BASIC INSTRUMENTATION MEASURING DEVICES AND BASIC PID CONTROLTable of Contents Section | - OBJECTIVES, see ‘Section 2 - INSTRUMENTATION EQUIPMENT ccc. 7 20. INTRODUCTION, 7 21 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 7 2M General They t 212 Presse Seales, 7 213 Pressure Measurements & 2.14 Common Pressure Detectors 9 2.15 Differential Pressure Transits in 216 Sean Gauges 3 217 Copocitance Capsule ir 2.1 lempat of Operating Environment. 15 219 Fallues and Abnormalities “16 22. FLOW MEASUREMENT... 18 221 Flow Detectors 18 2222 Square Root Exiscior. 28 223 Density Compensating Flow Deets. 29 2214 Flow Measurement rors 31 23. LEVEL MEASUREMENT. 2 25.1 Level Measurement asics 3 232. Three Valve Manifold ot 233 Open Tank Measurement 36 2534 Closed Tank Measurement ~ 36 23.5. Bubbler Level Messirement System 2 236 Effectof Temperature on Level Measurement. 4 23.7. Effect of Pressure on Level Measurement .nursscscc47 238. Level Measurement System Eros 7 24 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT... “9 241 Resistance Temperature Detecor (RTD), 3 242. Thermocouple (IC) - 52 243 _Thenmal Welles st 2.44 Thermostats 55 [NEUTRON FLUX MEASUREMENT 59 25.1 Neutron Flat DetestioN enw 39 23.2. Newton Detection Methods . 0 2153 Starcup(subertical) Instrumentation. ot 2531 Fission neuron detectors 6 235 lonchamber neuron detectors “ 2156 ImCore Neutron Detector. - 0 257 Reactor Control at High Power TP 2.5.8 Overap of Neutron Detection. 8 REVIEW QUESTIONS - EQUIPMENT aSection 3 - CONTROL. - 9 3.0. INTRODUCTION... 89 3.1 BASIC CONTROL PRINCIPLES... » BALL Feedback Control 3 3.12 Feedforward Conia. 31 3.13 Summary = men 32. ONIOFF CONTROL mons o93 32 Summary. ayy 33 BASIC PROPORTIONAL CONTROL. 95 33.1 Summary nen “97 3.4 Proportional Cantol . 98 34.1 Terminclogy. ~ 98 342. Practical Proponionl Conel co 3.43 Summary nen 10s 35. Resetofintegal Acton hos 35.1. Summary 08 36 RATE OR DERIVATIVE ACTION ne 3.6.1 Summary. us 3:7 MULTIPLE CONTROL MODES... 16 3B. TYPICAL NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL SCHEMES 117 381 Level Conte! ~ 47 382 Flow Contr! ug 383. Pressure Contr 9 3.84 Temperature Contolvsvvncnnnensnnnnnn (20 REVIEW QUESTIONS - CONTROL. - "12OBJECTIVES ‘This module covers the fllowing areas perining to instrumentation and Flow Level ‘Temperture ‘Neutron Flux Control At the end of traning the srticipants wil be able to: explain the basic working principe of pressure measuring devices, bourdon tbe, bells, diaphragm, capsule, tran gauge, capacitance capsule, explain the basi eperaton of differential pressure transmits: explain the effects of operating environment pressut, temperature, hui) on pressure detectors; ‘atthe effet oe following flrs abnormalities overpressring a differential pressure cell or Bourdon tube: Siaphragm itr ina diferenal pressure cll blocked orleaking sensing lines, and loss of loop electrical power cxpltn how devices generate a differential pressure signal: orifice, venturi, ow rozzk, elbow, pitt tube, antar; explain how each ofthe fllowing wll afet the indicated ow ‘gna om each othe above devices change in process id temperature; change in process Md pressure; and ‘identify the primary device eevalve manifold ané ows transmiter na lov measurement instalation; state the relationship between Mui ow and output signal in Mow contro leop vith square rot extractor, wansmiters tat end a sigal tan inswument calibrated to read ut the eight or volume. In this module, we wil examine the more challenging stations that equre inferential level measurement, This technique obtains a level indication [niet by monitoring the pressure exerted bythe height of the iui in the ves “The pressure athe base of vesel containing liguis ect proportional tthe height ofthe qui nthe vessel, Thisis termed hydrosale presse As the level inthe vessel rise, the pressure exerted by the liquid tthe base athe vessel will increase linearly. Mathematically, we hve: where P= Pressure (P2) ‘S= Weight density ofthe guid Win) = pe. = Height oftiqud column (m) po Density kgm”) 15> acceleration due to gravity (9.81 mis) The level of liquid inside a tank con be determined fom the pressure reading ithe weight densiyof the liquid is constant Diora! Pressure (DP) capsules ae the mast commonly used doves 10 reasure the pressure atthe base of tank Nate‘When a DP ansmier i used fo the purpose of measuring evel, it will becalled level ransmiter ‘To obtain maximum sensitiv a pressure capsule has to be used, that hs sensitivity range that closely matches the antisite pressure of the measured Tiquid, However, stem pressures are often much higher than the otal hydrostatic pressure that tobe measured. Ite proces pressure is dentally applied to only one side ofthe DP capsule daring installation oF ‘emoval of te DP cel fom service, over ranging o he eapeule would ‘occur andthe capsule could be damaged eausing eroncous indications. 2.32. ‘Three Valve Manifold [A three-vlve manifolds a device that is used o ensure that the capsule will not be overrange,Italzo allows isolation ofthe transmit from the process loop It consists of wo block valves - high resure and lon pressure block valve and an equaling valve Figae I shows a thre valve manifold arangemen Figure 1 ATTovee Valve Manifold During normal operation, the equalizing valve is closed and the to block ‘ales are open. When the transmit is put imo or removed fom service, ‘he valves must be operated in such a manner tha very high pressure is sever applied to only one side of the DP capsule ote‘Operational Sequences of Three-Valve Manifold Valving T-ansmitter into Service ‘Tovalve« DPtransmiter ino service an operator would perfor the Following steps: 1. Cook all valves closed, 2 Open the equalizing valve ~this ensures thatthe same ressure wl be applied to both sides of the tansmiter, sr diferent pressure 3. Openthe High Pressure block va slowly, chek for leakage ffom both the high pressure and low-pressure side of the ransmiter, 4. Close the equalizing valve ~ this locks the pessreon both sides of the transmit 5. Open the low-pressure block valve to apply promss pressure to the low-pressure side of the transmits and esablsh the ‘working differential pressure 6. The ransmitr is now inservice Nove itmay be necessiry o bled any trapped ale fom the capsule housing. Removing Transmitter from Service Reversal ofthe above steps allows the DP transmiter tobe remove frm 1. Close the fow-pessre lock valve. 2 Openthe equalizing vale. 3. Close the high-pressure block vale ‘The transite is now out of servic. Note the transmitter capsule housing stil contains process presse this will require bleding. ‘Note233. Open Tank Measurement ‘The simples application isthe fluid level in an open tank. Figure 2 shows 'ypiel open tan level measurement installation using a pressure capsule level ransmiter. Figure 2 (Open Tank Level Measurement Installation Ifthe tank is open to atmosphere, the high-pressure side of he level ‘ransmiter wil be connected (othe base ofthe tank wl the fow-prssure sie willbe vented to atmosphere. In his manner, the lve ransmiter ac 84 simple pressure transmit. We have Phigh= Patm * S-H Pow * Pat Differential pressure AP= Pgh - Pow = SH ‘The level wansmiter canbe ealibated o output 4 mA when the tank sat (level and 20 mA when the tank i at 100% level, 234 Closed Tank Measurement Should the tank be closed anda p38 or vapour exists ontop ofthe iui, the 1 presse must be compensated for. A change inthe gs pressure will ‘cause a change in ransmiter output. Moreover, the pressure exered by the {as phase may beso high tat the hyrostari pressure of the liquid column tecomes insignifiant For example, the measured hydrostatic head i 8 ‘CANDU boiler may be only three meters (30 KPa) ors, whereas the steam Fressure is typically 5 MPa Compensation canbe achieved by applying the -8 pressure 1b both the igh and low-pressure sides ofthe level ransmiter. “This cover gas pressure i thas used a a back pressure or reference pressure ‘en the LP side ofthe DP call. One can also immediately se the need forthe ‘tree-valve manifold to protect the DP cel agiast these pressures. SS ote‘The diferent arangement ofthe sensing lines to the DP cel is indicted typical closed tank application (igure 3), Figure 3 shows atypical closed tank installation. Figure “Typical Closed Tank Level Measurement System We have Phigh = Pyas * S-H1 Plow" Fens AP =Phigh~Plow= SH The effect ofthe gas pressure i cancelled and only the pressure duet the ‘aydrostatic head ofthe liquid is sensed. When the lov-pressure impulse line $ connected dirty to he gas phase above the guid level, ald a dey .Dry Leg System {A fll dy leg installation with three-valve manifold i shown in Figure 4 below Figure 4 Dry Leg Installation with Three-Valve Manifold {tte gas pase is condensabl, say steam, condensate will form inthe low ‘presure impulse in esuing ine column of qui which exes extra Dresure onthe low-pressure side ofthe tansmiter. A technique to solve {his problem i toad a knockout pot below the transmitter i the fow= pressure side as shown in Figure 4. Period draining oF the condensate in the knockout pot wil ensure tha the impulse lines fee of liquid. In practic, a dy legis seldom wed because Frequent maintenance i required. One example ofa dry eg aplication isthe mearement of guid potson level inthe poison injeton tank, where the gas phase is non- ondensable helium. In most elesed tank applications wet eg vel reasuremeat system is used NoteWet Leg System Ina wet leg system, the low-pressure impulse line is completely fled with liquid (usually the sare liquid a he process) and hence the name wet leg. ‘level ransmiter, with the asociated three-valve manifold, is wed ina ‘dencal manner to the dey lag sytem Figue 5 shows atypical wet leg istalaon. ge Y Figures AWet Leg Installation tthe top ofthe low pressure impulse lin is a smal catch tank The gas phase or vapor il condense inthe wet leg andthe catch tank, Te etch ‘ark, with the inclined interconnecting line, maintains a constant hydrosatic pressure on the low-pressure side ofthe level transmiter Ths pressure, being « constant, can easily be compensted fr by calation, (Note that sperating the thre-valve manifold i the prescribed manner bel 0 preserve the wet ep) NateIfthe tank is located outdoors, ace heating ofthe wet leg enight be secessar to prevent it fom ffezing. Steam lines or an electric heating tlement canbe wound around the wet leg to keep the temperature ofthe ondensate above its feezing point. ote the two sets of dain valves. The transmitter drain valves would be sed to drain (bleed) the tansmiter ony. The two drain valves located ‘omediataly above the thee-valve manifold are used for impute and wet [eg draining and ling, ‘a addition wo the thee-valve manifold most ansmiter installations have ralves where the impute ines connect othe process, These isolating ‘alves, sometimes refered 10 a the rot valves ar edo eoae the ‘ranamiter for maintenance, Level Compensation te would be ideas to say thatthe DP cell an alvays be located atthe ‘act the Bottom of he vessel we ae measuring Mud evel in, Hence, the ‘easuring system hes to consider the hydrostatic pressure ofthe lid inthe ‘ersing ies themselves, This leads to two compensations require, Zero Suppression In some cases, its not possible to mount the level transmitter right tthe tase level af the tank. Say for maintenance purposes, the level tansmiter Isto be mounted X meter below te base of en open tan as shown in Figures Figures Level Transmitter with Zero SupprestionThe iui in the tank exens a varying pressure hai peoportinal ts level H onthe ieh-prestoesde of the trnsmiter. The gud nthe high- pressure impulse line also exerts pressure onthe high-pressure side However this pressure isa constant (P= S-X) and fs present tal times. When the guid level is a H meters, pressure on the high-pressure side of the transmitter wil be Phigh = SH + S-X + Pat Plow =Patm AP =Phigh= Plow = S:H + 5:X ‘Thats the pressure on the high-pressure side is always higher han the actual pressure exerted by the liquid colar in the tank (bya value of ‘5X: This constant pressure would cause an utp signal thai higher than 4 mA when the tank is emp and shove 20 mA when tis fil. The transmiter has tobe negatively biased bya value of-S- so tat the outpat, af he transmiterspropetona tothe tank level (S-H) ony. This procedure is called Zero Suppression andi an be done during calibration Df the transite. A zero suppression kitcanbe installed in thetransmiter For this purpose, Zero Elevation When a wet eg installton i used (se Figure 7 below), the low-pressure Side ofthe level uansmiter will always experience a higher pressure than Ie high-pressure side Tis is duet the fet ha the height he ete ‘7 is abways equal to o greater than the maximum height of te liquid :olumn (inside the tank When the quid evel is at meters, we have: Phigh= Peas ~ SH Plow = Pgas + 9° AP = PhighPlow= S:H - 8X S&X-H) ‘The differential pressure AP sensed by the transmiter is alwaysa negative number (ie low pressure side fs at higher pressure thn high pressure Side). AP increases from P=-S-X 19 P=-S (X-H) asthe tank vel rises, from O¥6t0 100%. NoteRSE Fate Trg og — {the transmit wer not elibrated for his constant negative ear (- ‘S-X), the transmitter output woul read low all ines. ‘To propel calitate the tansmiter, a positive bias (+S-X) i ode to clvate the transmiter output, This positive biasing technique is called zero elevation, _ les. Figure 7 Requirement for Zero Elevation 235° Bubbler Level Measurement System the process liquid contains suspended solid ori chemically corrosive or radioactive its desable to prevent it om coming ino direst cotat with the level transmit. thes eases, a bubbler level measurement system, which utilizes a purge ea, canbe used,(Open Tank Application for Bubbler System Figure 8ilusttes atypical bubbler system installation. ie Thee = The Figures Bubbler Level Measurement System in Open Tank Application ‘As shown in Figure 8, a bubbler mei immersed tothe bot ofthe ‘vessel in which the ligud level so be measured. A gas (called purge eas), is allowed to pass through the bubbler eae, Consider that the tank empty In this case, he gos will escape feey atthe end ofthe tube andtherefore he gas presure ride the bubbler tube (called back presse) vill beat atmosphere pressure. However, the igi level inside the ak increases, pressure exerted bythe liquid a the base ofthe tank (and atthe opening of ie bubbler tube) increases. The hydrostatic pressure ofthe liquid in effet sets as Sal, which restr the escape of, purge gas from the bubbler be. ‘sa resul,the gas pressre in the bubbler tbe wil cosine toincrease unt just balances the hydrostatic pressure (P= SH) ofthe quid. At ‘his pot the backpressure in the bubbler tbe exact the sae asthe iyorstatc pressure ofthe liquid and iwi main constant nl ay change inthe liquid level occurs. Any exces supply pressure wl escape as Bubbles through the liquid Aste guid level iss, the backpressure inthe bubbler tube increases [opontonall, since the density ofthe iid i constant A evel tansmiter (DP cell can be used to monitor this backpressure. In an pen tank installation the bubbler tube is connected to the high pressure Side of he ransmicer, while he low pessure side i vented to mosphere, The ouput of the tansmiter wil be proportional to the tank evel Note‘constant diferent pressure cela soften used in the purge zs ine to ‘ensure that constant bubbling action occurs all tank levels. The constant Sifferental pressure relay maintains 2 constant flow rte of purge gas in the bubbler tube regards of tank lvelviriatons or supply actaon. This ensures that bubbling will occur to maximum tank level and the low rte ‘oes rat increase at low tank level in sucha wa) as to cause excestive Asturbances tthe surfice of the liquid. Note hat bubbling ation has tobe ‘ontinoous oF the measurement signal wil nx be accurate. ‘Am additonal advanage ofthe bubbler system is tha, since it measures only the backpressure of the purge gu, the exact locaton ofthe level warsmier isnot imgortan. The transmiter can be mounted some distance from the jrocess. Open loop bubbler are used to measure levels in spent fuel bays ‘Closed Tank Application for Bubbler System Ifthe buble system is toe applied to menaine lve ina closed tk, some ressuresegulting scheme must be provided fr the gs space in the tank, Otherwise, the gas bubbling through the liquid will pressurize the gas space tba point where bubble supply pressire cannot overcome the static pressure itacts aginst. The result woul be no bubble low and, therefore, Inaccurate measurement signal. Also, asin the ease of a closed tank ‘ferential evel measurement system the low-pressure sie of the level ‘ransmiter has to be coaneeted tothe gas space inorder o compensate for the effect of gas pressure Some typical examples of closed tank application of bubbler systems are the ‘measurement of wate eve! in the radiated fuel bays ad the light water level in the iguid zone cool aks. 4136. Effect of Temperature on Level Measurement Level measurement systems that se differential pressure AP asthe sensing ‘etod, ae by thee very nature affected by temperate and presse Recall sha he measured height H ofa column of liquid is directly roportonal tthe pressure P exerted atthe base ofthe clur and Faverely proportional to the density p of the igi. Hare Density (mass pr unit volume) of liquid or gas is inversely proportional 0 its temperature paw Wore‘Thus, forany given amount of liquid ina container, the pressure Pexcred at the bse will remain constant, bu the height wl vary diel with he temperate, Hat Consider the folowing scenario. A given amount of qui in acontainer [figure 9a] is exposed to higher proces temperature [figure 4B) Arse Pe at amt 6 Figure (a) ict Vane Figure (6) High Process Temperature Acthe amount (mass) af gi does a change fram Fann a) 0h) the pressure exerted onthe base ofthe container fis not changed rd the ‘dicted height ofthe liquid does not change, However, the voume sccupied by the liquid has increased and thus the actual height has neresed The above scenario of igure (ia common oecurence in plant operations. Consider level uansmiter calibrated to read comely a 758C. Notete process eperature is increased to 90°C asin Figure 9 (©). the atuat level willbe higher than indicated, “The temperature eor can also oceu in wet-lg systems (figure 1) Figure 10 ‘Temperature Effect on Wet-Leg System If the reference ley and arable le area the same temperature thatthe level transmit (7) is calibrated for, the system wil seerately measire ligud evel. However, athe process temperate increses, the tal process uid level increases as previously discussed), while the indiated measurement remins unchanged, Further errs canoccur if the reference lg and the variable (sensing) leg sare at different temperatures, The level indication will ave inresing postive (high) eras the temperature ofthe wet reference leg increases above he variable (proces) eg ‘Asan example, consider temperature changes around iui sorge tak witha we leg Astemperature fll andthe wet leg ool of, the density of the liquid inside itinreases, while the emperatue inthe tank remains practically unchanged (because ofa much bigger volume and convection to the process) As aesultthe pressure of he reference leg rises andthe indicated level decreases. IF happens othe boiler level measurement for 2 shutdown system ken eve lead fo an unnecessary reactor ip on boiler low level However high-level rps maybe prevented under these circumstanees. [nm extreme case the wet lg may freee invalidating the measurement scheme completely, bu itcould be easily prevented with race heating as indicated earlier Figure 3) Fale high level infcatin canbe caused by an increased wet eg temperature, as or vapour bubbles ora drained wet leg SS = Note‘A high measured tank level, with the rea evel being dangerously lw may prevent the atuation of a saity system onal value ofthe tp parameter. “The real evel may even get sufclently lw to cause either the caviation of the pumps that ake suction frm the tao ea ingress int the pur aid result gas locking anda reduced or no Now condition. Ite pumps are Associated with a sary stem like EC or safer related system ike PHT ‘shutdown cooling can lead to possibe safer system impaiments and increased probability of resultant fel damage. 23.7 Effect of Presture on Level Measurement Level measurement systems that use differential pressure AP athe sensing ‘method, are als affected by pressure, although not othe same degre as {emperstre mentioned inthe previous section ‘Again the measured height H ofa column of tgud is direstypropartona, tothe pressure P exe atthe base of the colar bythe liguid 2nd Inversely proportions ode density p ofthe gui HaPup Density (mass pe unit volume) of liquid or gas Brey proporional to the proces or sjstem pressure Ps pare ‘Thus, for any’given amount of gud in container, the pressure Pe (liguid pressure) exerted atthe base ofthe container by the lqued will main ~orstamt but the eight will ar inversely with the processor system Hawes ost guid are rly incompressible and the process pressure will aot affect te level unless hee is siniieat vapour content 138 Level Measurement System Errors ‘The level measurement techniques desribed inthis module use infeed ocesses and nat direst measremens. Namely, the indaton of Mul evel "based onthe pressure exerted on a diferencia pressure (DP) cll by the hight of the iid in the vessel. This places great importance a he piysical and envionment problems that ean act the accarty ofthis ‘diac measurement. NoteConnections ‘As amusing asit may sound, many avoidable eros osu because the DP cell had the seasing line connection reversed. In systems thathave high operating presture but lw hydrostatic pressure due to weight ofthe fui, this is ast oceu, Thi is articular important for closed aaksystems With an income connected DP cell the indicated love would go down ‘while the tr nk evel increases, Over-Pressuring ‘Thee valve manifolds are povided on DP cells to prevent over-pressuring and ai in the moval of els for mantenane,Incorect procedures ca Inadvenenly overpressure he differential pressure col the cell des ot failimmediatel the internal diophragm may become ditorted. The ‘measurements ould read ether high o low depending on the mode of| fale [Note that f the equalizing valve on the tre-valve maifold fs inadvertently ‘opened, the level indication will ofcourse drop toa very low level asthe pressure acossthe DP cel equlizes. Sensing tines The sensing lines ae the umbiliea ord tothe DP cell and must be funetioning conecty. Some ofthe enor that ean oecurare: ‘Obstructed sensing lines ‘The small diameter lines can become clogged with pclae, with resulting imacerate readings. Sometimes the problemi st noted as an ‘usualy slugs esponse oa predicted change in eel, Periodic draining ‘nd Mashing ofsensng lines sa must. Draining sensing tines [As mentioned reviousy, he lines must be drned to remove any debris ot patculete that may sett othe bottom of the tank and inthe line. Aso, i losed tank dry eg systems, condensate must be emoved regularly to ‘prevent Guid peasure bung upon the low-pressure inpulse fn. Fale {0 do so will fours give alow tank level reading. Procedural care must, be exercised to nse the DP cel ie not overanged inadvertently during draining Suck could happen ifthe block valves ae nt elosed and equalizing valve opened beforehand, False high evelindization canbe cause bye leaking drained wet eg, ‘A leaking variale (process) leg can case false low-level indication, Note24 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT Every aspect of our lives, bth at home and at work, sn tence by temperature. Temperature measuring devices have been in existence for centuries. The age-old mercury in ples thermeometr stl used today and ‘why nor The prinepl of operation is ageless asthe device sel. ts operation was based onthe temperature expansion of Aus (mercury oF alcohol). As the temperature increased the Nui in a small reservoir or bulb expanded anda small column of the Mid wa forced up a tube. You wil Find the same theory is used in many modern thermostats today. In this ‘module we wll look atthe theory and operation of some emperature measuring devices commonly found in generating sation. These lclude thermocouples, thermostats and resisive lemperatie devices ‘Thermocouples (T/C) and resistive temperature devies (RTD) ae generally comecte to contol ogi o instrumentation for conindous monitoring of temperature. Thermostats ae used for dies positive contol of he temperature ofa sytem wits preset im 2 Every typeof metal has a wique composition and has a different resistance tothe flow of electrical curent. Tiss termed theresistvely constant for that meta For most metals the change i elecical resistance i dretly propontonal ots change in temperature an is liner over a range of Temperatues. This constant factor elles the temperature coefficient of electrical resistance (shor formed TCR) isthe bass of resistance temperature detestors. The RTD can actualy be regarded a bigh precision wire wound resisior whose resistance vane with temperature. By measuring the resistance of the metal, temperature can be determined Several diferent pure metals (ch as platinum, nickel and copper) canbe used inthe manufacture of an RTD. A typical RTD probe comains col oF ver ine metal wire allowing fora large resistance change without a geat space requirement. Usually, platinum RTDs are used as process temperstre monitors beense oftheir accuracy and ines 11 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) To detec the small variation of resistance ofthe RTD, a temperature teansmiter i the form of a Wheastone bridge is generally used. The circuit compares the RTD valve with tee known and highly accurate resistors. Nateyw) R10 z Figure RTD using a Wheatstone Bridge ‘A Wheatstone bridge consisting ofan RTD, three restora volumeer and 4 volage source is ilustrated in Figure I, tn this eet, when the current fw in the meters zero (the voltage at point A equals the voltage a point 8) the bridge is said to be in nul balance. This wouldbe the 20 or Se point on the RTD temperature output. As the RTD terperature increases, the voltage read bythe volimeter increases. Ifa volage transducer replaces the Volimeter, 4-20 mA signal, which is proportional othe temperature range being monitored, can be generated, ‘As inthecase ofa thermocouple, problem arives when the RTD is installed some distance avay fom the tansmite, Sitce the connecting \wites are long, resistance ofthe wires changes as ambient temperature Flucustes. The variations in wire resistance would nteduce an ero in the ‘eansmter. To eliminate his problem, athee-wire RTD suse, ara l A & Power o =o Sve st0 ar pa i & - Figure? Three-Wired RTD Figure 2ilusates a thee-wiee RTD installation, Now:“The connecting wires (Ww, W2, w3) ae made the same length and therefore the same resistance. The power suppl is connected to one end ofthe RTD andthe tp of the Wheatsone bridge. Itcan be sen thatthe resistance of the eight eg ofthe Wheastone ridge is Ry + Re Ror The esac of the let eg ofthe bridge Ry Ruy + RTD. Since Ry = Rus the esl i thatthe resistances ofthe wices cancel and therfore the eet of he connecting wires is eliminate RTD Advantages and ‘+ Theresponse time compared to thermocouples is very fast ~n the onde of fations oft second, ‘An RTD will notexperence drift problems because i snot self powered, 1+ Within is range iis more accurate and has higher sensitivity than a themocoual, = tan installation where long lads are equte, the RTD does not require special extension cable + Unlike thermocouples, radioactive radiation (beta, gamma and ‘noutors) has minimal effect on RTD since the parameter measured ‘sressiance, not voltage. Disadvantages: Because the metal used fora RTD mus be in its purest fom, they are much more expensive than thermocouples ‘+ Ingenral, an RTD is not capable of measuring as wide a ‘temperature range asa thermocouple “+A power supply filre can cause eroneous readings ‘+ Smal changes in resistance are being measure, ths all connections must be tight and fre of somosion, which wil rete errs ‘+ Among the many uses ina muclear station, RTDs can be four inthe ‘reactor are temperate measurement and fel chanel coolant temperature, lure Modes: + Amopen ciccuit inthe RTD onthe wiring between the RTD and the bridge wil cause a hightemperature eacing + Loss of power ora short within the RTD will cause a ow temperature reading Nate242 ‘Thermocouple (T/C) A theemocouple consist of two pieces of dissimilar meals with their ends Joined togetier (by twisting, soldering or welding). When heat applied to {the junetion a voltage, inthe range of mili-volts (mV), is generated, A thermoccupieis therefore said to be sel-powered. Shown in Figure 3 is © completed thermocouple circuit sec, is ganda tl lol Figure3 ‘A Thermocouple Circuit ‘The voltage generated at each junction depends on junction temperature. If temperature 1 is higher than T2, then the voltage generated at uneton 1 willbe higher than tats Juntion 2. Inthe above leu, he lop cutent Shown oa the glvanometer depends on the relative megitoe of the soltage tthe vo junctions. In order to use a thermocouple ta measure process temperature, one end of the thermocouple has o be kept in contact with he recess while the ther end ha tobe kpc at constant temperature. The end ati in contact with the process salle the hot or measurement junction, The oe that is kept at eontant temperatre called eold or reference junction, The reltonship between total cuit volage (em) and the emf a the ancions i Circuit em = Measurement emf Reference emf circuit mf and reference emf are known, measurement emf canbe cesleulted and the relative temperate determined ‘To comer the emf genented by a thermocouple tthe standard 4-20 mA, signal a tansmitter i needed. This kindof tranmiter i ealed 3 ‘temperature tansmiter. Figure shows. simplified temperature NoweNote Figures {A Simplified Thermocouple Temperature Transmitter In Figure 4 above, the temperate measurement cicuit consists of ‘thermocouple conected directly tthe temperate trnsmite. The bt and ‘ol junctions can be located wherever required to meas the temperate Aference between the to junctions In mos situations, we ned monitor the temperature ris of equipment © noire the ele operation Tempeentne rie fs device i the operating \emperatre using smbient or room temperature as «erence. To ‘accomplish this the hot junction loeated in or on te device and the cold Jumotion atthe metro transmit as ilstated in Sige 5. wae id Figure s ‘Typical Thermocouple Circa Thermocouple Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages: + Thermocouple are used on most ransformers, The hot junction ie Inside the tansformer olan the old junction a the meter mounted ‘on the outside. With this simple and raggedinsallaon, the meee rectly reads the emperatre rise of ol above the ambient temperature ofthe location ‘In general, thermocouples ae used exclusively around the turbine hall because of thei rugged constution an low eos. + A themocouple is capable of measuring a wider temperature ange than an RTD,Disadvanty ‘Ifthe thermocouples located some distance away fom the ‘measuring device, expensive extension grade thermocouple wices or compensating cables have to be used ‘+ Thermocouples are not used in reas where high radiation feds are present (for example, inthe rector vault). Radiontive radiation (6g, Bets radiation from neutron activation, will induce a voltage Inthe thermocouple wires. Since th signal rom thermocouple also voltage, the induced voltage wl ease n ear inthe temperature transmit output. ‘Thermocouples ae slower in responce than RTDs + tthe conto logic i emocely cated and temperature ransmiters (clot to mili- amp transducers are wed, 2 power supply failure wil of course cause falty readings Failure Modes: ‘An ofen circuit inthe thermocouple detetor means that there eno path for curent o,thus wil enuse a low (fFaeale) temperature reading ‘A short circuit inthe thermocouple detector wil also cause aloe temperature reading because icreses leakage curent pth to the ground tnd a smaer meesured vokage. 243° ‘Thermal Wells ‘The process environment where temperature monitoring is require, is fen ‘ot ony ho, bu also pressurized and possibly chemically corrosive ot radioactive. To facilitate removal ofthe temperature sensors (RTD and TC), ‘or examination or replacement and to provide mechaical protection, the sensors ar usually mounted inside thermal wels (Figure 6 hollow metal tube with one end sale. Is sully mouated permanently i the pie wave The enneo i incr int it and makes conact wih the sealed end Nate‘A drawback to thermal wel their ong response time because heat must, be transfered though the well othe sensor. An example of he temperature response for tare and thermal well installed sensors is shown in Figure 7. Minimizing the airspace betveen the sensor andthe well, however can decrease this thermal ag. Tine Figure? Response Curves of are and Thermal Well Installation 244 Thermostats Thermostats have a cifferent funtion than the resistive remperature detectors and thermocouples tat we have jt discussed. The themosats ‘iret regulate the temperate ofa system by mantsning it constant or ‘varying it over spciis range. The TIC oF RTD could be sed asthe temperate sensing element oF thermostat, but generally thermostats ae direc acing devices The two common types of thermostats ae: Bimetlic strip NotePressure Cylinders ‘The most common thermostat depends onthe expasion of fd such a8 mercury oF old with an inreae intemperate sin iat 8. ‘The plunger connected to the pistons used oforeecontacts open end closed to coal valve postions or pump cant. Cften he plunger is Aietly connected to the valve asin figure 9 below. This isthe sme Brine as sed in automobe wae hrs were essen he Eplinder isa wax witha melting point of around 180. es Figure ‘Thermostat Pressure Cylinder Application NoteBimetate Strips A bimeallic sip is constructed by bonding two metals with different oetiints of themal expansion (Figre 10). I eat isappied 1 on end ofthe stip, the metal with the higher eoefFicen of expension will expand tore readily than the lower one. As aeesul the whole mealic stip wil tnd nthe dlirestion ofthe metal with the lower caeMent (Fight) \ tin ca Figure 10 ABimetale Strip Dhreeion of Movement Fined Point Figure 11 DBimetali Strip Bent ater Heats Applied When contacts ae atached ote strip, itcan be used as fest acting thermostat o controlar temperature a pr figure 12. Cne drawback is that there cannot be sy flammable vapours suounding the stp due to arcing penerted across the coacts NoteFigure 12 ‘imetalic Thermostat ‘One main advantage ofthe bimetallic Sip is tha it can be used to operate ‘over arange of temperatures when the strip is ahioned ita coil for larger swing) and placed on an adjustable pivot gute 13). Mos room ‘thermostats operat on this principe. Figure 13 Application of Bimetallic tip le Thermometers ‘Another common configuration of he bimetallic strip i colled in helix to increase the swing or displacement similar t the el above, In this shape, the strip is more rugged an less subject to vibration. A helical bimetallic thermometers shown in Figue 4 below. ‘Biretali thermometers in general are very rugged and require ile ‘maintenance. They are usually used o measure process parameters suchas ump and bearing temperature NoteSar Figure 14 Hela! Bimetalic Thermometer 25 NEUTRON FLUX MEASUREMENT 'ACANDU reactor generts thermal power from heat produced by nuclear fission. However, measurng the actal thermal power urput proves to be too slow forthe purpose econolling the reactor (tere isa time lag oF shout 25 seconds berweer metro Flax change and thermal output measurement) To controle reactor adequately necedary to have Fst. responding instrumentation. The method of measuring reactor power by ‘observing the radiation deectly associated withthe Rion process i used Each time a ison occur: radiation (neutron, beta, gamma orapha) is produced, The magnitude ofthese radiations is directly proportional tothe fhumber of fision, whichis tur directly elated othe reactor power level The radiation we eooss to monitor is neutron Tat IF we cam measure the neutron flat, we can estimate the thermal output ofthe reactor. In ‘Maton, montoing neuuon flux acs asa safeguard against the possibilty of losing control ofthe reactor. ITneuvon Mux exceeds a predetermined Timi, shutdown systems wil be triggered by the sensed neutron signal 2.54 Neutron Flux Desctio Power produced by theamal nuclear reactors is generated trough sion induced by slow neurons Hence, nislear sensor that are prt ofthe reactor conto or safety systems are generally based on detectors tat respand primarily t slow neurons. The contl ofa reactors necessary over a wide Fange of aeutron Fut levee fom 2er0 ofl eactor power at (0 aim), ‘The level of 10" ren) approximately zero thermal power for ll practical purposes nd sigifcant thermal power contribution doesnot ose Unt the fl rises to 10" (1% FP). The pomnal operating range ofthe reactors in usally between 10" and 10" nem’). Noeleis mote convenient wo deserbe the fax density in ems ofthe logarithmic value, with 1 beng full power (10" Nie 8)~ DIFP), By terminology, the nevtron fae sid to have gone though | decades from 0 to fll power, In order to provide instrumentation tat will have conplet coverage over this large range and stil maintain accuracy, iis necessary to split the detection ito three area of sensitivity 1. Subsea a0 16 167 nem?) Neuron detection inthis pion is covered by ewo sets of startup instrumentation ‘+ Incore BE; proportional neutron counters witha range 10" (0 10°" FP, + OutoF core He-3propontional neton counters with range of 10" to 10° FP. Ran ypc" 10" em) Pinar detection by extra 9 core on chamber Wiha ange of 10°15 FP 3. Under-fsd 010° to 10" nfm? 5). Primary detection by izmal core eu detectors witha range oF 015 0 1.5 FP. ‘As there ae diferent detectors used, overlap ofthe detectors i necessary to provide a smoath transfer of reactor contro throughout the thee areas ind £0 provide backup instrumentation i the main detectors are in question, We wll look at each ofthese areas in more dtl 252 Neutron Detection Methods "Neutrons. like gamma ays, have no charge ad therfore cannot det interact with instrumentation, as do charged paicls and electrons. [Neutrons can also travel through many centimeters of matter without any {ype of interaction and thus ean be toll invisible toa detector of common size, When neuron docs interact tie with 2 niclews of the absorbing ‘material This interaction may ether cause the newton to disappear tually and be replaced by one or more secondary radiations or change the enerey tor direction ofthe neuron significantly. ‘Secondary radiations resting from neuron interactions ae almost always heavy charged parieles. These particles may be prodeed either as result of neuror-induced nylear reactions oF they may be te nucle! of te absorbing materiel ise which have gained energy fom the neutron collisions Note‘Most neutron detectors utlize some means of conversing the incident neutron into secondary charged pals that can then be detested directly. Forslow (thermal) netrors, which havea sll amouné of Kinetic eens), several diferent neuron reactions can be used, These inelude;() prompt Capture of neurons esulig in charged particle mission, (2) delayed Scivation actions where an activated nleus emits same fr of radiation ‘within convenient halite ad energy and (3) fission reac resulting From neuron expire 253. Startup (sub-ritel) Instrumentation Ifthe reactor had been operating for sometime and the shut-down i short (vay. 2-3 weeks), the Fon products wil have bull up ta pine where the photo-neuionpresenee wil sil be large encugh inthe reactr t0 be detected by the un-up instrumentation (ion chambers). For longer shutdowns, where the power has dropped to a elatively low level te readings fom the fon chambers are uveliable because the beckeround gamma radio levels heavily influence them. Aer some time power will rp to alvel where the installed instroments go of-sale (Gelow abou 10” FP) andthe regulating system wil nt automatically ‘contol the power. Figure | shows a typical power decay eurve fora (CANDU retctor. I can beseen hat afer about 3 weeks supplementary ‘proportional counters are recessary to maintain arelinble power record ‘Moreover, subsequent approach occa would need to be done using the proportional counter in he intial stages. ~) Cd \ | uss wes — ~ Figure 1 Power Decrease Following Shutdown Note‘The startup instrumentation is comprised of two separte portable newton detetion systems, one for n-core andthe oer for outoFcoe, These systems have we decades of ovrap The out-of core detectors consist of He Filled proportional neuron counters that ean be located inthe ion chamber shuter holes. As we have indicated this instumeniation measures power fom 10" 19 10° FP. ‘The BF; (boron trie) n-oce detectors consist of boron in Mucrde- filled proportional neuron counters at ean be installed inthe ingore detector holes. This instrumentation measures the ange from 10" to 10" FP andi used fo start-up with fresh fue, The energy released per reaction ‘shigher in B10 than He, which enables the BF, counters to beter Aiscriminate against background gamma pulses. ‘The BF; proportional count (Figure 2) isa selamplifying device that uses the ions crginaly produced to make othe ions nthe se region. Inside the proportional counter is an eleewode of fine wire along the axis of the Second eletode that ia hollow eying. The effect ofthe wie ito give Strong electric ld seats clove to This strong field quickly accelerates the primary ions gain enough eneay inthe acelertion to produce secondary ionization pairs. These newly formed secondary ions ae tlso accelerated causing adsitonal ionization. The large numberof events known asa Tewnsend avalanche rete a single, large electrical pulse. Since single pulse is produced for each incident radiation partite or photon its easy to directly measure the nimber of incident neutons, which Interated with the detector. NoteFigure? BF; Proportional Couster ‘BF; (boron ri-suorde) ges used in proportions counters are enriched 19 bout 969% in B-10, which rests in level of efficiency five times peat than the natural boron gs. BF tubes can readily discriminate against {gamma rays tha are often found with the neutron fox being measured Gamma rays interct primarily inthe wal ofthe counter ana create secondary electors hat my produce fonization in the gas. Because the Hopping power for elecwoxs in BFs i quite lw, a typical electron wll only ‘deposi small rston ofits inital energy inthe ga (ite subsequent ion- par production) before reaching the opposite wal ofthe counter. Most {amma ray interaction should result in fo-amplitde pulses that can simply be eliminated by an eletrenic amplitude discrimination circuit without sri detection efficiency. These sensitive supplemetary counters are removed once the standard ion chambers take contol. This prevents burnout ofthe instrumentation by texczssve neutron hx ding tonal reactor operation, The bumout is nore bythe rapid burn-p ofthe high ross section emir material ued to obain maximum sonst ‘Due tothe fast response tne ofthe BF counters, the ouput are deliberately damped alow Mux levels 0 prevent spurious trips from the shutdown systems 254. Fission neutron detectors ‘The detectors that use the sion reaction to detetreutons ae ealed fission chambers. These srl fon chambers are ypeally made of sinless steel walls and cestode, wih an operating volage fom SOV t 300V, Note‘The chamber walls re usually lined with highly enriched uranium t> enhance the ionization cent ‘Argon isthe common choice forthe chamber ill as and iti used at 2 pressure of several atmospheres The elevate pressure ensres tha he ‘ange of Fission agents within the gas dos nt exszed the detectors ‘mall dimension. The pulses produced by fission fragments entering the ‘sensitiv volume of the detector ae large and because the on chamber does ‘ot produce large caren low, the ouput rom the ison chamber is 8 Series oF pulses that an be counted ‘When the detector is operating, the fisionable material onthe detector walls is being consumed (by fission). To help slow the ate of depletion, fast neutron absorter sigh as "U is sometimes edéed ote fsonable material fn the wall. When ""U absorbs fas neuron, Pv is ereatd after beta emission The "Pu iste fisonable materi ‘Miniurized sion chambers can be tailored fr in-core use over any power range likely to be encountered in recto operation. These detectors fan be used as traveling detectors and as a eerence pont o calibrate self powered detector. 255° Ton chamber neutron detectors ‘An ion chamber (se schematic in Figure 3) measures he elecre charge of fons generated fom the interaction of neuron and the chamber structure and are located onthe ouside ofthe reator core. The output ofan fon ‘hamber isa flow of current directly proportional othe indent neutron NoteEAS Fen Tm Sow ™ ‘under imation. tea either be nitrogen-eum or hydrogen. The housing tnd central electrodes usually pure aluminum because oF ts fw residue oti asa result of neutron bombardment NoteSince neutrons are uncharged the lining ofthe chamber must bea cxting of ‘materia, which wll emit charged particles under neuron bombardment, Boron-10 was chosen because its high eross section or he (, a) rection with thermal neutrons gives igh sensitiv. This is important because ion chambers are mounted ouside the reactor core where the number of eons limited. Figre 4 indicates a representative location ofthe fon chambers, although the positioning can vay. Figure ¢ ‘Typical lon Chamber Locations {on Chamber Operation ‘The metal used for the electrode and ouside casing ie usally pure sluminura because of its low residual acti a8 aresult of neutron bombardment. high polarizing voltage (xypialy +600 V) is appli to the alminaen housing, while the center eletrode ie normally kept a round Potential (se Figure 3). Inthe fon chamber, neurons bombard the bore ining and release positively charged alpha (a) particles, When a rapidly moving alba particle ollides witha gas atom ejects an electron fom the atom leaving behind positively charged ion, This renders the gas conductive with so-called ion rs that are atcted othe charged electrodes by the polarizing voltage. This creates a flow of electric current, which can be detected by an exeral ieee Amplifiers produce three separte signals lustre in Figure 5 then process the cumont signal Notecite # he BLE Figures {on Chamber Neutron Detector System + Asignal proportional to the linet power, lin n=0 0 130% cy + Asignal proportional tothe logarithm ofthe power, Log $07 to Odecadee + Asigna proportional tthe rate of change the logarithm of| power logarate~-13 0 +13¥8ee At ow reactor power level, say below 15% fll power, coro of bulk reactor power is mporian, fo chambers, because of heir fst esponse time and high seat ae used for low power neutron ix detection fon chambers ae sel fr th Reactor Regulating System (RRS) and Shut Down Systems (SDS) beeause oftheir fast esponse time. Gamma Discrimination for Neutron Ton Chambers (One of the problems withthe ion chamber i thatthe detec is Inissiminete ant affected by other ionizing radiation especially gamma (The extemal alpha and most beta radiation eannt penta the housing) Note‘Gamma rays wll produce high-energy eleetons (termed ghoto-sompton «lectrons and subsequent ionization. Therefore itis impocant to ensure both at power and afer shutdown, when fision gamma radiation is predominant, that amma radiation des not give se (high) indication of Feactor power Discrimination against gamma ays ie achieved by: + Employing appropriate material inthe detector and by {gamma shielding (eed) inthe constuction of he fon hamber housings With shielding the neutron to gamma arent aio is Kept a about 1000 01 at high power level + Keeping the ative part ofthe ion chamber relatively small. Factors Affecting lon Chamber Detector Accuracy Proper functioning of fon chamber ystems is essential 0 avoid unnecessary shutdowns, especially at low power when te incore Rx detector sytem i not capable of providing accurate daca and therefore i not ued {A lower or negative signal can be caused by ether the eator power being ‘off seal (tat ess than 10°% EP o file inthe system, The other ‘vo channel wll determine whather the power i off cae ‘A lower or offseale reading canbe caused by any of the following: + Lowmoderstr level. ifthe moderator level drops the neuron velocity inthe uncovered area wil increase and wil be too fast tallow displacement ofthe lpn particles bythe ‘Boron emiters ofthe fon chambers. The output of the fon chamber will indicate lower neutron flux reading. + Loss of HY power suply forthe fon chamber polarization voltage, + Shutdown ofthe Reactor. At less than 10%% FP the output will be 2 or ieationa. Normal nuclear estruments (lon ‘chambers andr fax detectors wll be offal at thee low nd (-10°% of Fl poser) and so the egulatng system will Pot automatically contol the reactor. NoteEffect of Voltage on the Ionization Detector Process loniztin detectors as previously discussed ae a versatile instrument for detection of radiation ‘These es filed chambers canbe operated sion chambers, proportional counters, of Geiger- Muller (GM) tubes depending on the bas voltage pplied to the detector. Figure 7 iusrates the gus amplification curve (also Called the sx-egion curve) fr gas led detectors. Is a.curve ofthe felativeelectcal pulse size created atthe collector compared the voltage berween the emir and collector. Figure 7 Six-Reglon Curve for Gas Filled Detectors ‘You wl note from the curve that at low voltages high percentage ofthe ions recombine before reaching the collector. This region snot usable for detection purposes. As the bis voltage snereased into the on chamber region point is eached at which essentially all of he ions are collected before they can recombine. No secondary ionization or gas ampliiestion ‘ec. At this pint the ouput cuten wl be proportional tthe radiation Fntensity and relatively independent of Muctuaions inthe power supply [As the bias voltage i increased beyond the fn chamber region nto the proportional region, the ons created by primary ionization ae aczelerated bythe electric field towards the electrode. Unik the ion chamber rion, however, the primary ions gin enowgh energy inthe aecelration to produce secondty ionization pairs. These newly formed secondary fons ace also accelerate, causing adiional ionization. Nate‘The large numberof events, known as an avalante retest single clectrizal pulse. In the proportional regio, the deectoe output it ‘roperional othe total ionization product inthe decor. The rato between the primary ionization and thecal numberof fon pairs reduce is Known asthe gs amplification factor for hat gas and can be in the order of one milion, compared othe gus amlfcation Tacor of one for the ion chamber region. As the bias voltage i increased beyond the proportional eon, the detector ‘enters the limited proportional region and is unvsable for detection purposes In thisregion, unpredictable avalanches ean inertee withthe overall signal ‘Asthe bias voltage is increased even fuer nto the Geiger-Muelle regio, the secondary ions are alo accelerate to very high velocities and gun suisient energy to cause fnizatin themselves, The rerling avalanche caused bya single nization, results in a singe very lage pulse. The avalanche continues uml he large electrical field rete bythe ionization lmerferes wit the detector voltage Fld, decreasing the aceleration ofthe fons and thus halting the avalanche [At even higher voltages, the avalanche process camot be halted, making this region unsuitable for detection purposes. 2.56. tn-Core Neutron Detectors “Although fon chambers are very acurate neuron detector, tele relatively large sie and delicate construction make them impractical o be used to eter ux distribution sie the reactor. Fr this purpose, simple and relatively inexpensive in-core detectors (ICD) hae been developed. They are also known as Hilbom detectors. sel powered neutron (SPN) detectors ‘or n-crefux detectors (ICFD), ‘The advantages of Self powered detectors when compared to other neuton sensors include si, low cost and the relatively simple eiectronics required to ue them, Disadvantage stem from the fw evel of ouput cure. produced by the devies, a elaively high sensitvyof the output current to ‘hangs inthe neutron energy spectrum and for my types, fo insance vanadium detectors, a rather slow response tie. “The basic construction ofan I-Core Detector (ICD) is show in Figure 7 with aplainum emiter,ahough othe pes of emir materials can be wed Note“The detector operates by generating an electric curent afer the central emer has captured he neutrons. This currents proportional othe rate at ‘which neutons ae cepured in the detector. The detector self resembles Coaxial cable usually about a meter in length ad consis of an outer neal {an alloy of nickel, chromium and iron) sheath and an ier emer wie, Separated by a layer of insulation (usually magnesium oxide, MgO). Magnesium oxide is most commonly used as itean withstand the extreme semperstire and radiation enviroment in he reactor core. In-core detectors are sully denoted by the material of ther emiters, which in CANDU reactors are mae of vanadium, platinum, platinum clad incon incon! 600 core wie witha thin surfice ler of plain) ad incoael ‘Operation ofthese detectors requires no exter power supply and that is ‘why they ae called el powered. The operation (sce Figues fa) and 8) is quite simple. The caren that coresponds to the bets rays given off by he ‘emir is measured between the emiter andthe outer tel called the sollctr NoteFigure 8) Figure 80) In-Core Detector Operation (6) Incident radiation through the mechanisms described below) wil cause elezrons to be emited mostly from the emir. The emer is then Postvely charged with respect to collector. The collected eles trons pass through the esteral signal. lifer and back to the emiter producing wef NoteSeah dmb ” EE Fea ‘The 3 principal components ofthe generated current and main interactions are as follows ‘+ (0,6) mechanism that i, beta emission [Figure (2) following neutoneypure mostly by the emitter (neutron activation), This beta SP then ei negative IEM-SP then eis positive ‘m= Conteller Signal Output 8 in OP = fa ~intit K=Gain when controller uses e= SPM THEN K is negative for Direct Acting K ispositve for Reverse Acting bb bas usually $0% of ouput span) makes 1 Dires Action Ment 1 Revese Action Mtb Pt Proportional Band ‘Small (erow) PB = High Gain Large (wide) PB = Low Oain 100% _%640upu__seavahe ain 4) = 200%. 264Oupmt . Harare O° RB eainpar * Febproces 342 Practical Proportional Control ‘A more practical proportional contol scheme canbe achieved by Inserting contller between the level wansmiter and he conta vilve, ‘This will eliminate the sting up problems mentioned in the previous module (ie, it wllhave a seipeint contol) and also induce other ‘advantages, which wll be disussed in his Seton Ina praccl system one ofthe primary considerations isthe failure ‘mode oft valve, Te ETAT Nate{nour example ofan open tank with valve on theif it would be ressonablef assume thatthe valve shoul lose inthe even ofan it supply file to prevent the tank overflowing, ie, an arto open valve _ &. KAA] Hy Dou Figure? Open Tank Control ‘Tochieve the necessary control action on, say fling ank level itis necessary conver the decreasing output of the level ans to 3 insresing npu signal tthe contol valve. The level controle wi ‘esform thi function andi termed an indirect or reverse acting (1) onto ean be seen that ifthe valve action had been chosen ito close thenthis reversal would not have Been required anda direct (17) Seng contoller could have Been used. Normally controller are capable ‘of performing eter conto action, decor reverse, bya simple sitching process, “The conte wil also acept ou dsied setpoint input and perform the comparsorbesween setpint and measurernet to calculate the ears ‘magnitade nd direction. Upto now we have only assumed proportionality constant or one, i, the contol signal equals the input ror this always the bes ato? Consider the following graphs oF input, ouput and level with respect NateFigure: Poporindl Cons Repos Care Ivan be seen that atep increas in demand (outflow) has occured st ‘ime tthe resulting contol corection has caused anew mass balance to bbe achieved ater some time A this ime, under the new mass balace conditions, the level will stabilize at some level below the orginal Setpoint, i, an oft has occured, the los in volume being ‘represented by the shaded area between the input and output curves Lessin Newmassoscurs here j psy VI eve oii 7 atsepont Fi 9 Proportional Response witha lower Proportional Band Consider now the same demand disturbance bu withthe contol signal Increased in relative magnitude with respect othe eror signal; Le, Noweinstead of contol signal = err signal, contol signal = ror signl x {ain consti ().Clealy for any given eror signal the contol signal Will be inreased in magnitude, the inflow will be increased, and anew ‘mass talance will be achieved ina shorter ime a shown in Fig 9. (1 ‘we refer bck to our simple ballock system in section 3.3, ican be seen thatthe gun could be varied by adjusting the poston ofthe valve operating lnk on the float arm.) The offset is much reduced. In insiumenttion this adjustment of controle gains referred io as. proportional band (PB), Proportional band is defined as hat inp signal span change, a prcent, ‘which wllease a hundred percent change in ouput signal For example ifn input signal span change of 100% is equred topive an output change of 100% the sytem is sd to havea proportional band ‘of 100%. the system was now adjusted such thatthe [00% change in ‘uiput was achieved with only a 30% change in input signal span hen {he proporional band is now sido be $0%. There ia clear felatioshio between proportional band and gin, Gain canbe defined as the aio Between change in output and change in input Sout, ‘ahput By inspection it can be seen that a PB of 100% isthe same as agin oF| ‘one since change of input equals change in ouput. PB i the resprocal (of pain, exoressed as percentage. The general relationship is Exam: ‘What isthe gain of contr with a PB of? 3) 40% 8) 200% 1 gan n 200% _ 100% 0 oe a0 gama 1M | 100%, ere CyWhat will he PB setting in percent for a contolle with gain of? 2 3b oF Ansner 1) 7 = LO OOF 353395 sain 0) Pw LO 10% «a5, wn 08 ‘Small values of PB (high gin are usally referred oa narrow proportional band whilst ow gun is ermed wide proportional band. Not tere sno magic figure fo define narow oF wide proportional band, relative values oaly are applicable, for example, 15% PB is wider than 10% PB, 150% PB i narower than 200% PS ‘We have seen from the two ene examples at increasing the ain (oarrowing the PB) caused the offset 10 Be deceased. Can this procedure be used to reduce the offet to za? igure 1 Repose Var PB, Propanonal Conte Only NoteFigure 1 YDecay Response Carve Wit reference to Figure 10, considera high enn system (ay gain = 50, PB= 2%), Under steady sate conditions with the process atthe setpoint the inflow will ave constant value, Thief usually taken tobe = conta signal of $0% fora proportional controler with the process at the setpoint. In other words we have a 50% contol capability. With our high gun syst can be scen tat te maximum contol signal will be achieved with an err of =1% (cool signal = gain x eer). This contro signal wil ease the valve to go fll open, the level wil rise td the process will cross the setpoint. The err signal will now change Sigh and when the eor again exceeds 1% the sultant cont signal will now cause the valve to filly close hence completely stopping the Inflow. This process wil be pened continuously ~ we have reverted to ‘an onoff control situation with alte disadvantages previously ‘mentioned. Obviously tere mist be some optimum setting of PB which isatrade off between the highly sable but sluggish low gain system with large offset and she fast acting, unsuble onof system with mean offet equal to zero. The acepted optimum sting is one that causes the ‘proces fo deeayin 9% decay method as shown in bot Figures IOand it ‘The quarer decay curves show thatthe proces turns toa stendy state condition afte thre eels of damped osiltion. This optimization will be discussed more fully inthe section on controller tuning. ‘Recall the ouput oFa proportional controler is qua here = conte! signal 10% ?B error signal =(SP-M) kc =contoler gain ‘Cleary ifthe error zeroth cont signal wil be zero this san undesirable station. Therefore Tor proportional conta a constant tem ‘orbins must be added to provide a stendy state contol signal when the NoteForte purpose ofthis course we wil assume the steady state oxput oF 8 proportinal controller when atthe setpoint o be 50%. The extation| for preposiona contol becomes moke+b where = bia (50% added o output sign!) Calewlativn of Othet Example ‘An airtoepen vale on the inflow contros level a atank, Whenthe proces isa the setpoint the valve opening is SO%. Ar increase in butlow results in the valve opening increasing oa new steady sate value of 706, Whats the resulting offset if the controle: PBs 2) 50% 25% Answer ‘Toachieve comect contol he controler wil be reverse (TL) acting, 8) PB 50% grin=2 Ching in valve postion = 70 - 50 = 20% ‘Ths isthe output change fom the controller soup, in = 0b ‘apa 20% inp © input = 10% Since contoller severe acting © measured variable must have been negative ie, 10% This sequal oa + enor ora offset oft == 1 below sepoin "Note tat he narrower PB i likely to introduce some degree of ‘stillation tothe system. Hopeflly his will bea damped osilition, Note343. Semmary ‘+ The conroller action must be chesen ether dieet Tor reverse 14) to achieve the comet contro response. ‘The optimum seins for PB should result inthe process decaying na % decay mode,35- Reset of lategral Action “Most ofthe prozeses we will be controlling will have leary defined Setpoint Ife wish o restore the process tthe setpoin’ after a disturbance thes proporsonl action alone willbe insuiient Consider again he diagram (Figure 12) showing the response of 2 system under proportional cont, Figure 2 Resgonse Cane: Papi Canal Only 1 we wish 0 restore the process fo he Setpoint we must nerease the inflow over and above that required to restore amass balance, The ‘dditional inflow must replace the lost volume end then revert toa mass balance situation to main the fevel tthe Setpint. This is shown in Figure 13. This addtional contol signal must be present until the eror Signals once again zero oe te Sees | gm te Figure 13 ‘Additional Control Signal Restores Process to Setpoiat Noe‘This sional cont signa is known as Reset action it resets fe process tothe setpoint. Rest action is always used in conjunction with roporional action. Mathematically, reset action isthe negation ofthe {rrr signal to zero hence the allerative nomenclature ~ Integration. “The combination of proportional pls reset action is usually refered to as Pl contol ‘The response of Pl contol is best considered in open loop form, ie the loop is opened just before che ial congo element so tha the consol correction is ot in fet made. Ths illustrated in Figure L. ty o es a Tas eee OO rat 5 Seeeaiae “oe gore Proportional Pus Reset, Open Loop Response {cam be seen hat proportional action willbe equal to ke where isthe tin ofthe controle, Reset action will ese a ramping ef the eupat Signal © provide che necesary extra contol action [Aer tine sy tthe est atin has epeated the original propoional response: his isthe repeat time, the unt chosen fr defining rest action Tecan be seen that inreased rest ation woul increase the slope othe restt mp. [Note that proportional ation acurs fist followed by reset ction, Reset action defined as iter reset rate in repeats pr minute (RPV ‘reset time in minutes per repeat (MPR). 1 Pra eu NoweSxamal: {direct acting contollerhas proportional band of S0% a subjected to ‘sustained emor. The setpoint i 30% amd the measurement 5S. ARer “Fmt the otal outa signal from the controler as inresseé by 30%. Whats the reset ate setting in RPM and MR? Answer 100 PB = 30% ins Bop Since 1k wll be negative 2x enor=-2-5%= #10 Proporional Signal ‘Tol signal ater minutes ~-430%6 sper ice, integral ation has repeated original proportional signal twice in minutes, 2 repeats per 2 minutes 00.5 peas per minut, Reset rte 5 RPM or MPR 33 2.0 MPR \We nave steady mentioned that the optimum seting for poportonal contol sone, which produces a % decay curve, What i the optimum feting for eset ation? We wil discuss this mor ally in he module on ono tuning. For now, let us just consider avery slow eset rate and very st estate, {Avery slow reset te wil ramp dhe contol signal up very slowly. Eventual the proess will be returned othe setpoint. The contol will be very suglsh and ifthe system is subjected to Feguent disturbances the process may not ever be fly restored to the setpoint! Ia very fast eset ati used he contol signal will increase very ‘uiekly. we are controling, sy, a large volume tank, the level response ofthe tank may lag behind the response ofthe contol. “The cont! signal will go tots limiting value (0 oF 100%) and the listing cont sigral wll eventually cause the process to oss the setpoiat. Te ero sgnal wll now change i sign, and eet action will also revere direction and quickly ramp to the other entre, NoeThis process will continue indefinitely, the contol valve cycling, with resulting wear ad tear, rom one eteme to the other. The actual process level wl cyl about the setpoint. Ths eyeing is known a5 ‘eset windup and will gear the process fs subject oa sustained ror land oo fat est ete, The reset rate must be derestd reset ime increased), “The mathematical expression for P +I contol becomes: maifeah fut oo im =contolsignal © Serorsignal ——(@=SP-M).2(¢or-) k scomolergin tt =9cM=9 ‘TR = reset tine (MPR) b= bias signal Proportional contol ie (proper sign of gain) inputs 18° lag ato the ster (the conection must be opposite tothe err). Reset action Jntradvcesafarter lag. This fact must be taken into account when ‘tuning the controler (tllows proportional action). The rt fg must beineeased andis now closer to 360°. (360° lag means he feedback signal snow in hase with he input and adding to it =the system is now unstable) Reset actin causes the loop 10 be less abl 351 Summary + Reset action moves oft. + tes uiteare Repeats per Minute (RPM) oF Minutes pee Rept wR) + reset action i faster than the process can respord, Reset Windup can ocr Reset Acion mais «contra loop lee eae aT Note+ Do not subject process lops wih reset control to sustained errors—the corte signal willbe ramped to the extreme value reset windup will cur 36 RATEOR DERIVATIVE ACTION Consider «contol system subjected ta distance, which causes the ‘enor to increas in a ramped manne. Proportional control would respond to this ramped ero with smal ramped output signal ‘whose slope is proportional tothe controle gain. We could reduce the final deviation from the setpoint, Le. the offset, and the recovery time if we can provide some extra contol signal related tothe ate of change of the eror signal. This is termed aor derivative action and is usually Incorporated with ropontonal control Rate action isan anticipatory contol, which provides a lrg iat ‘contol signa to imi the nal deviation The typi open Toop cesponse ieshown in Figure IS Itean be seen thatthe derivative action gives a large, immediate, contol signal, which wil iit the deviation, Proportional action i then superimposed upon this step. When the enor stops changing derivative ‘ction ceases. Not that the displayed step response unobtainable in practice because dhe normal response approximates and exponential nd decay “The rte response gives an immediate contol signal, which willbe eq to what the proportional esponse would bear sometime, 54, T ‘minutes, Derivative units are given in minutes. These are the minutes vance of proportional action. Derivative scion iss leading control and, therefore, ends o reduce the overall ag in the System =the system Issomewhat more sable sl — z : i Derivative ceases as 3! Propocional ewer stops changing z P a 6 of Derivative J time gare 15 Proportional and Derivative—Open Loop Response NateNowe TT TTTMathematically proportiana plus derivative (PD) conto is expressed Keone m_=comtrote signa! ik controler gain To “derivative time bie signal The use of derivative conto is limite. At fst glance, derivative control ooksatratve should help reduce the time required "tabilze an err. However, will not remove offset, The contol sgn from derivative ation cesos when the err stops changing, which wll not necessarily bea the setpoint. lus use in practi, alo limited to slow acing processes. fused ona fast acting process, suchas flow, control signals due to derivative action will ten drive the conzol valve extremes following quite small but, de stoxp darge changes in input 9 arge changes in input Consider a simple low control system, consisting ofan orifice plate with flow tansminer and square root exractr pls direct eting Controle and arto close valve (fer to Figute 16), This system is Subjected toa sal, but fst, process disturbance. How wil his con ‘scheme pecfoon under propoional and derivative contol modes? | |! Vo FD Al na Figure 16 ‘Simple Flow Control system, ote‘Toanswer this question, le us consider the PD response toa fast change in proces signal in an open lop system (Figure 17. LA mee TS rar cama ecu cnrate ea FA Ree sna natecen epee [ference stm Fgere 17: Theope Lanp Resp of rps as Desa FD) ‘etn Rady Cain ror ils. “The upper portion of Figure 17 shows a postive proces excursion, AB, {rom the zero eror condition, followed by an equal negative excursion, BC, which tus theerorto zero, Noe tha the rae of change, ie, he Slope ofthe process change, from B to Cis twice the ate of change of the proces, fom A to B. Mathematically « ae Gle-C)= 25 (4-8) “The proportional control action fom B to C wil be equal but opposite to the preportonal conta action fom A to B. The rate o derivacve ‘onto ation from @ #0 wil be double tha fom Ato, The resuking ‘open lop contol signal pater is shown in the lower portion of Figure 1. The controller gin and derivative stings remain constant. Very shonly afte ime () the contol signal increases abruptly to 2 value determined by the rate of change of the er () the derivative oF ‘ate ime seting, and the conoller gan. Proportional action ramps the ‘control signal up, ui ime). value determined by the eo (2) andthe corrlles gin setng. This includes the direton of the eror tnd controller action, Atte (the rate of change ofthe process ero, deli, momentarily becomes 220, so the orginal change inthe conte! signal duet the rate action drops ou. Then the process err change direction becomes negative, andthe derivative contol ation now produces an abrupt Notenegative contro signal, double the original derivative conrl signal. The ‘proportional contraction then ramps the control signal down vn ime ©. A time(s) the rate of change ofthe process error becomes er, s0 the desivative contol signal again drops cut leaving the contol signal ati ‘orginal bas (zero) enor vale, Note that this nal bias, (er) err ‘ale ofthe consol signal ain, lene ure conil valve poston te nd of this excursion, determined solely bythe proportions. The valve has been stoked rapidly and repeated by te devvaive ston subjecting ito unnecessary wear, with no improvement onto. The response ofthe closed loop shown in Figure 16 would be somewhat sitferet because te resulting valve action would continuously alter the ‘ror signal. However, he valve would sillbe subjected 1 apd and ‘repeated stroking unnecessarily. ‘Thus, itcan be seen fom the above discussion thatthe use of dervaive section on fst acting processes such a5 flow isnot advisable Letus look athe contol of sluggish (generally a physically large) system. As an example, considers large tank with variable outflow anda contol valve on the inflow. A larg volume change wil therefore, be necessary before any appreciable change in level occurs, Consider large change in he outflow. After some delay (due othe sluggishness ofthe system) the controler will respond, I we have oly proportional mode onthe controle the delays will mean thatthe convo i always chasing the error itiated by the outflow disturbance. The response proportional controls show in Figure 18, Note thatthe proces bas at fly stabilized afer 8 considerable period o time. ‘The ation of derivative action, however, causes an anticipatory response. The contol signal ineeases mor rapidly andthe pres is returned oa steady stat ina much shorter tine, Note also tht “Tre sytem ie more stable (ess eyeing) with PD conto Offset sl exists. Nowe361 Semmary ‘+ Derivative or rate action i antcpatory and wil usually reduce, but at eiminate, ose ‘tunis are minus (advance of proportional sein). ‘+ Tetends to reduce agin a cont Toop, Ttsuse is generally linited 0 slow acting processes. Nate37 MULTIPLE CONTROL MODES We have already discussed some ofthe possible combinations of control modes. These ae Proportional only, Proportional plus eset (integral) P+, Proportional plus derivative (ae) P+, tis also posible to use a combination of al thee-contol meses, Proportional plus Inegrl plus Derivative (P+ 1+ D), Ata glance proportional only doesnot appear very atactive-we will {get an oie as the reult ofa disturbance and invariably we wish to onto os fited spon ‘An application of proportional only contol in a CANDU systim i a the liguid zone level conot system. The reason that siright propotional control can be used hee is thar the controled vaiabl is fotTevel but neuron fx. The manipulated varabc i the war level therefore offset is not important a the lvel ¢ manipulated toprovide the required neutron fu. In general it canbe sald thatthe vast mort of contol systems (probably grater than 90%) wil incorporate proportional pls integral modes. (We usually want to contol a fixed spot) Flow contol systems will invariably have PI contol Derivative contol will generally be limited o large sluggish stems with long inherent contro time delays, (To example, that shown in Figure 18). good general example isthe het exchanger. Te thera interchange proces Ren slow andthe temperature sensors usualy installed in a thermal wel, which further slows the contol sig response. Frequeniy heat exchanger temperate contrallers vill Incorporate three-made contol (P+ D). Nowe34 TYPICAL NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL SCHEMES 341 Level Contr In general we an divide evel measurement ino thee pes: Open Tanks Closed Tanks Bubbler Systems (Open or Closed Tanks) ta dierenva pressure tansminer is used as evel detector, the low pressure port wll be vented to atmosphere in an ape tank application. Ina Closed tank where there is often aga phase at pressure above the iui, the low-pressure port wl be taken tthe tp ofthe tanh. Any gs pressure will then be equally sensed by the igh an low sides ani ths canceled, Remember the closed tank instalation wll have ier a wet or dy leg on the low-pressure sides, ‘Open Tank Installation Assuring the contol valve i 0 the inflow the bet ature mode forthe ‘valve would be ofl losed, Le. Ae to Open (A/O} valve. The pressure Sensd atthe base ofthe akon afllng level wil decrease, ie, contrller Input. The valve must open more, replenish the an, requiring an increasing signal. The controller mis be reverse acng and wil wally have PT modes. The system is shown in Figure 15 itis necessary to mount the valve in the outiow, fe Best failure mode would probably be to fil open (AIC). Tis valve acon would requie an inereasing signa o halt falling tank level, gain a reverse acting (P +1) controle is necessary. ‘The same reasoning would apply 1 closed tank or tubbler systems, the only difference being in the sensing method employed: Remember contol modes ‘eof erivative action on large slow, system, Natehey ‘ Hn 20 Figure 19 ‘Open Tank Level Control 382. Flow Control ‘A tpleal Now control system requires some formof estction to provide = pressure different proportional o Naw (eg orife plate) plus x square Foot extractor to provide linea sign. The contnller ation depends upon the choice of control valve. Ifa arto open valveis chase then controler action shouldbe reverse, a an inerease in low must be countered by a ‘derease in valve opening. Foran arto close vale the ation must oF course be direct. The general format is shown in Figure 2, —F ep“The contol modes will e proportional pos itegral (never ue derivative ‘na Mow conto lop) 383° Pressure Control “The contro of pres in, say, a pressure veel, it generally achieved in one oftvee ways. 1. Variable Feed with Constant Bleed 2. Constant Fed with Variable Bleed 3, Variable Feed and Bleed Consider first Variable Feed and Constant Bled (Figure 21). The fed valve ation is it close (A/C) Ineeasing pressure will require an increasing va signal oto the supply. The (P +1) controle is ect acting. Fora variable bleed application the contol vahe Will be transfered othe bleed application the control valve willbe transfered to the bleed line and wil ned o be AIO i onto i sed. ° : 443-7 Feed—— 1 |_—_ Pressure Vessel)» Pressure Kt Boed Figure 21 Pressure Control ~ Constant Bleed Se Noweegg Aind-ntren dd For vartble fed and bleed we can use pli range control scheme (ne controle diving two valves). Tiss shown in Figure 22. When at he Setpoinwe requie feed to equal Deed I pressre increases we equ lst fed acon and more bieed ution and vce vers. The valve ation mst therefore be opposite, ay feed valve AC and bleed valve JO. On increasing petsure the divest acting controle ill supply larger signal to the Feed valve (closing it) and tothe bleed valve (opening i. Pressure should thus be maintained atthe setpoint with proportional plus integra contol f 4169- e (Pressure Vessel) Figure 22 ‘Split Ranged Feed and Bleed Pressure Control, 384 Temperature Control ‘The general problem with emperature conto isthe slowness of respon For this son the use of derivative action Fairy tanard. Figure 23shows representative heat exchanger, which cools ot bed with old ‘The choie of contol valve would probably be ito close, ie fil ope, to give mesimur cooling in he event of aie supply flue tothe valve NoteHot eed oS — tH ere i cooled Bleed Ga Figure 23 ‘Temperature Contra of Heat Exchanger ‘An increase, sa, in bleed temperature requires larger valve opening, i, smaller valve signal. A reverse acing controllers required. Three mods, P 1D, contol is firy usual NateREVIEW QUESTIONS - CONTROL | Consider system for heating a room with electric heaters what are the controled and manipulated variables 2. Sketch and label a block diagram of simple process under nezative Feedback conrol. Mark setpoint, measurement, ero, outpt, disturbances 3. State he tre important characteris of negative feedback conto 4, State he ditferences between feedback and feedforward control 5. Isdriving a car (na reasonably normal manne) an example of Feedback or feedforward conte? Explain. 6. Explain the operation oF process under aegtive feedback on/ofT contro. 7. Why wil eno coro cause yeling about the desired setpoint? 8. Why isonoffcontrol frequently used in room heating spplictions? 9. Fin igure 5, we located ou control valve in the ou line, whit woul be the required valve ston for negative feedback propertonal contol? 10. Explain the relationship berween enor and controller output ina proportional controller 1. Why does ofiet oceur with proportional contol? 12, A contol scheme consisis of an open ak with an ao close valve ‘on the outflow. Sketch a simple schematic diagram showing the console action, What woul happen to the conta ofthe system if the valve was changed 0 arto open bit the controller ation was tnehanged 13, Why can offset not be removed by narowing the proportional band? |. What gun is represented bya Proportional Band of 200%, 75%, 400%, 20869 15. A disturbance causes a process o change by 5%. What wl be the ‘change in contol output if the PB is 100%, 50%, 200%6? Note18, 19, 20. 24 24, 28. 2. 26 2. 30. ‘tank i controled by an it to close valve on ts nflow. When at ‘Uesetpoint the valve opening i 50% an outflow turbance eases te valve opening © become 80%. The convolle’s PB setting Se. Whats the offset (967? Assume a linear vale characteristic. Renenber ani cee wale ees ere in irl open itfnher ‘Steich and deseribe the curve which would in many processes, be UBeoptimam process responce flleing a dturbmee. What isthe pupose of reset action? What are the uit for reset action? What is eset windup? Does reset ation make the loop more or les table? Draw an open lop curve showing the response of proportional pls reset contol system toa step disturbance ‘contol system with direct seton controllers cperating at the Setpoint. The controler proportional band is et at 0%. The system Issubjeted wa disturbance, which creates a posite sep err of 46%, The otal contol output change ater 8 mines 48%, What isthe reset setting in MPR? Using the same control system and contol seingsas in Question 25, what would be the effect onthe system iFithadbeen subjected | ‘disturbance which caused a step err of -8% far period of 18 rinates? ‘What ithe purpose of rate contot? ‘What are the units of rate conto? ‘Why should ate cntrl not be used on a fast ating proces such ow? Will ate ation remove offi? What isthe effect o the rte signal if th eror stops changing? Which contol setting gives the largest ate signal, | minute or S minutes? Why? Nate31, Sketch an open loop response graph fra proportional plus desivative contol system subjected to a ramped eror tga 32. A proportional pls derivative control system i subjected toa ‘amped enor of -10% per minute For 1 minutes. The PB seting is 100% and the derivative sting is 3 minutes. The conollers reverse ating. Sketch an open loop response curve forthe system showing contol signal values at 10% neva, with eect time 33. Givea pial contrl example where seaight proportions control canbe weed 34. What isthe most commonly encountered combination of contol modes and why”? 35, Why isitaivantageous to use derivative action in the temperatre contol ofa heat exchanger? 36. Sketch level control scheme for an open tank. The valve selected is ‘AICand onthe inflow ie. Sat cotroler tion and modes. 37. A beat exchanger cooling hot bleed with old service water is

You might also like

• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  From Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (5814)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  From Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brene Brown

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1092)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  From Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (845)
• • Magazines
  • Podcasts
  • Sheet music
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  From Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (609)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1717)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  From Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (590)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1104)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  From Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (897)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  From Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (540)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  From Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2104)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  From Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (348)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  From Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1018)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  From Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  From Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (822)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1866)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  From Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  From Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (122)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (441)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Tóibín

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1947)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  From Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (401)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4770)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  From Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2259)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (807)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  From Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  From Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (266)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4203)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  From Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  From Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• Yes Please

  

  From Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1898)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  From Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  From Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2522)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  From Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3811)
• John Adams

  

  From Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  From Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (74)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (792)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  From Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  From Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (137)
• Little Women

  

  From Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (104)