng khc nhau nh dng hnh thp, dng t ong, dng r cy
tuy nhin chng c chung mt cu trc v nguyn l hot ng. Hnh sau y m phng mt
nron sinh hc:
Mt t bo nron gm cc phn c bn:
Nhnh v r: y l b phn tip nhn thng tin ca t bo nron. Cc u nhy hoc
cc u ra ca cc nron khc bm vo r hoc nhnh ca mt nron. Khi cc u vo t ngoi
ny c s chnh lch v nng K+, Na+ hay Cl- so vi nng bn trong ca n th xy ra hin
tng thm t ngoi vo trong thng qua c ch mng thm c bit. Hin tng thm thu nh
vy to nn mt c ch truyn t thng tin vi hng ngn hng vn li vo trn mt nron sinh
hc ng vi hng nghn hng vn lin kt khc nhau. Mc thm thu ca cc ion c th coi l
mt i lng thay i ty thuc vo nng gi l t trng hay n gin l trng (weight).
70
Chng 6: X l nh
B tng lin kt u vo: L b tng hp cc lin kt ti u vo ca mt phn t nron,
m t nh sau:
m
v(t ) = wk x k (t )
(1.1)
k =1
x1
-1
1
w
x2
w2
v(t)
u(t)
H(.)
f(.)
y(t)
.
xm
wm
H (s) =
hay
U ( s)
V (s)
U ( s ) = H ( s)V ( s )
(1.2)
1
s
Quan h vo ra
u (t ) = v(t )
du (t )
= v(t )
dt
1
1 sT
Exp( sT )
du (t )
+ u (t ) = v(t )
dt
u (t ) = v(t T )
B phi tuyn: Phn ny s dng hm quan h phi tuyn f(.) cho u ra y, chn tnh hiu
u ra. Cc hm u ra thng thng l cc hm c gii hn ngng ph hp vi c im u
71
Chng 6: X l nh
ra ca nron sinh hc. Hm dng ny thng c gi l hm kch hot (activation) th hin c
im kch hot hay c ch ca mt nron.
m
y = f (u (t )) = f ( xi (t ) wi )
i 1
(1.3)
Cng thc
if x > 0
if x < 0
Bc nhy n v
1
f(x)=
0
Hm du (sgn)
if x 0
1
f(x)=
1 if x < 0
Hm tuyn tnh
Hm tuyn tnh
bo ha i xng
Hm Sigmoid lng cc
c tnh
f(x)= x
if x > 1
1
f(x)= x if 1 x 1
1 if x < 0
f(x)=
2
1
1 + e x
72
Chng 6: X l nh
Cc nron sinh hc lin kt vi nhau thnh lp to thnh mng nron sinh hc. Nron
nhn to l s m phng nron sinh hc. C nhiu cch kt hp cc nron nhn to thnh mng,
mi cch kt hp to thnh mt lp mng nron nhn to khc nhau.
Phn loi mng nron nhn to
C nhiu cch phn loi mng nron nhn to, ty theo tiu ch ra:
- Da vo s lng lp c trong mng, ta phn thnh:
+ Mng mt lp
+ Mng nhiu lp
MNG NRON NHN TO
Truyn thng
Tuyn
tnh
Mng
Furie
Phn hi
Phi
tuyn
Brain
State in
Box
Mng
Gabor
My
Boltzman
Cohen
Grossberg
T t chc
Hopfield
nh x c
trng
ART
Mc
Culloch
Pitts
73
Chng 6: X l nh
Hc c thy (Hc gim st: Supervised Learning): Vi kiu hc ny, ti mi thi im
c u vo mng nron th u ra mong mun ca h s c cho sn. C th c th ha nh sau:
Mng c cung cp mt tp cc mu (x(1),d(1)), (x(2),d(2)), (x(n),d(n)) l cc cp u vo
u ra mong mun. Khi mt u vo mng x(k) c a vo, u ra mong mun d(k) cng c
a vo mng. Sai khc gia gi tr u ra thc s y(k) v u ra mong mun d(k) s l c s to tn
hiu li mng sa li trng sao cho u ra thc s gn vi u ra mong mun hn.
Hc khng c thy (Hc khng gim st: Unsupervised Learning): Vi kiu hc ny,
khng c bt k mt thng tin phn hi t mi trng no. Mng phi t tm ra cc mu, c tnh,
tnh quy tc, s tng quan trong d liu u vo v tp hp li to u ra. Khi t tm ra cc
c im ny, mng tri qua cc thay i v tham s ca n. Qu trnh ny c gi l t t
chc.
Cc lut hc c th c khi qut thnh dng chung vi lng iu chnh trng nh
sau:
wij = rx j (t )
(1.4)
dwi (t )
= rx j (t )
dt
(1.5)
Chng 6: X l nh
Propagation l mng s c s dng gii quyt bi ton nhn dng m vch EAN-8 m n
t ra.
Mng Perceptron mt lp n
Cu trc
Cu trc ca mng Perceptron mt lp n c trng cho loi mng truyn thng c
m t trong hnh v di y:
x1
x2
w11
u ra thc
y1
e1
e2
y2
d1
d2
+
xm-1
u ra mong mun
em
yn
dm
+
(1.6)
j =1
y i( k ) = Sign(Wi T xi( k ) ) = d i( k )
(1.7)
Lut hc
Nh ni trn mng Perceptron s dng lut hc Perceptron l lut hc c gim st,
dng chung ca lng iu chnh trng l (cng thc 1.4):
wij = rx j (t )
trong , tn hiu hc r = di yi. Do u ra mong mun ch gm hai gi tr 1 v -1 nn ta c:
75
Chng 6: X l nh
2d i xi
Wij = (d i y i ) x j = (d i Sign( wiT x)) x j =
0
if y i d i
else
(1.8)
w1n
xn
..
w2n
wn2
w12
x2
x1 wn1
w21
yn
y2
y1
y i( k +1) = sgn(
j =1, j i
ij
y (jk ) + x i i ) vi i=1,2,n
76
(1.9)
Chng 6: X l nh
Nguyn tc cp nht trn c p dng theo kiu khng ng b. Vic cp nht tip
theo trn mt node c chn ngu nhin s dng cc u ra va mi c cp nht. Ni cch
khc, do vic x l khng ng b ca mng, mi u ra ca node c cp nht mt cch ring
r, trong khi s dng cc gi tr mi nht m c cp nht. Phng php cp nht khng ng
b c ngh nh mt s quy ngu nhin khng ng b ca mng Hopfield ri rc.
Tnh n nh
Tnh n nh ca mng c m t thng qua hm nng lng:
E=
n
n
1 n n
w
y
y
x
y
+
i yi
ij i j
i i
2 i =1 j =1, j i
i =1
i =1
(1.10)
(1.11)
Cu trc
+ Lp n: vi tp mu u vo x, nron th q ca lp n nhn tng u vo l
77
Chng 6: X l nh
m
net q = v jq x j
(6-14)
j =1
Wij
Wij
Wij
Wij
V
Wij
Wij
V
Wij
Wij
Vjq
Wij
Vjq
W
W
Wij
Wij
V
Wij
Vjq
Wij
Vjq
Wij
Vjq
z q = f (net q ) = f ( v qj x j )
(6-15)
j =1
m
net i = wiq z q = wiq f v qj x j
q =1
q =1
j =1
(6-16)
v to u ra:
y i = f (net i ) = f wiq z q =
q =1
l
m
f wiq f v qj x j
q =1
j =1
(6-17)
1 n
1 n
1 n
2
E(w)= (d i y i ) 2 = [d i f (net i )] = d i f wiq z q
2 i =1
2 i =1
2 i =1
q =1
(6-18)
78
Chng 6: X l nh
wiq =
E y i
E
=
wiq
y i net i
net i
wiq
= (d i y i ) f ' (net i ) z q = oi z q
(6-19)
(6-20)
v qj =
E
E
=
net
v qi
q
net q
v
qj
= E
z q
net
q
net q
v
qj
(6-21)
(6-22)
i =1
(6-23)
i =1
(6-24)
hq = z q (1 z q ) oi wiq
(6-25)
i =1
k =1
pk
Chng 6: X l nh
1) Nhn dng cc hnh khi ring l khng lng nhau.
2) Hnh nh khng qu c bit, v d nh hnh tam gic khng qu t.
3) nh c nh dng BMP.
4) Mc xoay ca nh khng qu cao
Cc nh u vo c th l nhiu dng khc nhau: PCX, BMP, IMG, JPG, , nhng trong
h thng nhn dng hnh khi ny ch th nghim nhn dng nh u vo dng BMP. Tp d liu
nh khng qu c bit v khc ging nhau, cc trng hp nh cng c nh nhng nh thc
trong qu b so vi ton b nh cng c th dn n kt qu khng ng. Cc hnh khi u
vo ca h nhn dng:
80
Chng 6: X l nh
c) Kt qu
Vi vic hun luyn trn tp mu gm 30 mu, mi mu 7 hnh khi, s ln lp hun
luyn l trn 2500 ln. Sau khi hun luyn xong mng c th nghim 10 ln vi kt qu nh
sau:
Nhn dng hnh tam gic: sau cc th nghim, kt qu cho thy hnh tam gic nhn dng
tt nhng hnh cn i cc gc khng qu lch nhau. Khi c mt gc qu t th vic nhn dng
s khng hiu qu. S hnh nhn dng sai l 3.
Nhn dng hnh t gic v hnh lc gic: hnh t gic l mt hnh c nhiu dng nn vc
nhn dng tt th phi tri qua qu trnh hun luyn mu phong ph. S hnh nhn dng sai ca c
hai loi t gic v lc gic l 7. Hnh t gic v hnh lc gic rt d nhm vi nhau khi hnh lc
gic c 2 gc i din vi nhau ln qu, dn n vic nhm thnh ng thng:
81
Chng 6: X l nh
th ngi ta ch cn qut m vch ca vt bi thit b c m vch. Chng c bit lm vic
tt trong iu kin t ng ha hon ton, chng hn nh trong lun chuyn hnh l cc sn
bay.
V d v m vch 2D
82
Chng 6: X l nh
dn n vic pht trin cc ma trn m (mt dng m vch 2D), trong khng cha cc vch
m l mt li cc vng.
- Phng php nhn dng m vch:
S ra i ca m vch vo gia th k XX m ra mt k nguyn mi cho vn lu tr
thng tin sn phm trong cc lnh vc sn xut kinh doanh. Ngy nay ta c th d dng tm thy
m vch trn cc bao b sn phm trong cuc sng hng ngy. S xut hin ca m vch tr nn
ph bin v quen thuc vi ngi tiu dng chng t cc cng ngh h tr qui trnh c m vch
cng phi pht trin mnh c th p ng c yu cu s dng. M vch c th c c
bi cc my qut quang hc cng c th c qut t hnh nh bng cc phn mm x l chuyn
bit. Hin nay my qut quang hc (Barcode Scanner) c ng dng rng ri bi s phc hp
ca n vi mi trng lm vic cng nh loi sn phm s dng m vch.
Tuy nhin phng php s dng my qut m vch cng c nhng u nhc im ring.
u im ni bt ca phng php ny l tnh tin dng, nhn dng nhanh vi chnh xc cao.
Nhc im ca n l i hi v trang thit b cng cc ph kin i km thng khng gn nh v
khng mang tnh kh chuyn khong cch ln cng nh yu cu v cht lng m vch phi
tng i tt.
Mt cu hi t ra l trong nhng trng hp ngi dng khng c sn cc thit b qut
m vch trong tay, h ch c th chp nh ca m vch m mun bit tt c cc thng tin lin
quan n sn phm c m vch th phi p ng yu cu ny nh th no? V liu phng
php no c kh nng nhn ra m vch khi m vch c chp thnh nh? Cu tr li c gi
m khi chng ta tm hiu v mng nron v th mnh nhn dng nh ca n.
Bi ton Nhn dng m vch EAN-8 trn c s mng nron nhn to l mt th nghim
tr li cho cu hi nu trn.
b) Gii quyt bi ton nhn dng m vch EAN-8 trn c s mng nron nhn to
- Cu trc m vch EAN-8: EAN-8 l phin bn EAN (h thng nh s sn phm chu
u European Article Numbering) c to ra vi mc ch s dng trn cc loi bao b hng
ha nh. ng nh tn gi ca n, EAN-8 m ha 8 s thp phn v c trng ca chui 8 s ny
l c cc t chc c thm quyn v m vch cung cp trc tip do chui 8 s ny phi c
lu tr trong mi c s d liu nh m cc sn phm ring bit.
Trong chui 8 s ca EAN-8 c hai hoc ba s l m nc, nm hay bn s cn li l m
sn phm (chiu di m sn phm ph thuc vo chiu di m nc), s cui cng trong chui l
s kim tra.
83
Chng 6: X l nh
Cu trc ca m vch theo th t nh sau:
+ Vch bo v tri c gi tr nh phn l 101.
+ Bn s u trong chui 8 s.
+ Vch bo v gia c gi tr nh phn l 01010.
+ Bn s sau trong chui 8 s.
+ Vch bo v phi c gi tr nh phn l 101.
- Cu trc mng Back-Propagation:
Mng BackPropagation c s dng trong bi ton nhn dng m vch EAN-8 u c ba
lp: lp vo, lp n v lp ra.
S nron ca lp vo chnh l s thnh phn ca vect c trng cho nh m vch. Do c
im ca m vch l nhng vch en v trng thng ng c rng xc nh nn ta ch cn ly
s im nh ca m vch qut theo chiu ngang ca ma trn nh. Xc nh theo th nghim trn
cc mu sinh ra t tin ch BarEAN, s im nh lun l 250 khng ph thuc vo chiu cao v
chiu rng m vch. Do , s nron lp vo ca h nhn dng m vch EAN-8 l 250.
S nron lp ra ty thuc vo cch m ha c trng xc nh tng mu u ra mong
mun. Theo cu trc ca EAN-8, mi mu EAN-8 s c c trng bi 67 bit (vch bo v tri
v phi gm 3 bit, vch bo v gia gm 5 bit, chui 8 s thp phn mi s c m ha bng 7
bit). Do s nron lp ra ca h nhn dng m vch EAN-8 l 67. Vi cch la chn ny th
mt mu u ra s c c trng bi tp 67 gi tr nh phn. Sau ta dng mt hm chuyn i
tm ra chui 8 s thp phn m 67 gi tr nh phn ny biu din, chui 8 s thp phn chnh
l m EAN-8 ca sn phm, t chui ny ta s tm ra cc thng tin lin quan n sn phm c
lu trong c s d liu (tn sn phm, gi sn phm, n v tnh).
V tnh phc tp cng tng ln khi s lp n tng ln, do vi bi ton t ra cho n,
hin ti mng BP c s dng xc nh cc tham s hc gm mt lp n. S nron lp n c
chn theo thc nghim. Trong h nhn dng m vch EAN-8 s nron lp n c chn l 50.
Hnh di y m t cu trc mng BP s dng trong h nhn dng:
0
1
0
50
67
250
Lp vo
Lp n
Lp ra
Hnh 6.5 Mng Back Propagation s dng trong h nhn dng EAN-8
84
Chng 6: X l nh
Vic tnh ton cc tham s khc dng trong qu trnh hun luyn mng nh trng khi to,
hng s hc, s dng hm kch hot no c xc nh theo th nghim.
c) Kt qu
H nhn dng m vch EAN-8 s dng mng nron BackPropagation c xy dng
bng ngn ng Java do nhng tin ch m ngn ng ny em li (ph lc 2: xy dng h nhn
dng m vch EAN-8 bng ngn ng Java). Java da trn C++ nhng n li n gin hn C++ (v
n lc b cc tnh nng kh nht ca C++) m vn thn thin vi ngi dng. Bn cnh Java
cng c tnh c lp vi cu trc ngha l khng ph thuc vo cc loi my, h iu hnh; cc
trnh ng dng vit bng Java c th dng c trn hu ht cc my tnh. Ngoi ra Java cng h
tr a lung ngha l cho php xy dng trnh ng dng c nhiu qu trnh c th xy ra ng
thi.
Th nghim dng mng nron BP nhn dng m vch EAN-8 c thc thi trn my
tnh Intel(R) Pentium(R) 4 CPU 1.80GHz, b nh 256 MB RAM.
Vi nhng iu kin trn th cc kt qu t c c th tng kt thng qua cc bng
sau:
Bng 6.6 Bng thng k hi t vi cc trng khi to khc nhau
Gi tr trng
khi to
S lng vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.01)
S lng vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.001)
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.19
0.18
0.17
0.16
275
265
210
201
313
299
321
757
1728
151
478
482
864
890
S vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.01)
Khng hi t
Khng hi t
Khng hi t
1123
185
778
634
Phn trm
nhn dng ng
0%
0%
4%
98%
100%
100%
100%
85
Chng 6: X l nh
Bng 6.8 Bng thng k hi t vi s nron lp n khc nhau
Cht lng hun luyn mng
S lng
nron lp n
S vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.01)
948
345
233
208
216
562
1348
30
40
45
50
55
60
70
Phn trm
nhn dng ng
88%
92%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
S vng hc
11
138
199
Phn trm
nhn dng ng
100%
100%
100%
CU HI V BI TP
1. Th no l hc (Learning) ? Trnh by hc tham s v hc cu trc.
2. Trnh by cu trc v cc thnh phn ca mng n ron sinh hc.
3. Trnh by cu trc v cc thnh phn mng n ron sinh hc.
4. Trnh by cu trc v lut hc mng n ron Perceptron.
5. Trnh by cu trc v lut hc mng n ron ADALINE.
6. Trnh by cu trc v lut hc mng n ron Hopfield ri rc.
7. Trnh by cu trc mng n ron Lan truyn ngc.
8. Trnh by lut hc mng n ron Lan truyn ngc
9. Vit thut ton lut hc mng n ron Lan truyn ngc.
10. Trnh by phng php v tng ng dng mng n ron trong nhn dng nh.
11. Trnh by phng php v tng ng dng mng n ron trong nhn dng nh cc
khi hnh hc.
12. Trnh by phng php v tng ng dng mng n ron trong nhn dng nh m vch.
13. Trnh by phng php thng k trong nhn dng nh.
14. Trnh by thut ton nhn dng nh theo khong cch.
86
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
CHNG 7: NN D LIU NH
Hc xong phn ny sinh vin c th nm c:
1. Mt s khi nim (thut ng) nh: nn, t l nn, cc tng dn n cc phng
php nn khc nhau v cch phn loi, nh gi cc phng php nn
2. Cc phng php nn nh th h th nht
3. M ha theo cc bin i ca th h th nht
87
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
php nn d liu khc nhau. Ni mt cch khc, cc phng php nn d liu khc nhau l do s
dng cc kiu d tha khc nhau. Ngi ta coi c 4 kiu d tha chnh :
- S phn b k t :
Trong mt dy k t,c mt s k t c tn sut xut hin nhiu hn so vi cc dy khc.
Do vy, ta c th m ha d liu mt cch c ng hn. Cc dy k t c tn sut cao c thay
bi mt t m nh phn vi s bt nh; ngc li cc dy c tn sut xut hin thp s c m
ha bi t m c nhiu bt hn. y chnh l bn cht ca phng php m ha t ha Huffman.
- S lp li ca cc k t :
K thut nn dng trong trng hp ny l thay dy lp bi dy mi gm hai thnh
phn: s ln lp v k hiu dng m. Phng php m ha kiu ny c tn l m ha lot di
RLC (Run Length Coding).
- Nhng mu s dng tn sut:
C th c dy k hiu no xut hin vi tn sut tng i cao. Do vy, c th m ha
bi t bt hn. y l c s ca phng php m ha kiu t in do Lempel-Ziv a ra v c ci
tin vo nm 1977, 1978 v do c tn gi l phng php nn LZ77,LZ78. Nm 1984, Tery
Welch ci tin hiu qu hn v t tn l LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch).
- d tha v tr:
Do s ph thuc ln nhau ca d liu, i khi bit c k hiu (gi tr) xut hin ti mt
v tr, ng thi c th on trc s xut hin ca cc gi tr cc v tr khc nhau mt cch ph
hp. Chng hn, nh biu din trong mt li hai chiu, mt s im hng dc trong mt khi
d liu li xut hin trong cng v tr cc hng khc nhau. Do vy, thay v lu tr d liu, ta ch
cn lu tr v tr hng v ct. Phng php nn da trn s d tha ny gi l phng php m
ha d on.
88
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
- Cc phng php nn th h th nht: Gm cc phng php m mc tnh ton l
n gin, th d vic ly mu, gn t m,.v.v.
- Cc phng php nn th h th hai: da vo bo ha ca t l nn.
Trong cch trnh by di y ta s theo cch phn loi ny.
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
bin i. Tuy nhin, trong mt s tnh hung khi tn sut l rt thp, ta c th khng c li mt
cht no, thm ch cn b thit mt t bit.
Thut ton
Thut ton bao gm 2 bc chnh:
- Giai on th nht: tnh tn sut ca cc k t trong d liu gc: duyt tp gc mt cch
tun t t u n cui xy dng bng m. Tip sau l sp xp li bng m theo th t tn
sut gim dn.
- Giai on th hai: m ha: duyt bng tn sut t cui ln u thc hin ghp 2 phn
t c tn sut xut hin thp nht thnh mt phn t duy nht. Phn t ny c tn sut bng tng 2
tn sut thnh phn. Tin hnh cp nht li bng v ng nhin loi b 2 phn t xt. Qu
trnh c lp li cho n khi bng ch c mt phn t. Qu trnh ny gi l qu trnh to cy m
Huffman v vic tp hp c tin hnh nh mt cy nh phn 2 nhnh. Phn t c tn sut thp
bn phi, phn t kia bn tri. Vi cch to cy ny, tt c cc bit d liu/k t l nt l; cc nt
trong l cc nt tng hp. Sau khi cy to xong, ngi ta tin hnh gn m cho cc nt l. Vic
m ha rt n gin: mi ln xung bn phi ta thm 1 bit 1 vo t m; mi ln xung bn tri
ta thm mt bit 0. Tt nhin c th lm ngc li, ch c gi trn m thay i cn tng chiu di
l khng i. Cng chnh do l do ny m cy c tn gi l cy m Huffman nh trn gi.
Qu trnh gii nn tin hnh theo chiu ngc li kh n gin. Ngi ta cng phi da
vo bng m to ra trong giai on nn (bng ny c gi li trong cu trc ca tp nn cng vi
d liu nn). Th d, vi mt tp d liu m tn sut cc k t cho bi.
K t
Tn sut
K t
Tn sut
Xc sut
152
1532
0.2770
323
602
0.1088
412
536
0.0969
226
535
0.0967
385
112
0.0746
602
385
0.0696
92
323
0.0585
112
315
0.0569
87
226
0.0409
1532
220
0.0396
536
152
0.0275
220
112
0.0203
315
92
0.0167
535
87
0.0158
Bng tn sut
90
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Lu rng, trong phng php Huffman, m ca k t l duy nht v khng m no l
phn bt u ca m khc. V vy, khi c tp nn tng bit t u n cui ta c th duyt cy m
cho n mt l, tc l k t c gii nn.
Bng t m gn cho cc k t bi m Huffman
0
10
0110
010
11110
001
11011
000
111111
1110
111110
1100
110101
0111
110100
91
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
0
0
1
255
255
256
256
257
257
258
Chui
259
4095
(Clear Code)
(End Of Information)
Chui
Chui
92
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
u vo
u ra
A(65)
Thc hin
A c trong t in => c tip
B(66)
65
C(67)
66
67
259
258
67
262
Chui u ra s l :
65 66 667 259 258 67 262
u vo c kch thc : 12x8 = 96 bits. u ra c kch thc l : 4x8 + 3x9 = 59 bits
T l nn l 96 : 59 1,63
Thut ton
- Gi tr c INPUT = TRUE khi vn cn d liu u vo v ngc li.
- Chc nng ca cc hm :
+ Hm InitDictionary(): hm ny c chc nng khi to t in. t gi tr cho 256 phn
t u tin. Gn m xa (Clear Code) cho phn t th 256 v m kt thc thng tin (End Of
Information) cho phn t th 257. Xa gi tr tt c cc phn t cn li.
+ Hm Output(): gi chui bit ra file. Chui ny c di l 9,10,11 hoc 12 ty thuc
vo v tr trong t in ca t m gi ra. Cc chui bit ny c ni tip vo vi nhau.
+ Hm GetNextChar(): tr v k t t chui k t u vo. Hm ny cp nht gi tr ca c
INPUT x nh xem cn d liu u vo na hay khng.
+ Hm AddtoDictionary(): s c gi khi c mt mu mi xut hin. Hm ny s cp
nht mu ny vo phn t tip theo trong t in. Nu t in y n s gi ra m xa (Clear
Code) v gi n hm InitDictionary() khi to li t in.
+ Hm Code(): tr v t m ng vi mt chui.
93
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
BEGIN
InitDictionary()
Output(Clear_Code)
OldStr = NULL
True
INPUT
Output(Code(OldStr))
OutPht(EOI)
False
NewChar = GetNextChar()
NewStr = OldStr + NewChar
InitDictionary
(NewStr)
False
OldStr = NewStr
END
True
Output(Code(OldStr))
AddtoDictionary(NewStr)
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
OldStr := code;
End;
if code = CC /*M xa*/
Then Begin
InitDictionary();
FIST_CODE = TRUE;
End;
NewStr := DeCode(code);
OutBuff(NewStr);
OldString = OldStr + FirstChar(NewStr);
AddtoDictionary(OldStr);
OldString := NewStr;
End;
+ Gi tr c FIRST_CODE = TRUE ch m va c l m u tin ca mi mnh nh.
M u tin c cch x l hi khc so vi cc m tip theo.
+ M CC bo hiu ht mt mnh nh. M EOF bo hiu ht ton b thng tin nh.
+ Chc nng ca cc hm:
- GetNextCode(): hm ny c thng tin u vo (d liu nn) tr v m tng ng.
Chng ta nh li rng, d liu nn gm chui cc t m ni tip nhau. Ban u l 9
bit, sau tng ln 10 bit ri 11, 12 bit. Nhim v ca hm ny khng phi n gin.
bit c ti thi im hin thi, t m di bao nhiu bit ra phi lun theo di t
in v cp nht di t m ti cc phn t th 512,1024, 2048.
- OutBuff(): hm ny gi chui gi tr gii m ra vng nh m.
- DeCode(): hm ny tra cu t in v tr v chui k t tng ng vi t m.
- FirstChar(): ly k t u tin ca mt chui. K t va xc nh ni tip vo chui k
t c ( gii m bc trc) ta c chui k t c mt trong t in khi nn.
Chui ny s c thm vo t in gii nn.
- OutPut(): gi chui bt ra file. Chui bt ny c di l 9, 10, 11 hoc 12 ty thuc
vo v tr trong t in ca t m gi ra. Cc chui bit ny c ni tip vo vi nhau.
Trng hp ngoi l v cch x l
i vi gii thut LZW tn ti mt trng hp c sinh ra nhng chng trnh gii nn
c th khng gii m c. Gi s c l mt k t, S l mt chui c di ln hn 0. Nu m k
ca t in cha gi tr l cS. Ngay sau k c dng thay th cho cSc. Trong chng trnh gii
nn, k s xut hin trc khi n c nh ngha. Rt may l t m va c trong trng hp ny
bao gi cng c ni dung trng vi t hp ca t m c vi k t u tin ca n. iu ny gip
cho qu trnh ci t chng trnh khc phc c trng hp ngoi l mt cch d dng.
95
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Phng php ny lc u c pht trin cho nh s 2 mc xm, sau hon thin thm
bi cc phng php thch nghi v m rng cho nh s a cp xm.
Cho mt nh s I(x, y) kch thc MxN. Ngi ta chia nh nh s thnh cc khi hnh ch nht
kch thc kx1, (k, 1) l rt nh so vi M, N. Nh vy nh gc coi nh gm cc khi con xp cnh
nhau v c N x M/(k x 1) khi con.
Ta c th dng phng php m ha Huffman cho tng khi ca nh gc, ngha l gn
cho mi t khi mt t m nh phn nh phn trn. Mt kh khn gp phi khi dng m ha ti
u Huffman l s lng khi qu ln. Gii php y l dng m ha gn ti u, n gin
hn thc hin m ha.
Gi thit cc khi l c lp nhau v s cu hnh l 2kl. Gi p(I, k, l) l xc sut xut hin
cu hnh I, entropy tng ng l:
2 kl
p(t / t )
=
p(t / d )
p(d / t )
p (d / d )
(7.1)
Vi:
- p(t/t) l xc sut c in kin trng sang trng.
- p(d/d) l xc sut c iu kin en sang en. Cc xc sut khc c ngha tng t.
Nh vy:
p(0,k,1) = p(t)p(t/t)k-1
(7.2)
Cr =
+Khi hai chiu:
96
1
k 1
k (1 p(t )) p(t/t ) + 1
(7.3)
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Xc sut p(0, k, l) ca cc khi ton trng cng tnh c mt cch tng t nh trn:
p(0,k,l) = p(t)p(t/t)k-1[p(t/t).p(t/X = t, Y = t)l-1]k-1
(7.4)
(7.5)
Cr =
(7.6)
k opt
= T
1I
l =1
(7.7)
I >1
N l s im nh trn hng
[6]:
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Cc phng php m ha da vo bin i lm gim lng thng tin d tha khng tc
ng ln min khng gian ca nh s m tc ng ln min bin i. Cc bin i c dng
y l cc bin i tuyn tnh nh: bin i KL, bin i Fourrier, bin i Hadamard, Sin, Cosin
vv
V nh s thng c kch thc rt ln, nn trong ci t ngi ta thng chia nh thnh
cc khi ch nht nh. Thc t, ngi ta dng khi vung kch thc c 16x16. sau bin i
tng khi mt cch c lp.
Chng ta bit, dng chung ca bin i tuyn tnh 2 chiu l:
N 1
X (m, n ) =
k =0
N 1
l =0
- x(k,1) l tn hiu vo
- a(m,n,k,1) l cc h s ca bin i l phn t ca ma trn bin i A.
Ma trn ny gi l nhn ca bin i. Cch xc nh cc h s ny l ph thuc vo tng
loi bin i s dng. i vi phn ln cc bin i 2 chiu, nhn c tnh i xng v tch c :
A[m,n,k,1] = A[m,k] A[n,1]
Nu bin i l KL th cc h s chnh l cc phn t ca vct ring.
98
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
khc nh Hadamard, Haar, Sin v Cosin. Trong s bin i ny, bin i Cosin thng hay c
dng nhiu hn.
AUAt
Lng ha
2 k
N
x(n)cos
1
2
khi k = 0
N 1
n =0
(2n + 1)k
2N
(7.10)
Trong : k =
0
khi k = [1,N-1]
Khi dy u vo x(n) l thc th dy cc h s X(k) cng l s thc. Tnh ton trn trng
s thc gim i mt na thi gian so vi bin i Fourier. t c tc bin i tha mn
yu cu ca cc ng dng thc t, ngi ta ci tin k thut tnh ton v a ra nhiu thut ton
bin i nhanh Cosine. Mt trong nhng thut ton c gii thiu di y.
Php bin i Cosin nhanh
Php bin i Cosin nhanh vit tt l FCT (Fast Cosine Transform), da vo tng a
bi ton ban u v t hp cc bi ton bin i FCT trn cc dy con. Vic tin hnh bin i
trn cc dy con s n gin hn rt nhiu so vi dy gc. V th, ngi ta tip tc phn nh dy
tn hiu cho n khi ch cn mt phn t.
Gii thut bin i Cosin nhanh khng thc hin trc tip trn dy tn hiu u vo x(n)
m thc hin trn dy x(n) l mt hon v ca x(n). Gi thit s im cn tnh FCT l ly tha
ca 2: N=2M
D liu u vo s c sp xp li nh sau:
99
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
N
1
2
N
1
2
(4n + 3)k
(4n + 1)k 2
+ x(2n + 1)Cos
X(k) = x(2n)Cos
2N
2N
n =0
n =0
Rt gn biu thc:
X(k) =
N 1
x'(2n)Cos
n =0
(4n + 1)k
2N
X(2k) =
N
1
2
(4n + 1)2k
N
) cos
N
)
2(
2
x'(n) + x'(n + 2
n =0
C th chuyn v dng:
N 1
X(2k) = x'(n)cos
n =0
(4n + 1)k
2N
(7.11)
Cc cng thc:
C th nhn ra ngay cc cng trn l cc php bin i Cosin N/2 im ca g(n) v h(n).
Nh vy, bi ton bin i Cosin ca dy x(n) c a v bin i Cosin ca hai dy l g(n)
v h(n) c kch thc bng mt na x(n). Hai dy g(n) v h(n) tnh ton c mt cch d dng,
g(n) l tng ca na u dy x(n) vi na sau ca n, h(n) l hiu ca na u dy x(n) vi na
sau ca n, sau em nhn vi 2C Nn . Ta lp li qu trnh chia i i vi cc dy con, dy con
ca dy con v c tip tc nh th. Ging nh bin i Fourier, mi bc lp cng c coi l
mt tng phn chia. Vi N = 2M th s tng phn chia l M.
d hnh dung, u ra ca mi tng c k hiu l Xm(n) vi m l tng hin thi. Ta
xem x(n) l bin i Cosin(0) tng ca x(n):
X0(n) = x(n)
(7.12)
XM(n) l bin i Cosin tng M ca x(n), n khng phi l X(k). Bi v c sau mi tng,
khng ch th t cc phn t trong X(k) b xo trn m cc X(2k+1) cn c cng vi X(2k-1).
u ra ca mt tng l u vo ca tng tip theo.
X1(n) = g(n)
100
vi
n = 0,1,,
N
1
2
(7.14)
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
X1(n+
N
) = h(n)
2
vi
n = 0,1,,
N
1
2
N
)=
2
N
)
2
N i
X 0 (i ) X 0 (i + 2 ) 2C N vi n = 0,1,,N-1
(7.15)
X m (i ) = X m 1 (i ) + X m 1 (i +
N
)
2m
(7.16)
X m(i +
N
2m
vi
i=k
N
N
N
,..., k m 1 + m , trong k=0,1,,2m 1
m 1
2
2
2
Phn xy dng cng thc tng qut trong php bin i nhanh Fourier c trnh by kh
chi tit trn, chng ta c th xem li phn ny hiu hn v cng thc tng qut cho mt khi
bin i nhanh Cosin.
Thut ton bin i nhanh Cosin c th m t bng cc bc sau:
Bc 1: Tnh dy h s C ij .
Xc nh s tng M = log 2 N
Tng hin thi m=1
Bc 2: Nu m M thc hin bc 5. Nu khng kt thc.
(Cha ht cc khi trong mt tng)
Bc 3: Khi hin thi k = 0.
Bc 4: Nu k<2m-1 Thc hin bc 5. Nu khng thc hin bc 6.
(Cha ht cc khi trong mt tng)
Bc 5: Tnh ton Xm(i) trong khi theo cng thc tng qut (8.16),(8.17).
Tng k ln 1. Quay v bc 4.
Bc 6: Tng m ln 1. Quay v bc 2
(Chuyn n tng tip theo)
Khc vi bin i Fourier nhanh, trong bin i Cosin, x(n) khng phi u vo trc tip
v X(k) khng phi l u ra trc tip. u vo, x(n) ch l cch sp xp li x(n). Chng ta bit
rng ti mi tng, i vi mi khi:
101
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
X(2i + 1) = X(2i +1) + X(2i -1)
Nn u ra, sau khi tnh c XM(n) chng ta phi thc hin vic tr truy hi t tng M
v tng 1 sau hon v li theo th t o bit mi thu c h s bin i X(k) cn tnh.
Bi ton sp xp li theo th t o bit cp trong phn bin i Fourier. Bi ton tr
truy hi ci t kh n gin.
Dy h s C ij c tnh trc mt ln. trong cc ng dng m s im tnh FCT khng
i hoc ch nhn mt s gi tr c th, ngi ta thng tnh trc C ij v ghi ra file. Khi thc hin
bin i th c t file ly thng tin ny. Trong ng dng ca chng ta, ta tnh trc C ij v lu
vo mt mng. Php bin i s truy cp bng ny ly h s cn thit.
Php bin i Cosin ngc
Php bin i Cosin ngc c nh ngha bng cng thc:
N 1
Vi k = 2
0
k(2n + 1)
2N
(7.18)
khi k = 0
khi k 0
Php bin i Cosin ngc s c thc hin theo chiu ngc li vi quy trnh tin
hnh trong php bin i nhanh. Tuy nhin, cng vic ny khng c thun li nh php bin
i FFT ngc. T X(k) chng ta phi khi phc li XM(k) bng cch thc hin cc php cng truy
hi v php hon v theo th t o bit. Cng thc tng qut cho mi khi bin i ngc c
xy dng da trn cng thc tng qut trong bin i xui:
Vi i = k
N
N
N
,...,k m 1 + m , trong
m 1
2
2
2
Xm-1(i+
Xm-1(i) =
k = 0,1,,2m 1
N
1
N
1
) = X m(i) X m(i + m ) i
m
2
2 2C N/2 m1
2
1
N
1
X m(i) + X m(i + m ) i
2 2C N/2 m1
2
(7.19)
(7.20)
Php bin i ngc phi ci t ring. Tuy vy, t tng chnh ca hai bi ton xui v
ngc v c bn ging nhau. u ra ca php bin i ngc s l x(n). Mun thu c x(n) ta
phi o v tr.
b. Php bin i Cosin ri rc hai chiu
Php bin i Cosin ri rc hai chiu c nh ngha bi:
X(k1,k 2 ) =
4k1k2
N1 N 2
N 1 1 N 2 1
x(n ,n
n1=0 n2 =0
)Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
(2n1 + 1)k1
Cos
2N 2
2N 1
Trong , k1 =0 khi k1 =0 v k1 =
102
1
khi k1 = 1,2,,N1 -1
2
(7.21)
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
1
khi k2 = 1,2,,N2 -1
2
k 2 =0 khi k2 =0 v k 2 =
x(n1,n2 ) =
N 1 1 N 2 1
X(k ,k
1
k1=0 k2 =0
)k1k2Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
(2n1 + 1)k1
Cos
2N 2
2N 1
(7.22)
X(k1,k 2 ) =
2k1
N1
2k2
n1=0 N 1
N 1 1
N 2 1
x(n ,n
1
n2 =0
)Cos
(2n1 + 1)k1
(2n2 + 1)k 2
Cos
2N 1
2N 2
(7.23)
t:
X(n1,k2) =
2k2
N1
N 2 1
x(n ,n
1
n2 =0
)Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
2N 2
(7.24)
2
X(k1,k 2 ) = k1
N1
N 1 1
(2n + 1)k
[X'(n k )]Cos 2N
n1=0
1, 2
(7.25)
x(n1,n2 ) =
N 1 1 N 2 1
X(k ,k
k1=0
k2 =0
)k2Cos
(2n1 + 1)k1
(2n2 + 1)k 2
k1Cos
2N 1
2N 2
(7.26)
t:
x(n1,n2 ) =
N 1 1
[x'(k n )]
k1=0
1, 2
Cos
k1
(2n1 + 1)k1
2N 1
(7.27)
x' (k1, n2 ) =
N 2 1
X(k ,k
k2 =0
)k2Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
2N 2
(7.28)
Cng thc (7.27) l php bin i Cosin ngc ri rc mt chiu ca X (k1, k 2 ) , trong k2
l bin s, cn k1 ng vai tr l tham s thu c kt qu trung gian x' (k1, n2 ) . Cng thc (7.28)
103
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
l php bin i Cosin ngc ri rc ca x' (k1, n2 ) vi k1 l bin s cn n2 l tham s. Nh vy,
mun khi phc li nh ban u t ma trn h s bin i chng ta s bin i nhanh Cosin ngc
ri rc mt chiu cc h s theo hng, sau em bin i nhanh Cosin ri rc mt chiu theo ct
cc kt qu trung gian va tnh c.
c. Bin i Cosin v chun nn JPEG
JPEG l vit tt ca Joint Photographic Expert Group ( nhm cc chuyn gia pht trin
nh ny). Chun JPEG c cng nhn l chun nh quc t nm 1990 phc v cc ng dng
truyn nh cho cc lnh vc nh y hc, khoa hc, k thut, nh ngh thut
Chun JPEG c s dng m ha nh a mc xm, nh mu. N khng cho kt qu
n nh lm vi nh en trng. Chun JPEG cung cp gii thut cho c hai loi nn l nn khng
mt mt thng tin v nn mt mt thng tin. Trong phn di y, chng ti trnh by chi tit v
mt trong cc dng nn bin i chp nhn mt mt thng tin dng bin i Cosin ca chun
JPEG: Bin i Cosin tun t ( Sequential DTC - based). Bin i Cosin tun t l k thut n
gin nht nhng c dng ph bin nht v n p ng c hu ht cc c tnh cn thit cho
phn ln cc ng dng.
M ha JPEG bao gm nhiu cng , sS thut ton nn v gii nn c m t di
y.
P
h
n
nh
gc
8x8
DCT
Lng
t ha
M
ha
nh
nn
8x8
khi 8 x 8
k
h
i
8x8
Bng
lng
t
Bng
m
104
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
nh
nn
Gii
m
Tng
t ha
Bng
m
DCT
ngc
nh
gii
nn
Bng
lng
t
M ' N'
B=
= M B NB
k l
Cc khi c xc nh bi b s (m,n) vi m = [0MB-1] v n = [0NB-1], y m ch
th t ca khi theo chiu rng, n ch th t ca khi theo chiu di. Phn tch khi thc cht l
xc nh tng quan gia ta ring trong khi vi ta thc ca im nh trong nh ban u.
Nu nh ban u k hiu Image[i,j] th ma trn biu din khi (m,n) l x[u, v] c tnh:
x[u,v] = Image[mk + u,nl + v]
105
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
+ Bin i
Bin i l mt trong nhng cng on ln trong cc phng php nn s dng php bin
i. Nhim v ca cng on bin i l tp trung nng lng vo mt s t cc h s bin i.
Cng thc bin i cho mi khi l:
X ( k1 , k 2 ) =
k1 k 2
4
x(n , n
n1= 0 n 2 = 0
)Cos
(2n1 + 1)k1
(2n2 + 1)k 2
Cos
16
16
(7.29)
Trong :
k1 = 2
0
k 2
khi k1 = 0
khi 0 < k1 < 8
= 2
0
khi k 2 = 0
khi 0 < k 2 < 8
Thut ton bin i nhanh Cosin hai chiu cho mi khi trong trng hp ny s bao gm
16 php bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu. u tin, ngi ta bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu cho
cc dy im nh trn mi hng. Ln lt thc hin cho 8 hng. Sau em bin i nhanh Cosin
mt chiu theo tng ct ca ma trn va thu c sau 8 php bin i trn. Cng ln lt thc
hin cho 8 ct. Ma trn cui cng s l ma trn h s bin i ca khi tng ng.
Trong s gii nn ta phi dng php bin i Cosin ngc. Cng thc bin i ngc
cho khi 8x8:
x(n1 ,n2 ) =
12
4
X(kn ,k
k1=0 k1=0
)Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
(2n1 + 1)k1
Cos
16
16
(8.30)
trong :
k1 = 2
0
k 2
khi k1 = 0
khi 0 < k1 < 8
= 2
0
khi k 2 = 0
khi 0 < k 2 < 8
+ LNG T HA
Khi lng t ha trong s nn ng vai tr quan trong v quyt nh t l nn ca
chun nn j. u vo ca khi lng t ha l cc ma trn h s bin i Cosin ca cc khi im
nh.
106
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
gim s b lng t, ngi ta tm cch quy cc h s cc khi v cng mt khong
phn b. Chun nn j ch s dng mt b lng t ha. Gi s rng cc h s u c hm tnh xc
sut xut hin nh nhau. Chng ta s cn chnh li h s yj bng php gn:
yj =
yj - j
j l lch c bn ca h s th j.
Nh vy chng ta s ng nht c mc quyt nh v mc to li cho tt c cc h s.
Do , cc h s c biu din cng bng mt s lng bit. C nhiu cch tip cn tnh c
cc mc quyt nh v mc to li. Lloyd Max a ra gii thut sau:
Bc 1: Chn gi tr khi to:
d0 = yL
dN = yH
r0 = d0
N l mc lng t
Bc 2: Cho i bin thin t i n N-1 thc hin cc cng vic sau:
a. Tnh di theo cng thc:
di
ri 1 =
y. p( y)dy
d i 1
di
p ( y )dy
d i 1
rt =
d N 1
y. p ( y )dy
dN
p ( y )dy
d N 1
Bc 4: Nu rN-1 r iu chnh li r0 v lp li t bc 2 n bc 4.
Trong qu trnh ci t to ra mt b lng t ha, Lloyd v Max c nhiu ci tin
tnh ton d dng hn. Xc nh d1 bng cng thc trong bc 2a c tin hnh theo phng
php Newton-Raphson. Sau y l cc bc m t ton b cng vic ca khi lng t ha tc
ng ln cc h s bin i Cosin:
Bc 1: Tnh trung bnh cng v lch c bn cho tng h s mi v tr
trong khi
j =
107
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
n y 2j ( y j )
i =
n(n 1)
Vi yj l h s th j, n l s khi.
Bc 2: La chn t l s h s gi li trong mt khi.
Bc 3: Gi li cc h s c lch c bn ln hn
Bc 4: Lp ma trn T sao cho: Tij =1 nu h s (i,j) c gi li.
Bc 5: Cn chnh li gi tr ca cc h s xoay chiu c gi li cc khi:
C ij =
C ij ij
ij
ca cc phn b va tnh.
Bc 8: Lng t ha cc h s xoay chiu bng cch s dng b lng t LloydMax sau khi iu chnh mc quyt nh v mc to li ca n theo cch sau:
di di s
ri ri s
dN = -d0
Thnh phn mt chiu s khng lng t ha. n y, ta chuyn sang bc nn.
+ Nn d liu
u vo ca khi nn gm hai thnh phn: thnh phn cc h s mt chiu v thnh phn
cc h s xoay chiu.
Thnh phn cc h s mt chiu Ci(0, 0) vi i = 0,1,,63 cha phn ln nng lng tn
hiu hnh nh. Ngi ta khng nn trc tip cc gi tr Ci(0, 0) m xc nh lch ca Ci(0, 0):
di = Ci+1(0, 0) Ci(0, 0)
di c gi tr nh hn nhiu so vi Ci nn trong biu din du phy ng theo chun IEE754
thng cha nhiu chui bit 0 nn c th cho hiu sut nn cao hn. Gi tr C0(0, 0) v cc
lch d1, c ghi ra mt tp tm. Tp ny c nn bng phng php nn Huffman.
Thnh phn cc h s xoay chiu C1(m, n) vi 1m7, 1n7 cha cc thng tin chi tit
ca nh. nng cao hiu qu nn cho mi b h s trong mt khi, ngi ta xp chng li theo
th t ZigZag.
Tc dng ca sp xp li theo th t ZigZag l to ra nhiu loi h s ging nhau. Chng
ta bit rng nng lng ca khi h s gim dn t gc trn bn tri xung gc di bn phi nn
vic sp xp li cc h s theo th t ZigZag s to iu kin cho cc h s xp x nhau (cng mc
lng t) nm trn mt dng.
Mi khi ZigZag ny c m ha theo phng php RLE. Cui mi khi u ra ca
RLE, ta t du kt thc khi EOB (End Of Block). Sau , cc khi c dn li v m ha mt
ln bng phng php m Huffman. Nh c du kt thc khi nn c th phn bit c hai khi
cnh nhau khi gii m Huffman. Hai bng m Huffman cho hai thnh phn h s tt nhin s khc
nhau.
108
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
c th gii nn c, chng ta phi ghi li thng tin nh: kch thc nh, kch thc
khi, ma trn Y, lch tiu chun, cc mc to li, hai bng m Huffman, kch thc khi nn
mt chiu, kch thc khi nn xoay chiu v ghi ni tip vo hai file nn ca thnh phn h s.
Ci t gii thut cho nn thc s phc tp. Chng ta phi nm c cc kin thc v nn
RLE, Huffman, bin i Cosin, xy dng b lng t ha Lloyd-MaxNn v gii nn j hi
chm nhng b li, thi gian truyn trn mng nhanh hn do kch thc tp nn nh.
Vi nhng u im ca mnh c ISO chp nhn l chun nh quc t v c bit n
di m s ISO 10918-1.
(7.31)
109
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Nh bit, trong x l nh ty theo cc ng dng m ta cn ton b nh hay ch nhng
c tnh quan trng ca nh. Cc phng php phn vng nh trong chng su nh hp vng,
tch, tch v hp l rt hu ch v c th nn nh. C th c nhiu phng php khc, song
di y chng ta ch cp n hai phng php: vng gia tng v phng php tch hp.
a. M ha da vo vng gia tng
K thut vng gia tng thc cht l hp cc vng c cng mt tnh cht no . Kt qu
ca n l mt nh c phn on ging nh mt trong tr xp ch (Puzzle). Tuy nhin, cn lu
rng tt c cc ng bao thu c khng to nn mt nh ging nh gc.
Vic xc nh tnh cht min ng nht xc nh phc tp ca phng php. n
gin, tiu chun chn y l khong mc xm. Nh vy, min ng nht l tp hp cc im
nh c mc xm thuc khong chn. Cng cn lu thm rng, nh gc c th c ng bao
v cc kt cu (Texture). Trong min texture, xm bin i rt chm. Do vy, nu khng ch
s chia nh thnh qu nhiu min v gy nn cc bao gi. Gii php khc phc hin tng ny
l ta dng mt b lc thch hp hay lc trung v.
Sau giai on ny, ta thu c nh phn on vi cc ng vin kn, rng 1 pixel.
loi b cc ng bao gi, ta c th dng phng php gradient (xem chng nm). Sau khi
thu c cc ng bao ng, ngi ta tin hnh m ha (xp x) ng bao bi cc ng cong
trong hnh hc, th d bi cc on thng hay ng cong. Nu nh gc c phn gii khng
thch hp, ngi ta dng khong 1,3 bit cho mt im bin.
Phng php ny th hin u im: l m hnh tham s. Cc tham s y l s vng,
chnh xc m t. Tuy nhin, tham s khong mc xm l quan trng nht v n c nh hng
n t s nn. Mt tham s cng khng km phn quan trng l s im ca cc ng bao b coi
l gi. Thng s im ny khng vt qu 20 im.
b. Phng php tch hp
Cng nh ch ra trong chng su, phng php tch hp khc phc c mt s
nhc im ca phng php phn vng da vo tch vng hay hp vng. Trong phng php
m ha ny, ngi ta thay tiu chun chn vng n gin trn bng mt tiu chun khc hiu
qu hn.
Nguyn tc chung ca phng php m hnh bin texture. Nhn chung ng bin d
nhy cm vi mt ngi, cn texture th t nhy cm hn. Ngi ta mong mun rng ng phn
ranh gia cc vng l ng nht vi cc ng bao. Lu rng cn quyt nh phn vng mt
phn ca nh sao cho n khng c vt cho ng bao. y l mt tiu chun kim tra quan
trng. Cc ng bao thng nhn c bi cc b lc thng cao, ng hng.
c th qun l cc im thuc mt vng mt cc tt hn, tiu chun kim tra th hai
cng c xem xt l du: cc im nm v mt pha ca ng bao c cng du.
Nhn chung, phng php gm hai giai on. giai on u thc hin vic tch vng, giai
on sau thc hin vic hp vng.
Qu trnh tch thc hin trc. Ngi ta chia nh gc thnh cc vng nh kch thc 9x9.
Tip theo, tin hnh xp x cc vng nh bng mt a thc c bc nh hn 3. Sau qu trnh
tch ta thu c trong mt s vng ca nh cc hnh vung lin tip. chng s to nn mt min
gc ln v khng nht thit vung. Nh vy, trong trng hp ny phi xp x bng rt nhiu cc
110
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
a thc ging nhau. R dng l vic m ha ring bit cc a thc l iu kin hiu qu v ngi
ngh n hp cc vng gim d tha ny.
Qu trnh hp c tin hnh nh sau: nu hai vng c th c xp x bi 2 a thc
tng t, ngi ta hp chng lm mt v ch dng mt a thc xp x. Nu mc thay i l
thp, ta s c nhiu cp vng tng t. c th nhn c kt qu khng ph thuc vo ln hp
u, ngi ta xy dng th vng k cn. Cc nt ca th ny l cc vng v cc lin h
biu din mi khng tng ng. S lin h vi mc khng tng ng thp ch ra rng hai vng
cn hp li.
Sau bc hp ny, th c cp nht li v qu trnh hp c lp li cho n khi tiu
chun l tha mn. Qu trnh hp dng c th quyt nh bi cht lng nh nn hay mt tiu
chun no khc.
Ta c th thy rng phng php ny kh phc tp song b li n cho t s nn kh cao 60
trn 1 [6].
7.5 KT LUN
Mi phng php nn u c nhng u im v nhc im. Tnh hiu qu ca phng
php khng ch ph thuc vo t s nn m cn vo nhiu ch tiu khc nh: phc tp tnh
ton, nhy cm vi nhiu, cht lng, kiu nh, v.v
Nn l mt vn ln c quan tm nhiu v c lin quan n nhiu lnh vc khc nhau.
Chng ta khng hi vng c th trnh by tt c trong mt chng. Song d sao, chng ny cng
cung cp mt s khi nim v cc phng php kh dng v mt s phng php mi v nn d
liu nht l nn nh. Bng tng kt di y cung cp cho chng ta mt cch nhn tng i ton
din v cc phng php nn.
Bng so snh kt qu mt s phng php nn
Phng php
T s nn
phc tp
Cht lng
Nhy cm
vi nhiu
Kiu nh
RLC
10
n gin
Rt tt
Ln
Nh phn
D on
2-4
n gin
Rt tt
Trung bnh
Mi nh
Bin i
10-15
Phc tp
Tt
Rt km
a cp xm
Pyramide Laplace
5-10
Trung bnh
Tt
Ln
a cp xm
20-30
Phc tp
Trung bnh
Rt ln
a cp xm
Tch v hp
60-70
Rt phc tp
Trung bnh
Rt ln
a cp xm
CU HI N TP
1. Vit mt chng trnh nn v gii nn theo phng php RLC (n gin, dc, ngang, hay
kt hp).
111
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
2. Vit mt chng trnh nn v gii nn theo phng php Huffman.
3. Vit mt chng trnh nn v gii nn theo phng php LZW.
4. Vit th tc thc hin bin i Cosin thun.
5. Vit th tc thc hin bin i Cosin ngc
6. Vit th tc thc hin lng t ha theo thut ton Lloyd Max.
112
113
BMP
: Bit MaP,
BP
: Back Propagation
CCD
CIE
dpi
EP
FIR
GA
GIF
JPEG : Joint Phograph Expert Group : Tn ca nhm nghin cu cc chun nn cho nh,
thnh lp
nm 1982. Tn c l IOS. Nm 1986, JPEG chnh thc c thnh lp.
KL
PLD
PC
PSF
114
Mc lc
MC LC
LI NI U ................................................................................................................................ 1
CHNG 1: NHP MN X L NH..................................................................................... 3
1.1. GII THIU V H THNG X L NH.............................................................................................. 3
1.2 NHNG VN C BN TRONG H THNG X L NH ........................................................... 6
1.2.1 im nh (Picture Element) .................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 phn gii ca nh ............................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.3 Mc xm ca nh .................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.4 nh ngha nh s.................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.5 Quan h gia cc im nh ................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.6 Cc thnh phn c bn ca h thng x l nh ..................................................................................... 9
1.3 NHNG VN KHC TRONG X L NH .................................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Bin i nh (Image Transform) ......................................................................................................... 10
1.3.2 Nn nh ............................................................................................................................................... 11
CU HI N TP........................................................................................................................................... 11
115
Mc lc
3.1 CI THIN NH S DNG CC TON T IM..............................................................................24
3.1.1 Tng tng phn (Stretching Contrast) ..........................................................................................25
3.1.2 Tch nhiu v phn ngng.................................................................................................................26
3.1.4 Ct theo mc (Intensity Level Slicing)................................................................................................27
3.1.5 Trch chn bit (Bit Extraction).............................................................................................................27
3.1.6 Tr nh ................................................................................................................................................28
3.1.7 Nn di sng. ..................................................................................................................................28
3.1.8 M hnh ha v bin i lc xm .................................................................................................28
3.2 CI THIN NH DNG TON T KHNG GIAN ..............................................................................28
3.2.1 Lm trn nhiu bng lc tuyn tnh: lc trung bnh v lc di thng thp ..........................................29
3.2.2 Lm trn nhiu bng lc phi tuyn ......................................................................................................31
3.2.3 Mt n g sai phn v lm nhn ..........................................................................................................32
3.2.4. Lc thng thp, thng cao v lc di thng ........................................................................................33
3.2.5. Khuych i v ni suy nh................................................................................................................33
3.2.6. Mt s k thut ci thin nh nh phn ...............................................................................................34
3.3 KHI PHC NH .....................................................................................................................................35
3.3.1. Cc m hnh quan st v to nh ........................................................................................................36
3.3.2 Cc b lc ............................................................................................................................................38
CU HI N TP CHNG 3......................................................................................................................39
116
Mc lc
CHNG 6: NHN DNG NH .............................................................................................. 60
6.1 GII THIU .......................................................................................................................................... 60
6.1.1 Khng gian biu din i tng, khng gian din dch....................................................................... 60
6.1.2 M hnh v bn cht ca qu trnh nhn dng ..................................................................................... 61
6.2 NHN DNG DA THEO MIN KHNG GIAN................................................................................. 63
6.2.1 Phn hoch khng gian........................................................................................................................ 63
6.2.2 Hm phn lp hay hm ra quyt nh.................................................................................................. 63
6.2.3 Nhn dng theo phng php thng k ............................................................................................... 64
6.2.4 Thut ton nhn dng da vo khong cch........................................................................................ 65
6.3 NHN DNG DA THEO CU TRC .................................................................................................. 65
6.3.1 Biu din nh tnh .............................................................................................................................. 65
6.3.2 Cc bc nhn dng ............................................................................................................................ 67
6.4 NHN DNG DA THEO MNG NRON........................................................................................... 67
6.4.1 Gii thiu mng nron ........................................................................................................................ 67
6.4.2 Nhn dng nh cc hnh khi .............................................................................................................. 79
6.4.3 Nhn dng nh m vch ...................................................................................................................... 81
CU HI V BI TP................................................................................................................................... 86
117
X L NH
M s: 412XLA450
Chu trch nhim bn tho
TRUNG TM O TO BU CHNH VIN THNG 1