Gausss Test

Appendix to A Radical Approach to Real Analysis 2nd edition

c
2006
David M. Bressoud
June 21, 2006
Theorem 1. Gausss Test Let
f (x) = x (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ),

ai 6= 0,

be a hypergeometric power series. We assume that the polynomials in the numerator and denominator of an+1 /an have the same degree:
an+1
Ct nt + Ct1 nt1 + + C0
=
,
an
ct nt + ct1 nt1 + + c0
where neither Ct nor ct is zero. The radius of convergence is |ct /Ct |. If |x| = |ct /Ct |, then we can
write the absolute value of the ratio of successive terms as


 
 an+1   nt + Bt1 nt1 + + B0 




(1)
 an x =  nt + bt1 nt1 + + b0  ,
where Bj = Cj /Ct and bj = cj /ct . The test is as follows:
1. If Bt1 > bt1 , then the absolute values of the summands grow without limit and the series
cannot converge.
2. If Bt1 = bt1 , then the absolute values of the summands approach a finite nonzero limit and
the series cannot converge.
3. If Bt1 < bt1 , then the absolute values of the summands approach zero. If the series is
alternating, then it converges.
4. If Bt1 bt1 1, then the series is not absolutely convergent.
5. If Bt1 < bt1 1, then the series is absolutely convergent.

Proof of Gausss Test: Part I

We shall follow Gausss proof, taking the liberty of rephrasing it and occasionally elaborating on
what he is doing. The reader is encouraged to look up Gausss original statements, portions of
1

Gausss Test

which have been translated into English in Garrett Birkhoffs A Source Book in Classical Analysis.
The complete paper (in Latin) is in the third volume of Werke, Carl Friedrich Gausss collected
works. Following Gauss, we define M1 + M2 + M3 + to be our hypergeometric series,

 

 Mn+1   nt + Bt1 nt1 + + B0 

=

(2)
 Mn   nt + bt1 nt1 + + b0  .
We define P (n) = nt + Bt1 nt1 + + B0 and p(n) = nt + bt1 nt1 + + b0 .
For large values of n, it is the coefficient of the highest power of n (the leading coefficient) that
determines the sign of the polynomial. As Gauss points out, once you are past the rightmost root
of the polynomial, then the polynomial takes on only positive values if and only if the leading
coefficient is positive. It follows that once n is larger than the largest root of either P (n) or p(n),
then


 P (n)  P (n)


(3)
 p(n)  = p(n) .
Let k be the largest subscript for which Bk 6= bk . If Bk bk is positive, then P (n) p(n) will
eventually be positive:
P (n)
P (n) p(n)
=1+
> 1,
(4)
p(n)
p(n)
for all n larger than the rightmost root of p(n)[P (n) p(n)]. This implies that
|Mn+1 |
P (n)
=
>1
|Mn |
p(n)
and so |Mn+1 | > |Mn |. The |Mn | are strictly increasing once we are past this rightmost root.
Similarly, if Bk bk is negative, then P (n) p(n) will eventually be negative and
P (n)
P (n) p(n)
=1+
< 1,
p(n)
p(n)

(5)

for all n sufficiently large. The |Mn | are strictly decreasing once n has passed the rightmost root.

Proof of Gausss Test: Part II

Gausss test says more than just that the absolute values of the summands are increasing or decreasing. It says that when Bt1 > bt1 , they increase without limit. When Bt1 < bt1 , they
approach zero. In this part, we assume that Bt1 6= bt1 .
If Bt1 > bt1 , then we can find an integer h such that
h(Bt1 bt1 ) > 1.

(6)

We define a new series N1 + N2 + N3 + by

Nn =

Mnh
.
n

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Appendix to A Radical Approach to Real Analysis 2nd edition. 2006
David M. Bressoud

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Gausss Test

Our new series is also hypergeometric:



 Mn+1 h n


 Mn  n + 1


P (n) h n
=
p(n)
n+1
h
 t
n + Bt1 nt1 + + B0
n
=
t
t1
n + bt1 n
+ + b0
n+1



 Nn+1 


 Nn  =

nth+1 + hBt1 nth +

.
nth+1 + (hbt1 + 1)nth +

(8)

Since we chose h so that hBt1 > hbt1 + 1, we know from part I that the summands of our new
series are also increasing in absolute value for n sufficiently large. We now observe that
p
|Mn | = h n|Nn |.
(9)
Since h is constant and |Nn | is increasing, |Mn | grows without limit as n increases.
Similarly, if Bt1 < bt1 , then we can find an integer h such that
h(bt1 Bt1 ) > 1.

(10)

We define a new series N1 + N2 + N3 + by

Nn = nMnh .

(11)

This series is also hypergeometric:





 Nn+1 
P (n) h n + 1

 =
 Nn 
p(n)
n
=

nth+1 + (hBt1 + 1)nth +

.
nth+1 + hbt1 nth +

(12)

Since we chose h so that hBt1 + 1 < hbt1 , we know from part I that the summands of our new
series are decreasing in absolute value. We observe that
p
|Mn | = h |Nn |/n.
(13)
Since h is constant and |Nn | is decreasing, |Mn | approaches 0 as n increases.

Proof of Gausss Test: Part III

We next tackle the case where Bt1 = bt1 . We first assume that Bk > bk at the largest subscript
k for which Bk 6= bk . From part I, this tells us that for n sufficiently large, the absolute values of
the summands will be strictly increasing.

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Appendix to A Radical Approach to Real Analysis 2nd edition. 2006
David M. Bressoud

Gausss Test

We find an integer h with the property that

Bt2 bt2 h < 0.

(14)

We then define a new series N1 + N2 + N3 + by


N n = Mn

n
n1

h
,

(15)

and note that

|Nn | > |Mn |.

(16)

Again, we have created a new hypergeometric series:





h
 Nn+1 



 =  Mn+1  (n + 1)(n 1)
 Nn 
 Mn 
n2

h
P (n) n2 1
=
p(n)
n2
=

nt + Bt1 nt1 + + B0 n2h hn2h2 +

nt + bt1 nt1 + + b0
n2h

nt+2h + Bt1 nt+2h1 + (Bt2 h)nt+2h2 +

.
nt+2h + bt1 nt+2h1 + bt2 nt+2h2 +

(17)

Since Bt1 = bt1 and we have chosen h so that Bt2 h < bt2 , the values of |Nn | are decreasing
once n is sufficiently large. We have that
|Mn | < |Mn+1 | < |Mn+2 | < < |Nn+2 | < |Nn+1 | < |Nn |,
and the distance between |Mn | and |Nn | approaches zero. The nested interval principle promises
us that both series are approaching a common limit.
Similarly, if at the largest subscript k for which Bk 6= bk we have Bk < bk , then we find an integer
h for which
bt2 Bt2 h < 0.
(18)
and define a new series by

N n = Mn

n1
n

h
.

(19)

We note that
|Nn | < |Mn |.

(20)

For this series, we have that



 Nn+1 


 Nn  =
=

P (n)
p(n)

n2
2
n 1

h

nt+2h + Bt1 nt+2h1 + Bt2 nt+2h2 +

.
nt+2h + bt1 nt+2h1 + (bt2 h)nt+2h2 +

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Appendix to A Radical Approach to Real Analysis 2nd edition. 2006
David M. Bressoud

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Gausss Test

Since Bt1 = bt1 and we have chosen h so that bt2 h < Bt2 , the |Nn | are increasing for
sufficiently large values of n. We see that
|Nn | < |Nn+1 | < |Nn+2 | < . . . < |Mn+2 | < |Mn+1 | < |Mn |,
and the distance between |Mn | and |Nn | approaches zero. Both series are approaching a common
limit.
The remaining situation is where P (n) = p(n). Here we have that |Mn+1 | = |Mn |. All summands
have the same absolute value.

Proof of Gausss Test: Part IV

As we know, the fact that the summands approach zero is not enough to guarantee convergence of
the series. If the series alternates in sign (or alternates in sign for all summands after some finite
subscript), then we have convergence. Because the ratio of consecutive terms, Mn+1 /Mn , is a ratio
of polynomials in n, this ratio will eventually be either positive or negative and stay there. If it is
negative, then our summands alternate in sign. If it is positive, then the summands have the same
sign and our series converges if and only if it converges absolutely. We shall now determine when
this series converges absolutely.
We first consider the case where Bt1 > bt1 1. We observe that


(n + 1)  Mn+1 
(n + 1)(nt + Bt1 nt1 + + B0 )
=
 Mn 
n
n(nt + bt1 nt1 + + b0 )
=

nt+1 + (Bt1 + 1)nt +

.
nt+1 + bt1 nt +

(22)

Since Bt1 + 1 > bt1 , this last fraction will eventually be larger than 1. Let m be an integer large
enough so that if n is greater than or equal to m then
|Mn+1 | >

n
|Mn |.
n+1

(23)

This implies that

|Mm+k | >
>
>

m+k1
|Mm+k1 |
m+k
m+k1 m+k2

|Mm+k2 |
m+k
m+k1
m+k1 m+k2 m+k3

|Mm+k3 |
m+k
m+k1 m+k2

..
.
>
=

m+k1 m+k2
m

|Mm |
m+k
m+k1
m+1
m
|Mm |.
m+k

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Appendix to A Radical Approach to Real Analysis 2nd edition. 2006
David M. Bressoud

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Gausss Test

It now follows that

|M1 | + |M2 | + |M3 | + + |Mm | + |Mm+1 | + |Mm+2 | +

>
=

|Mm | + |Mm+1 | + |Mm+2 | +

m
m
m
|Mm | +
|Mm | +
|Mm | +
|Mm | +
m+1
m+2
m+3


1
1
1
1
m|Mm |
+
+
+
+ .
m m+1 m+2 m+3

(25)

This last series is the harmonic series (with a finite number of summands taken off the front end).
It diverges. The comparison test tells us that |M1 | + |M2 | + |M3 | + must also diverge.
If Bt1 = bt1 1, then we find a positive integer h such that
Bt1 + Bt2 bt2 + h > 0.

(26)

We observe that


 Mn+1 


 Mn  =

n+1h
nh

(n + 1 h)(nt + Bt1 nt1 + + B0 )

(n h)(nt + bt1 nt1 + + b0 )
nt+1 + (Bt1 + 1 h)nt + (Bt2 + Bt1 hBt1 )nt1 +
.
nt+1 + (bt1 h)nt + (bt2 hbt1 )nt1 +
(27)

Since 1 = bt1 Bt1 , we can rewrite inequality (26) as

Bt2 + Bt1 hBt1 (bt2 hbt1 ) > 0.

(28)

In the last fraction of equation (27), the coefficients of nt are the same (Bt1 + 1 h = bt1 h)
and Bt2 + Bt1 hBt1 > bt2 hbt1 . We choose m larger than h and large enough so that if
n m, then the fraction in equation (27) will be larger than 1. It follows that for n m:
|Mn+1 | >

nh
|Mn |.
n+1h

(29)

This implies that

|Mm+k | >
>

m+k1h
|Mm+k1 |
m+kh
m+k1h m+k2h

|Mm+k2 |
m+kh
m+k1h

..
.
>
=

mh
m+k1h m+k2h

|Mm |
m+kh
m+k1h
m+1h
mh
|Mm |.
m+kh

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Appendix to A Radical Approach to Real Analysis 2nd edition. 2006
David M. Bressoud

(30)

Gausss Test

It now follows that

|M1 | + |M2 | + |M3 | + + |Mm | + |Mm+1 | + |Mm+2 | +

|Mm | + |Mm+1 | + |Mm+2 | +

mh
mh
mh
|Mm | +
|Mm | +
|Mm | +
m+1h
m+2h
m+3h


1
1
1
1
(m h)|Mm |
+
+
+
+ .
mh m+1h m+2h m+3h
|Mm | +

>
=

(31)
Again, we can compare our series to the divergent harmonic series. The series |M1 |+|M2 |+|M3 |+
must diverge.

Proof of Gausss Test: Part V

Finally, we consider the case where Bt1 < bt1 1. We find a small positive number h such that
Bt1 + h is still less than bt1 1,
Bt1 + h < bt1 1.

(32)

We observe that


 Mn+1 
n

 =
n 1 h  Mn 
=

n(nt + Bt1 nt1 + + B0 )

(n 1 h)(nt + bt1 nt1 + + b0 )
nt+1 + Bt1 nt +
.
nt+1 + (bt1 1 h)nt +

(33)

We know that Bt1 is strictly less than bt1 1 h. Eventually, this fraction will be less than and
stay less than 1. We choose an integer m larger than h + 1 and large enough so that if n m, then
|Mn+1 | <

n1h
|Mn |.
n

(34)

This implies that

|Mm | + |Mm+1 | + |Mm+2 | +
|Mm | +

<
+
=

m1h
(m h)(m 1 h)
|Mm | +
|Mm |
m
(m + 1)m

(m + 1 h)(m h)(m 1 h)
|Mm | +
(m + 2)(m + 1)m

m 1 h (m h)(m 1 h)
|Mm | 1 +
+
m
(m + 1)m
(m + 1 h)(m h)(m 1 h)
+
+
(m + 2)(m + 1)m


.

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Appendix to A Radical Approach to Real Analysis 2nd edition. 2006
David M. Bressoud

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Gausss Test

We now observe that

m1 m1h

,
h
h
m1h
m 1 (m 1 h)(m h)
1+
=

,
m
h
hm
m 1 h (m h)(m 1 h)
1+
+
m
(m + 1)m
1 =

m 1 (m 1 h)(m h)(m h + 1)

,
h
hm(m + 1)

..
.
1+
+

m 1 h (m h)(m 1 h)
+
+
m
(m + 1)m
(m + k 2 h)(m + k 3 h) . . . (m 1 h)
(m + k 1)(m + k 2) . . . m
=

m 1 (m 1 h)(m h) . . . (m + k 1 h)

.
h
hm(m + 1) . . . (m + k 1)

(36)

All of these partial sums are bounded above by (m 1)/h. In fact, they converge to (m 1)/h.
Since m is larger than h + 1,
1+

m 1 h (m h)(m 1 h)
+
+
m
(m + 1)m

is absolutely convergent. By comparison, the series

|Mm | + |Mm+1 | + |Mm+2 | +
must also converge. Since m is a fixed subscript, this series differs from the original series |M1 | +
|M2 | + |M3 | + by a known finite amount: |M1 | + |M2 | + + |Mm1 |. The original series
converges absolutely.

Conclusion

This proof is an ample demonstration of the thoroughness, care, and rigor of Gausss approach to
mathematics. In fact, I have occasionally been less careful than he is in his original manuscript. If
an inequality only becomes true once n passes a certain bound, then Gauss always makes explicit
what this bound is and how it enters the calculations. There can be no question that Gauss fully
understood the meaning of convergence and how it could be verified.
Not all power series are hypergeometric. We shall not always have clear, sharp tests for convergence.
But most of the power series encountered in the real world will be hypergeometric. When the root
and ratio tests return inconclusive answers, Gausss test is the next place to turn.
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Appendix to A Radical Approach to Real Analysis 2nd edition. 2006
David M. Bressoud

Gausss Test

And if the series is not hypergeometric . . .

If the series is not hypergeometric, then Gausss test can still be applied, but it may return an
inconclusive answer.
Theorem 2. Gausss Test for Arbitrary Series Let a1 + a2 + a3 + be a series for which


 an+1 
+ E(n)


,
 an  = 1 +
n
where is some constant and E(n) is an error function that can be forced to be arbitrarily close to
zero by taking n sufficiently large (given a positive error bound , there exists a subscript N such
that n N implies that |E(n)| < ).
1. If > 0, then the absolute values of the summands grow without limit and the series cannot
converge.
2. If = 0 and |nE(n)| is bounded for all n, then the absolute values of the summands approach
a finite nonzero limit and the series cannot converge.
3. If < 0, then the absolute values of the summands approach zero. If the series is alternating,
then it converges.
4. If > 1, then the series is not absolutely convergent.
5. If = 1 and nE(n) has a lower bound (there is a number B and a subscript N such that
n N implies that nE(n) B), then the series is not absolutely convergent.
6. If < 1, then the series is absolutely convergent.
This generalization of Gausss test enables us to handle series such as
x2
x3
x4
1 + x + + + + .
2
3
4
The radius of convergence is

lim

When x = 1, we have that



 an+1 


 an  =

n+1

= 1.
n

n
n+1


1 1/2
n
1/2 (1/2)(3/2)
= 1+
+
+ .
n
2! n2


1+

In this case, we have = 1/2 and

E(n) =

(1/2)(3/2) (1/2)(3/2)(5/2)
+
+ .
2! n
3! n2

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Appendix to A Radical Approach to Real Analysis 2nd edition. 2006
David M. Bressoud

Gausss Test

10

Our series converges at x = 1 because it alternates in sign, but it is not absolutely convergent
and so does not converge at x = 1.
An example of a series for which Gausss test is inconclusive is
x+

x2
x3
x4
+
+
+ .
2 ln 2 3 ln 3 4 ln 4

The radius of convergence is again 1. To simplify the algebra, we shall look at the ratio |an /an1 |
rather than |an+1 /an |:


 an 
(n 1) ln(n 1)


 an1  =
n ln n
n 1 ln(n n1
n )

n
ln n



ln n + ln(1 n1 )
1
=
1
n
ln n



1
ln(1 n1 )
=
1
1+
n
ln n
=

1 ln(1 n1 ) ln(1 n1 )
+

n
ln n
n ln n


1
1
1
1
= 1
+
+
+
n
n ln n 2n2 ln n 3n3 ln n


1
1
1
+
+
+
+
n2 ln n 2n3 ln n 3n4 ln n
= 1

= 1+

1 + E(n)
,
n

where
E(n) =

1
1
1
+
+ 2
+ .
ln n 2n ln n 6n ln n

For this series, = 1 but

nE(n) =

n
1
1
+
+
+
ln n 2 ln n 6n ln n

which does not have a lower bound. Gausss test shows that this series converges at x = 1 where
the series alternates. The test is inconclusive about what happens at x = 1.

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Appendix to A Radical Approach to Real Analysis 2nd edition. 2006
David M. Bressoud