november 2006

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Technical Guide

Timber Bridges
How to ensure their durability

The Technical Department for Transport, Roads and Bridges Engineering and Road Safety (Service
d'tudes techniques des routes et autoroutes - Stra) is a technical department within the Ministry of
Transport and Infrastructure. Its field of activities is the road, the transportation and the engineering
structures.

The Stra supports the public owner

The Stra supplies State agencies and local communities (counties, large cities and urban communities)
with informations, methodologies and tools suited to the specificities of the networks in order to:
improve the projects quality;
help with the asset management;
define, apply and evaluate the public policies;
guarantee the coherence of the road network and state of the art;
put forward the public interests, in particular within the framework of European standardization;
bring an expertise on complex projects.

The Stra, producer of the state of the art

Within a very large scale, beyond the road and engineering structures, in the field of
transport, intermodality, sustainable development, the Stra:
takes into account the needs of project owners and prime contractors, managers and operators;
fosters the exchanges of experience;
evaluates technical progress and the scientific results;
develops knowledge and good practices through technical guides, softwares;
contributes to the training and information of the technical community.

The Stra, a work in partnership

The Stra associates all the players of the French road community to its action: operational services;
research organizations; Scientific and Technical Network (Rseau Scientifique et Technique de
l'Equipement RST), in particular the Public Works Regional Engineering Offices (Centres
d'tudes techniques de l'Equipement CETE), companies and professional organizations;
motorway concessionary operators; other organizations such as French Rail Network Company
(Rseau Ferr de France RFF) and French Waterways Network (Voies Navigables de France VNF); Departments like the department for Ecology and Sustainable Development
The Stra regularly exchanges its experience and projects with its foreign counterparts, through
bilateral co-operations, presentations in conferences and congresses, by welcoming delegations,
through missions and expertises in other countries. It takes part in the European standardization
commissions and many authorities and international working groups. The Stra is an organization
for technical approval, as an EOTA member (European Organisation for Technical Approvals).

With the publics environmental concerns, building owners are rediscovering the warm
appearance of wood. Moreover, timber bridges are light and easy to erect, something appreciable
in light of the reduction of problems during work.
But certain bridges, although built of preserved wood during the past decades, already show
serious damage. When they must be demolished, the owners are responsible for the toxic wastes
resulting from the treated wood.
It was necessary to reaffirm that the durability of timber structures rests mainly on the quality of
maintenance, and above all on the initial choice of good constructive provisions, to protect a
sensitive material of organic origin.
There should be no opposition to well-designed, treated wooden structures. It is in fact advisable
to combine the two approaches. A well-designed, sheltered wooden structure represents a longlasting development, which may then be legitimately treated by fungicides and insecticides, which
would have been less effective on a bad design.
Further, for coverings and guard rails in contact with the public, exotic woods from forests
managed with no compromise for the future, that remain durable, require no treatment and pose
no health hazard, have no reason to be excluded.
To point out these pitfalls, and to promote a material too long forgotten, Stra considered it
useful to publish a guide book devoted to bridges, for the building owners who choose to build
with wood.
J. Berthellemy
Technical Director at the Center for Structures of Stra
(Technical Center for Highways and Motorways).
This document was written by:

Vincent BARBIER, CETE Est (Technical Engineering Center for Infrastructure, East);
Jacques BERTHELLEMY, Stra;
Dominique CALVI;
Stella JELDEN, CETE Est;
Jean-Louis CHAZELAS, LCPC (Central Public Works Research Laboratory);
Pierre CORFDIR, CETE Est;
Jrome LAPLANE, architect representing the CNDB (National Committee for Timber);
Robert LEROY, LCPC;
in a work group led by Jacques BERTHELLEMY,
from a first project drawn up by Vincent BARBIER, with the ENSTIB,
(National Teaching-Institute for the Techniques and Industries of Timber ) in pinal.
We also thank, for their comments and observations:
Hlne ABEL-MICHEL, Nathalie ODENT and Michel FRAGNET Stra;
Thierry KRETZ, LCPC;
Daniel POINEAU, retired engineer,
Sandrine ROCARD, Emilie DERIVIRE and Frederic LERAY,
Ministry for Ecology and Sustainable Development;
Bernard REY, architect SNCF;
Serge LENEV, CTBA;
Tarek FAR, CETE the Mediterranean;
Pierre TROUILLET, M.C.S.A.C.

Synopsis
1. - General Presentation..............................................................................................................................................8
1.1. - WOOD: A LITTLE KNOWN MATERIAL TODAY ............................................................................................... 8
1.2. - HISTORY OF TIMBER BRIDGES ................................................................................................................... 10
1.2.1. The first bridges .................................................................................................................................... 10
1.2.2. - Evolution of bridge construction and maintenance .......................................................................................... 11
1.2.3. - Durability, a forgotten design criterion......................................................................................................... 12
1.2.4. - An exception: timber bridges of Switzerland................................................................................................. 16
1.2.5. Timber bridges of North America. ............................................................................................................ 17
1.2.6. - The return of wood.................................................................................................................................. 18

2. Wood - The material ...........................................................................................................................................21

2.1. - GENERAL .................................................................................................................................................. 21
2.1.1 Occurrence and availability....................................................................................................................... 21
Metropolitan Woods (or indigenous Woods of Europe) .............................................................................................. 21
The particular case of French Guiana. ........................................................................................................................ 22
The Northern woods .................................................................................................................................................. 23
Tropical woods ........................................................................................................................................................... 23

2.1.2. Sawn and reconstituted products ............................................................................................................... 23

Sawing ........................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Glued-laminated wood ( Glulam or glue-lam )............................................................................................................. 24
Industrial products LVL, LSL and PSL.................................................................................................................... 27
Panels ......................................................................................................................................................................... 27

2.2. - ANATOMY OF WOOD ................................................................................................................................. 28

2.2.1. Untreated wood : a natural, living material................................................................................................. 28
2.2.2. From the macroscopic to the microscopic...................................................................................................... 29
Wood is strong in both compression and bending ....................................................................................................... 29

2.2.3. - Observation of the log .............................................................................................................................. 30

2.2.4. - The ligneous plan ................................................................................................................................... 32
The ligneous plan of the coniferous trees .................................................................................................................... 33
The ligneous plan of leafy trees ................................................................................................................................... 34
Ligneous plan and properties of wood......................................................................................................................... 34

2.2.5. - Cellular structure and chemical composition.................................................................................................. 36

2.3. - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES .............................................................................................................................. 37
2.3.1. - Wood and water..................................................................................................................................... 37
Wood moisture ........................................................................................................................................................... 37
Drying ........................................................................................................................................................................ 38
An anisotropic shrinkage............................................................................................................................................. 40
Influence of water on mechanical properties ............................................................................................................... 44

2.3.2. - Behavior with respect to fire ...................................................................................................................... 44

Flammability, reaction to fire....................................................................................................................................... 44
Stability with fire ......................................................................................................................................................... 45

2.4. - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD ........................................................................................................ 46

2.4.1. - Mechanical properties .............................................................................................................................. 46
Density ....................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Orthotropism ............................................................................................................................................................. 46
Rheology of wood....................................................................................................................................................... 48
Factors influencing performance ................................................................................................................................. 49

2.4.2. - Dynamic Damping ................................................................................................................................. 49

2.4.3. - Classification of solid wood ....................................................................................................................... 49
Methods ..................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Singularities of wood................................................................................................................................................... 52

2.4.4. - Creep................................................................................................................................................... 53
2.5. - DURABILITY .............................................................................................................................................. 53
2.5.1. - Aggressors ............................................................................................................................................ 53
Fungi .......................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Insects ........................................................................................................................................................................ 55

Marine borers ............................................................................................................................................................. 57

Sun and rain................................................................................................................................................................ 57

2.5.2. - Preservation........................................................................................................................................... 57
General principle ........................................................................................................................................................ 57
Classes of employment (standard EN 335) .................................................................................................................. 60
Natural durability according to wood type ................................................................................................................... 60
Natural durability and class of employment ................................................................................................................. 61
Impregnability............................................................................................................................................................. 62

2.5.3. Preservation treatments ........................................................................................................................... 63

Products ..................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Implementation .......................................................................................................................................................... 64
Requirements of penetration and retention.................................................................................................................. 65
Guarantees.................................................................................................................................................................. 66

2.5.4. - Finishes................................................................................................................................................ 67
Protective coatings...................................................................................................................................................... 67
Varnishes and paint .............................................................................................................................................. 67
Other finishes ............................................................................................................................................................. 68

3. - Use of chemical preservatives: regulations and management at end of life................................................69

3.1. - RESPECT OF CONSTRAINTS RELATED TO HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT .............................................. 69
3.2. PRESERVATION TREATMENTS FOR CLASS OF EMPLOYMENT 2 ................................................................... 69
3.3. PRESERVATION TREATMENTS FOR CLASSES OF EMPLOYMENT 3, 4 AND 5 ................................................. 69
3.4. - REGULATIONS APPLICABLE TO TREATED WOOD, CONCERNING THE USE OF TOXIC PRODUCTS ................. 70
3.4.1. - General regulation context........................................................................................................................ 70
3.4.2. Regulation situation of traditional chemical treatments................................................................................... 71
Arsenic salts (CCA)..................................................................................................................................................... 71
Pentachlorophenol (PCP)............................................................................................................................................ 71
Creosote ..................................................................................................................................................................... 72

3.4.3. - Alternative treatments ............................................................................................................................. 72

Woods treated at high temperature.............................................................................................................................. 72
Substitutes for CCA .................................................................................................................................................... 73

3.5. - REGULATIONS CONCERNING TREATED WOOD WASTE:.............................................................................. 73

3.5.1. - Demolition of old structures ...................................................................................................................... 73
3.5.2. - Treated wood waste: classification and nomenclature....................................................................................... 73
Wood treated with CCA or creosote: a waste classified as dangerous ......................................................................... 73

3.5.3. Channels of waste treatment:.................................................................................................................... 74

Particular case of wood waste contaminated by xylophagous insects (Article 10 of the decree of October 2, 1992) ............... 75

3.5.4. - Obligation of the building owner, producer of waste ........................................................................................ 75

3.6. - CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................ 77

4. - Design of engineering structures in wood ..................................................................................78

4.1 - Types of structures adapted to wood..........................................................................................78
4.1.1. - Principles of use of wood in bridges ................................................................................................ 78
Timber bridges and heavy vehicle traffic................................................................................................................... 78
General design principles ............................................................................................................................................ 78
Importance of association of wood and other materials .............................................................................................. 79

4.1.2. - Various structures .................................................................................................................................. 81

Arch bridges ............................................................................................................................................................... 81
The composite timber-concrete bridges....................................................................................................................... 83
Farm bridges............................................................................................................................................................... 86
Lattice beam bridges ................................................................................................................................................... 87
Strut frame bridges...................................................................................................................................................... 89
Suspension bridges or stayed...................................................................................................................................... 92
Composite timber- steel bridges ................................................................................................................................. 93

4.1.3. - Examples of footbridges ........................................................................................................................... 94

Vaires footbridge ........................................................................................................................................................ 94
Ajoux footbridge......................................................................................................................................................... 94
Footbridge at Saint-Jorioz ........................................................................................................................................... 95
Footbridge in Grigny .................................................................................................................................................. 95
Bridges with full side beams ........................................................................................................................................ 97

4.2. DISEASES AND CAUSES OF DAMAGE........................................................................................................ 100

4.2.1. Lack of drainage and ventilation ............................................................................................................ 100

Sealing ...................................................................................................................................................................... 100

Wood badly ventilated............................................................................................................................................... 100
Assembly trapping water ........................................................................................................................................... 101
Flat surface ............................................................................................................................................................... 102

4.2.2. - Solar Aggression and humidity gradient .................................................................................................... 102

4.2.3. - Other causes........................................................................................................................................ 103
4.2.4. - Maintenance........................................................................................................................................ 104
4.3. - CONSTRUCTIVE PROVISIONS ................................................................................................................... 105
4.3.1. - General Rules...................................................................................................................................... 105
4.3.2. - Covered bridges .................................................................................................................................... 105
4.3.3. - Boarding............................................................................................................................................. 106
Boarding arrangements ............................................................................................................................................. 107
Protective hoods ....................................................................................................................................................... 108
Protection of the end wood ............................................................................................................................. 110
Handrail.................................................................................................................................................................... 111

4.3.4. - Joints ................................................................................................................................................. 113

Some rules about joints ............................................................................................................................................. 113
Ventilation of wood .................................................................................................................................................. 116
Joining using supports............................................................................................................................................... 118
Water traps ............................................................................................................................................................... 119

4.3.5. - Flooring decks ..................................................................................................................................... 119

Wood flooring .......................................................................................................................................................... 120
Bituminous flooring .................................................................................................................................................. 120

4.4. - CHOICE OF WOODS ................................................................................................................................. 122

4.4.1. - Wood in class of employment 2................................................................................................................ 122
Parts concerned ........................................................................................................................................................ 122
Woods usable ........................................................................................................................................................... 122
Treatments................................................................................................................................................................ 122

4.4.2. - Wood in class of employment 3................................................................................................................ 122

Introductory remark.................................................................................................................................................. 122
Parts of structure concerned...................................................................................................................................... 122
Woods usable ........................................................................................................................................................... 122

4.4.3. Special case of boarding......................................................................................................................... 123

Generalities............................................................................................................................................................... 123
Woods with sufficient natural durability .................................................................................................................... 123
Durability conferred by treatment ............................................................................................................................. 123

4.4.4. - Wood in class of employment 4 and 5 ....................................................................................................... 124

Parts concerned ........................................................................................................................................................ 124
Types of wood usable ............................................................................................................................................... 124

4.4.5. Summary table of choice of woods ............................................................................................................ 125

5. Help for writing order...................................................................................................................................... 126

5.1. - DEFINITION OF THE ORDER .................................................................................................................... 126
5.1.1. - The program of the structure ................................................................................................................... 126
5.1.2. - Qualification of the company ................................................................................................................... 127
5.1.3. Project Management............................................................................................................................. 127
5.1.4. - External Control ................................................................................................................................. 127
5.2.1. - Documents to be supplied by the contractor................................................................................................. 128
5.2.2. - Plan of quality assurance (PAQ) ............................................................................................................ 128
5.2.3. Execution procedures............................................................................................................................ 130
5.2.4. - Constructive Provisions .......................................................................................................................... 130
5.2.5. Regulation texts and calculations ............................................................................................................ 131
5.2.6. - Forces, stresses, justifications ................................................................................................................... 131
5.3. - SOURCE, QUALITY AND PREPARATION OF MATERIALS ............................................................................. 131
5.3.1. Wood material.................................................................................................................................... 131
Types of wood.......................................................................................................................................................... 131
Wood humidity......................................................................................................................................................... 132
Mechanical classification ........................................................................................................................................... 132
Section of woods and tolerances ............................................................................................................................... 132
Adhesive................................................................................................................................................................... 133
Tropical woods ......................................................................................................................................................... 133
Chemical interaction with metal ................................................................................................................................ 133
Receiving .................................................................................................................................................................. 133
Requirements, implementation.................................................................................................................................. 134

Certificates, attestations............................................................................................................................................. 134

Finish ....................................................................................................................................................................... 134

5.4. EXECUTION OF THE WORK ..................................................................................................................... 135

5.4.1. - Execution and assembly of the wooden structure .......................................................................................... 135
5.4.2. - Tests of the structure ............................................................................................................................. 135
5.4.3. - Internal control .................................................................................................................................... 135
5.4.4. - External control................................................................................................................................... 135
5.5. - THE UNIT AND CONTRACT PRICE SCHEDULE (CPS) ................................................................................. 135
5.5.1. - Price of framework................................................................................................................................ 136
5.5.2. - Price of boarding .................................................................................................................................. 136
5.5.3. - Price of pedestrian flooring ...................................................................................................................... 136
5.5.4. - Price of on-site assembly ......................................................................................................................... 136
5.5.5. - Steel Price for assemblies ........................................................................................................................ 137
5.5.6. - Price of protective coating........................................................................................................................ 137
5.5.7. - Price of tests ........................................................................................................................................ 137
5.6. - FOLLOW-UP OF THE STRUCTURE ............................................................................................................. 137
5.7. - SUMMARY: WHO DOES WHAT? ................................................................................................................. 139

6. - Appendices ......................................................................................................................................................... 140

6.1. - LEXICON ................................................................................................................................................. 140
6.2. - CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE OF THE AUTHORIZED SUBSTANCES ........................................................... 143
6.3. - EUROPEAN AND FRENCH REGULATIONS: HEALTH, ENVIRONMENT AND BIOCIDES DIRECTIVE ............. 144
6.4. - PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS USED FOR WOOD PRESERVATION IN FRANCE, AND REGULATIONS ........................ 147
6.5. WASTE CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE ..................................................................................................... 148
Structure of the classification of waste....................................................................................................................... 148

6.6. - DANGEROUS WASTE ............................................................................................................................... 151

Components which make waste dangerous ................................................................................................ 151
Properties that make waste dangerous....................................................................................................... 152
6.7. - HOW TO FILL IN AN INDUSTRIAL WASTE FOLLOW-UP FORM (BSDI) ......................................................... 154
6.8. - REGULATION RELATING TO WASTE ......................................................................................................... 156
6.9 STANDARD SECTIONS .............................................................................................................................. 157
6.10 - BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 158
PRINCIPAL STANDARDS .................................................................................................................................... 158
Vocabulary .................................................................................................................................................... 158
Safeguarding of wood ........................................................................................................................................ 158
Classification .................................................................................................................................................. 160
Manufacture and tolerances................................................................................................................................ 161
Joints ............................................................................................................................................................ 161
Adhesives ...................................................................................................................................................... 162
Tests and measurements .................................................................................................................................... 162
Surface coatings ............................................................................................................................................... 163
Panels ........................................................................................................................................................... 163
DTU............................................................................................................................................................ 164
Waste regulations ............................................................................................................................................ 164
6.11 - GUIDES AND OTHER TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS ....................................................................................... 165
6.12. - TABLES OF THE FIGURES AND TABLES ................................................................................................... 167
6.13. - TABLE OF THE PHOTOGRAPHS............................................................................................................... 169
6.14. - USEFUL ADDRESSES OTHER THAN STRA .............................................................................................. 172

1. - General Presentation
1.1. - Wood: a little known material today
Wood is a material that we are rediscovering, because of technical progress in the wood trades, its warm
appearance, and the publics concerns with the environment. Wood contributes to the renewal of the
architectural quality of structures, in both urban and rural areas.
In addition timber structures are light and easy to erect, a not unappreciable fact when the hindrances to
existing roads must be reduced as much as possible. The footbridge at Vaires-sur-Marne, erected in a few
hours, at night, in one piece, is a shining example of this. Wooden engineering structures, particularly
footbridges, thus have a large development potential.

Photograph 1: Erection of the railway-station bridge at Vaires-sur-Marne.

However the initial color of a new wooden structure changes in fact to grey after a few years exposure to
weather, and only regular application of preservative will prevent this.
Further, certain woods from temperate forests that are used for outdoor construction, were treated with
insecticides and fungicides that may be harmful to health. Treated woods require precautions during use
where the health of the workers who have to machine, bore or cut a contaminated material is concerned.
Moreover, with respect to the environment, the treatments limit the possibilities of timber recycling at the
structures end-of-life.
European directive 2003/2/EC of January 6, forbids the use of some of these toxic products, in particular
those based on arsenic salts.
Exotic woods generally do not show such disadvantages but are likely on the other hand to come from
countries where the exploitation of forests does not meet the current requirements of durable
management, implemented in French forests since the Rio agreements of June 1992.
It is true that timber construction makes it possible to trap carbon dioxide during the structures
lifetime. Carbon dioxide is the major cause of the greenhouse effect after water vapor, and a long-lasting
wooden structure thus fixes carbon. On this subject, the application in France of the 1997 Kyoto
agreements resulted in a charter aimed at increasing timbers share of the construction industry.

The 2004 Climate Plan envisaged for example actions on this topic with the inventory and display of the
amount of wood used in the construction industry, the evaluation by lEquipement des engagements des
signataires de laccord cadre Wood construction - environment of March 28, 2001, and the
exemplarity of the State which committed to using wood in public projects.
However, no mechanism is in place to compensate a client who builds in wood for this carbon sink, either
as part of an emissions permit contract or by another system. At the European level, in 2005 a two-phase
quota system was set up, but it concerns only the producers of energy and the industrialists emitting large
quantities of carbon dioxide.
It is only at the international level that each State will be accountable for its carbon wells and may benefit
from them since that will give rise to international credits exchangeable between States. But timber
constructions do not involve sufficient quantities of carbon and the Kyoto protocol applies only to arable
lands, pastures and forests under the term of carbon wells.
***
Certain structures completed in the past twenty years show problems of premature damage. The lifespan
of recent structures is too often less than twenty years, whereas certain very old structures are still in good
condition. The bridge at Lucerne, in Switzerland, that endured more than six centuries before an
accidental fire in 1993, is a well-known example.
This important discrepancy in the lifespan of wooden structures may be explained by a loss of
competence in the use of the material. Since the 14th century, the use of wood has declined in France,
giving way to the use of stone, a more expensive material but requiring less maintenance than wood.
Maintenance was considered too constraining by the building owners. In the 20th century, with the
development of concrete and metal, this phenomenon was further accentuated. In France, the important
ideas about the behavior of wood and construction regulations were even forgotten with time. However,
the durability of the structures rested essentially on the choice of good constructive provisions and on the
quality of maintenance.
***
This guide is intended for building owners and project managers who wish to have a wooden structure
built. Its objective is to show how to obtain a good lifespan.
Taking into account the lack of references available in France on the subject, the guide initially draws up a
history of wooden bridges : this chapter shows to what extent the care taken in design represents the best
method of wood preservation and determines its lifespan. Then, the guide gives essential ideas on the
anatomy and the mechanical and physical properties of this material. It also shows the aggressors and the
methods of wood preservation, by underlining the disadvantages of certain chemical preservation
methods.
The guide then shows the major constructive dispositions to adopt to ensure the wood is kept dry and
well ventilated.
Finally, the last part helps the project manager to formalize good wood choices, preservation treatments
and constructive provision requirements.
Obviously, the good lifespan of a wooden structure also implies for the client regular monitoring and
maintenance to ensure the woods good healthy condition.

1.2. - History of timber bridges

1.2.1. The first bridges
Wood was used as far back as the Neolithic era to cross rivers. It is estimated that 17,000 years ago,
covered logs laid flat made up the first wooden bridges, but with spans limited to about ten meters.
Herodotus described structures with increased spans to cross the Euphrates or certain tributaries of the
Nile 2,000 to 3,000 years ago. Most detail is found on a bridge completed in Babylon some 2790 years ago.
Generally speaking, during antiquity, technical progress in wood structures should be credited to
shipbuilding, in particular by the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the Greeks and the Celts.

Figure 1: Egyptian ships

Figure 2: bridge made of boats

The soldiers of the continental empires used floating barges as intermediate piers. One can quote as
examples the bridge of Darius over the Bosphorus in the 6th century B.C. and that of his son Xerxs over
the Dardanelles Straits, where 674 boats crossed an obstacle of about 1500 meters. The Romans started by
borrowing construction techniques from the Celts, as was the case with Caesar's bridge over the Rhine
that was built to carry a Roman army into Germany. The bridge was built with simple, ready-made units,
and was easy to erect and then to dismantle after the passage of the army. At 5 to 6 meters wide, it was
built in only 10 days, near Neuwied, where the width of the river was 140 meters.

Figure 3: Caesars bridge over the Rhine according to the reconstruction by Andrea Palladio
Then the Romans developed new more complex structures with joints, in particular bridges with beams,
strut frames and arches. Among this last type, one can quote as an example the bridge at Trajan on the
Danube, dating back to 103 and crossing 1,100 meters in 35 meter spans.

10

In Asia, one found boat bridges and various types of beam, strut or
portal frame or arch bridges, as well as crossings achieved with vine
suspension bridges. On the island of Java, the suspension bridge goes way
back in time. The outside cantilevering abutment was also developed in
Asia to increase the spans.
Figure 4: outside cantilevering abutment
according to a drawing of Viollet-le-Duc

1.2.2. - Evolution of bridge construction and maintenance

During medieval times, constructors became aware that rot was woods major enemy and that it could be
avoided by keeping the material dry.
In Europe, timber bridges were then very common. Charlemagne, for example, had a very large structure
built around 800 on the Rhine at Mainz, that was unfortunately burnt in 813. During the following
centuries, the bridges crossing the Seine in Paris were among the most renowned and contributed to the
citys historical role. The same type of structure was also found in Cologne.
The timber deck bridges were then generally built with stone piers on timber pile foundations. They were
generally surmounted by houses, with the aim of protecting the structure from bad weather. This was
particularly the case in Paris.
The tolls collected by the City paid for the work and ensured the subsistence of a corporation responsible
for bridge maintenance. The techniques used were rather advanced, and both labor and raw materials were
abundant: support measures were taken at each period of low water level, parts were changed, and
preservation treatments using boiling oil were also probably implemented.

Figure 5: collapse of the bridge at Petit-Chtelet in Paris during the winter of 1407
This old engraving is in a way testimony to this expertise, but it represents the collapse of a Parisian built
bridge, that of Petit-Chtelet, in January 1407, during a flood on the Seine carrying ices : the Great Plague
of 1349 and the war, by causing terrible damage to the demography and the economy, had probably led to
the progressive abandonment of good maintenance practices on engineering structures.

11

Another structure, the Notre-Dame Bridge, built out of wood from 1413 to 1420, collapsed in 1499 with
its 60 houses, through lack of maintenance. The provost of the merchants and the municipal magistrates
paid for this negligence with their freedom.
For precautions sake and by royal decision, no more timber bridges were built. In Italy, Andr Palladio
published an architectural treatise recommending that if timber bridges were built they should at least be
covered. In spite of the advantages of the guidelines proposed by Palladio, it seems that not much use was
made of them in France, where timber bridges were rather badly looked upon by the bourgeoisie because
of the rigorous maintenance requirements.

Figure 6: project for the "Pont des Arts" in Paris drawn according to the ideas of Andrea Palladio.
Note the masonry piers, on timber pile foundations
The Tournelle bridge , linking Isle Saint-Louis to Pariss left bank , may be taken as characteristic of the
history of timber bridges in France from the 14th century : built in 1369, it collapsed under a flood on the
Seine. Rebuilt in 1620, it was again carried away by an exceptional ice break up in 1637. A temporary
bridge built in 1640 was carried away by the Seine in 1651. It was then replaced by a stone bridge,
completed in 1655, and long considered final. But the large width of its 5 piers in the river aggravated the
seriousness of the Seine 1910 flood, causing its partial collapse. It was demolished after the hostilities in
1919.

Figure 7: Pont-Rouge in Paris

The above engraving represents the center of Paris seen from the left bank of the Seine, around 1680. The
bridge between lIle de la Cit and lIle Saint-Louis is a timber bridge, neither covered nor built, called
Pont-Rouge. The Tournelle bridge, built of stone in 1655, is located at the extreme right of the picture.

1.2.3. - Durability, a forgotten design criterion

During the 18th century, the non-temporary bridges were built in masonry. With regard to timber
structures, Perronet noted from experience, in particular with the Saint-Cloud bridge, that the lifespan of a
wooden beam left uncovered in the Paris area was limited to 25 years. This is why he recommended the
complete covering of wooden frames by lead sheets to prevent them from rotting.

12

Perronet hastened to add in his report, after an economic justification calculation: In spite of the longer
lifespan we may give to timber bridges, it will always be preferable to make them entirely in masonry,
when the materials are not too distant and expensive.
For financial reasons, temporary timber bridges were built in France. Thus, in 1719 in Lyon, economic
conditions forced the engineer Garrin to give up the initial plan of a metallic arc, approved before 1685 by
Colbert, and then during construction, to not take alone the financial risks linked to the innovation: the
construction on the Rhone was finally built out of wood.
Similarly, several construction engineers, Goiffon, Calippe and de Montpetit, proposed in vain on several
occasions, for financing reasons, metal arches in Lyon between 1755 and 1779 to compete with stone. A
first iron arch of 25 m span was put up in 1755 on a three-arch structure. The following arches were put
up in timber for economic reasons, and the short lifespan of the structure did not allow it to become as
renowned as that of Coalbrookdale, a metal bridge completed in England in 1779 and still in service.
In the case of the bridges in Lyon, the choice of wood, as a substitute for iron, is recommended by
Perronet, who has mastered the arch technique. These structures, structurally excellent, are constructed as
arches, but unfortunately without considering Palladios recommendations to ensure their durability, i.e.
with no covering except that of a few lead sheets. Further, the timber bridges at la Salptrire and la
Mulatire have only timber piling, not stone.
The Tournus bridge (figure 8), built of wood on the Saone in 1801, has masonry supports and
represented, with spans of approximately 30 meters, Frances most successfully completed arch bridge.. Its
mechanical and aesthetic design was extremely neat, with small, radiant posts. But its designers continued,
wrongly and perhaps without knowing, to respect the narrow interpretation of the Parliaments concerning
old French laws prohibiting building on a wooden bridge and thus did not envisage a covering.
All these structures thus unfortunately disappeared rather quickly, because the building owners neglected
to provide the necessary maintenance resources, since wood for construction was rare and expensive at
the end of the 18th century.

Figure 8: partial elevation of the Tournus bridge .

This bridge is not very different from the Roman bridge of Cologne built in 310
In Bavaria, the bridges built by Wiebeking in the 19th century were arches on the same model as the
bridge at Tournus, but with much wider spans going up to 45 meters at Freyssingen in 1807 and 72 meters
at Bamberg in 1809. La Planche 1 dates back to 1810, where Wiebeking, General manager of the Road
Directorate of Bavaria, plans a bridge in Munich. But twenty years later, these bridges rotted and finally
had to be replaced and Wiebeking was subjected to the Kings mocking remarks : You are a genius of the
static, but your bridges do not have the required durability .

13

Board 1: Project of crossing of Isar in only one arch (Wiebeking, Munich 1810).

14

Between 1823 and 1850, the calculations of Navier and the engineering genius of the Seguin brothers relaunched the use of wood for the decks of the first generation of suspension bridges. These bridges of the
national road network were then often granted to companies. Wood was selected for its lightness. Among
this kind of bridge, we can mention the two bridges of the Seguin brothers on the Rhone between Tain
and Tournon. The first suspension bridge, built in 1825, had two 85-meter spans. The structure was made
up of two lots of six cables of one hundred twelve strands of wire 3 mms in diameter, on which were
suspended oak beams 30 cm by 16 cm. Following the development of steam travel , this bridge was raised
and transformed into a footbridge before being destroyed, contrary to the opinion of the town council, in
1965. But another suspension bridge of the same type as the first, built in 1847, remains today a
testimonial to the period.

Photographs 2: Tournon bridge of 1847

However wood in general conferred insufficient strength to the structure, and the principles of Palladio
were still often ignored. The accident at the Basse Chaine bridge built in 1834 at Angers caused 226 deaths
in 1848. There were other accidents, particularly in 1852 at the Roche-Bernard on the structure of 198
meter span built in 1836, then on the large bridge at Cubzac. Consequently suspension bridges with
wooden decks are used only on minor roads.
Such works continued nevertheless
to be built as this crossing of the
Marne testifies, still in service in the
1960s.(photo 3)
The beam and the first timber deck
of the Grosle bridge built in 1912,
were kept in service until 1973 with
an 8-ton limit. They were replaced
in 1977 by an aluminum girder
linked to a light-concrete slab.

Photograph 3: bridge on the Marne

The Montmerle bridge had already profited from a reinforcement of the same type, after a serious
accident occurred because of non-respect, by a heavy truck, of the traffic signals. ( photo 4)

15

Photograph 4: bridge of Montmerle (Ain)

In the 20th century we find the Tournelle bridge

that will serve as a reference point. The temporary

timber bridge (figure 9), built in 1920, did not as
envisaged allow traffic: it was prone to annoying
dynamic phenomena. In addition, the current
bridge was only completed in 1928 for lack of
credit. During these eight years, the Parisian press
opened up and gave a last look at the prestige
already started up of the wooden structures in our
country, not missing out on the Bridges, Roads and
Shipping departments.

Figure 9: press article

1.2.4. - An exception: timber bridges of Switzerland

The bridge of the chapel of Lucerne (photo 5) dates from 1333. It is a striking example of longevity. For
centuries, certain parts were rebuilt, and in 1993 most of the structure was destroyed by fire. It was rebuilt
to the original in 1994.

16

Photographs 5:
bridge of the chapel of Lucerne
and bridge in the area of Davos,
probably built in the 18th century
Many other very old covered structures are still in service in Switzerland, even if they support today
reduced traffic only.
The Swiss carpenters Hans Ulrich and Jean Grubenmann were the project managers of the Schaffhouse
bridges (figure 10), with two spans of 60 meters in 1758, and Wettingen in 1778 whose span was 110
meters. These two structures were covered. Both were unfortunately burnt in 1799 by vandalism, so that
one is unaware of how long the Schaffhouse bridge would have lasted : it had already more than 40 years
of service at the time of its destruction.

Figure 10: Schaffhouse bridge (Switzerland)

1.2.5. Timber bridges of North America.

In the United States, it is estimated that around 10,000 covered bridges were built between 1805 and 1885.
The wooden structures succeed today in still keeping an honorable share of the market, particularly on
minor roads, since 7 % of bridges are still wood. This may be explained by a preserved know-how, and
the always abundant presence of forests which still cover, for example, 89 % of the surface of the State of
Maine.
Among these covered bridges are many that have lasted more than a hundred years even though at the
time no chemical preservation treatment was given.
Creosote was the subject of a US patent in 1831. To obtain this product, certain toxic wastes from the
chemical and iron and steel industries were added to carbon oils or petrol. Impregnation with arsenic,
chromium and copper salts (CCA), appeared in the USA in 1933, and pentachlorophenol in 1935.

17

Thanks to protection treatments against the bad weather, in particular coatings based on petroleum
products, the cover of the covered bridges was gradually abandoned. In the United States, in Canada and
in Australia, timber bridges with lattice structures were developed in the middle of the 19th century, as
were composite timber-steel structures.
The bridge known as Sioux - Narrows is located on highway 71 just north of Kenora in Ontario. Built
in 1936, it has a 64 meter isostatic span. It is a Warren bridge without cover which constitutes the largest
timber bridge of this type in North America and which was recently quoted in an OECD report as the
example of a correctly designed, built and maintained timber bridge whose lifespan might prove to be
comparable to that of a steel bridge. However the structure was closed to traffic in 2003 for safety reasons
and doubled by a Bailey bridge. In spite of its great interest for local tourism, it has not yet been decided
if it will be rebuilt as original.
Further, a design of decks from pre-stressed wood was developed in Canada in the Seventies and imitated
in the United States. That consists of compressing joists using metal bars.

1.2.6. - The return of wood

For the past twenty years, there has been a renewed interest in wood in Europe. Thus in the Germanic
countries, it is used for footbridges and low-load bridges.
Glued-laminated wood was invented by the Swiss Otto Hetzer, who patented his discoveries between
1891 and 1910 in Germany. Some of these discoveries were inspired by ideas published in 1561 by
Philibert de l'Orme, a contemporary of Andrea Palladio. Many technical developments were made in the
20th century, mainly in North America. Glue-lam allowed construction of arch bridges where protection
against the rain is ensured by the roadway or long-length, large-section beam bridges

.
Photograph 6: Keystone-Wye bridge in SouthDakota.

Photograph 7: Cocteau footbridge built in Nimes.

Glue-lam arch without protection against shocks
and rain (1975)

Glue-lam arch sheltered under a flagstone (1968)

Nevertheless, bad habits are hard to break: in France many bridges, like the footbridge at Montigny-lesCormeilles had to be quickly demolished and rebuilt. In Nmes, the Cocteau footbridge, which was
subjected to the shock of an oversize vehicle in the Eighties had to be rebuilt. Moreover, the climate in the
area and water stagnations cause first localized rotting, then the arrival of Capricorn beetles. These insects
dig tunnels filled with sawdust that retain moisture inside the wood. So various opportunist fungi were
recently observed there.
At the end of the 20th century, there was finally a tendency in Germany and France to design sheltered
bridges which take account of the Swiss and North-American experience of the 19th century.

18

The Thalkirchen bridge built in Munich in 1991 is very original, consisting of a wooden framework
particularly well protected, sheltered by an orthotropic steel slab.

Photograph 8: Thalkirchen bridge in Munich (Germany)

In France, some bridges without load limitation were made from wood, like the covered bridge on the
Dore at Saint-Gervais-sous-Meymont, built for the Local Authority of Puy de Dme.

Photograph 9: bridge over the river Dore (Puy de Dme)

In Blagnac, the footbridge at Pinot, whose local Agency of the French Road Directorate of HauteGaronne assured project management, constitutes with a methyl polymethacrylate plastic protection
another original structure that combines wood with other materials to reconcile functionality,
architectural aspect and durability.

19

Photograph 10: Pinot footbridge in Blagnac (Haute-Garonne)

20

2. Wood - The material

2.1. - General
2.1.1 Occurrence and availability
Metropolitan Woods (or indigenous Woods of Europe)
In France, forests cover approximately 30 % of the metropolitan area. It has been in constant progression
since the beginning of the 19th century: in 2002, it produced 85 million m3 of wood., of which 50 million
m3 only are exploited. These 50 million m3 break down into 15 million m3 of firewood, 18 million m3 in
sawing, 10 million m3 in pulp and paper and 7 million m3 for panels and veneers.
Chart 1: rate of afforestation of each French region

0 - 15%
15 - 30%
30 - 45%
45 - 60%
60 - 83%

On the covered area, broad-leafed trees are in the majority and represent 60 % of the wooded surface.
On the other hand, exploitation of coniferous trees is the most important: the volume of sawing of
coniferous tree represents 70 % of the total volume of sawing.
Because of prices lower than those of the broad-leafed trees, the coniferous trees are used in the
construction industry. Moreover, the leafy trees are generally rather sensitive, making their use more
delicate because of wood shrinkage.

21

Among the principal types of coniferous tree, are the fir tree, the spruce, the maritime and Scots pines, the
Douglas and to a lesser extent the larch. It will be noted that the mountain types generally have better
properties than those of the plain thanks to a lower speed of growth, which favors a greater wood
density.
The more common leafy types are the oak, the beech, the poplar and the chestnut. These types are readily
available.
Lastly, certain types naturally very durable , such as the locust tree (false acacia) are not very available and
exist only in very small diameters.
Some of the indigenous French woods are certified by the
PEFC (pan European forest council), which attests to the
source of a durably managed forest, without overexploitation.
The types most used for civil engineering structures are the
Douglas, the larch and the treated pine.

The summary table, giving choices of types, gives more detail in Part 4 - chapter 4.4.5.

The particular case of French Guiana.

Since the Rio agreements in June 1992, France committed itself with the international community to
ensuring a durable and exemplary management of the forest belts exploited in Guiana.
A time limit was set for the preceding formula of exploitation permits. The development of the Guiana
production forests set up by the ONF from 1993 represents an essential projection towards durable
management. As for Metropolitan France, such good management could result in certification by the
PEFC.
The Guianese forest represents 96,7 % of the surface of
the territory, or approximately eight million hectares. The
surface area of the forests developed for exploitation
represents 410.000 hectares, or only 5 % of the total forest
area, and production is approximately 65.000 tons of logs
per annum.
Production is mostly of leafy tropical types, of average to
high density , intended for a small part (approximately
10%) for export, mainly towards the Antilles.
Chart 2: French Guiana

22

The Northern woods

By Northern wood we refer to those that grow beyond 57 degrees of Northern latitude, in Finland, in the
Scandinavian Countries, in Russia and in Canada. The majority of Northern woods are certified by the
PEFC or by the Dutch organization KEURHOUT.
These forests are essentially made up of coniferous tree (approximately 90%). Two types are abundant:
the silver fir (spruce) and the red fir (Scots pine). These types grow rather slowly and have good
mechanical and durability properties.
The Northern woods are widely used in construction (low cost and good availability), particularly in the
glued-laminated wood industry.

Tropical woods
The tropical forest accounts for 50% of worlds wooded area , but produces only 15% of the wood used
in France for construction.
Very many types exist, particularly leafy trees. The most common in construction are the iroko, ip, the
plantation teak, the doussi, the bilinga, azob, the moabi, the movingui and the tauari. For other types,
reference should be made to the atlas of tropical woods: it is particularly necessary to check the
mechanical properties (density, strength) and physical properties (shrinkage). Useful information
(availability, special instructions) may be obtained from CIRAD (Center for International co-operation in
Agronomic Research for Development, contact: boistrop@cirad.fr).
There are currently several certification bodies that attest to good forest management as applied to the
fight against deforestation. No French regulation requires the client to demand such certification. On the
other hand, a customs import document must be supplied to him by the company.
There are several forest certification systems in tropical areas: KEURHOUT, FSC (Forest Stewardship
Council) and a PAFC project (Pan African Forest Council). Only three million hectares of tropical forest
are certified by the FSC and the PAFC: it is an insignificant part that corresponds to 0.2 % of the total
area. However, many tropical operators have taken eco-certification steps involving the installation of
plans to lead little by little to the production in significant quantities of wood from certified forests. But in
the current state of the things, to require this type of certification would be excessive and would even
exclude Guiana arbitrarily for example.
Moreover, the situations of the producing countries are in constant evolution. Malaysia was thus in 1970
the worlds most important exotic wood exporter, with exploitation conditions very far away from the
present criteria of durable management. On the other hand, this country started, in 1972, towards policies
encouraging durable exploitation of forests and the production of wood of culture, particularly in the case
of teak, and even set up its own system of certification recognized by KEURHOUT.
It is primarily advisable to be sure of the source of woods used to avoid the use of wood of dubious
origins. If the case arises, customs can indicate to the building owner the types of wood that might be at
risk in this respect, and alone are able to draw up the customs import document. CIRAD can also provide
information on the types, their availability, the impact of their use within the framework of the process of
durable development.

2.1.2. Sawn and reconstituted products

There is solid wood, generally sawn in standardized sections, and reconstituted products.
The reconstituted products are manufactured with wood that is ground up or unrolled, then glued. These
products are more homogeneous, because the knots, in particular, can be taken out before gluing.

23

Sawing
The logs are cut into rectangular sections in the
sawmills. The sections obtained are baulks, battens,
rafters, slats, etc. These terms are clarified in the
appended lexicon (part 6) in chapter 6.1.
There are a certain number of standard sections
supplied by most sawmills.
The standard sections are detailed in the appendix
(part 6) in chapter 6.9.
For the different sections, the cutting is done by list
: the section is specially cut for the customer, thus
increasing the cost.
The lengths start at 2 meters and increase by
increments of 0.5 meters up to ten meters.

Photograph 11: sawing on slab off-cut

Sawing is almost always done as a slab : all the

boards are sawn parallel as shown in Figure 11.
When the sawing is close to the core of the trunk
the boards are said to be on quarter, then further
away, they are said to be on false quarter and
considered as slabs. Rarer are cuttings on quarter
where one seeks to optimize the number of pieces
obtained on quarter because they become less
deformed with drying.

Figure 11: definition of sawing on slabs and quarters

Glued-laminated wood ( Glulam or glue-lam )

Origin
Glue-lam was invented about one century ago. The Swiss Otto HETZER had the idea to join wood
boards with casein glue

24

Technique
Boards (called strips) up to 5m long are dried (15 % maximum moisture because of joining), and are
purged of their peculiarities (knots, depressions, etc). The depressions are parts of the round part of the
tree that appear during cutting. The strips are then abutted and glued to make continuous strips. Since the
end piece cannot be stuck due to glue absorption , gluing is completed under a minimal pressure of 2 MPa
on the inclined faces that are called splice-joints.

Figure 12: detail of a butt joint

( vertical finger joint )

Figure 13: effect of a diagonal grain orientation

or of a shake

The plates are planed then superposed one on the other to obtain the desired section. Gluing is carried
out no more than 24 hours after planning with a thermo-hardening adhesive ( mechanically strong) that is
water-resistant The adhesive resorcinol (resorcinol phenol formalin) is most usually used outside. Then
the whole is generally pressed between 0.4 and 1.2 MPa, for a minimum of 6 hours.

Usable types
The most common types are fir , spruce, Scots pine and Douglas .
Other types may also be used: larch, maritime pine in particular, and certain leafy types (like the iroko).

Photograph 12: beam in Glue-lam spruce

25

Advantages
Glue-lam has several advantages compared to solid wood, particularly the following:
manufacture of beams of large section and long length (up to approximately 40 m);
possibility of manufacturing curved beams;
increased resistance and rigidity;
purging of peculiarities.

Strength classifications
The strength classifications of Glue-lam go from GL 20 to GL 36 (the number giving the characteristic
value of the bending strength).
There is homogeneous Glue-lam wood(GL36h) which consists of plates having the same mechanical
characteristics, and the mixed Glue-lam timber (GL36c) which consists of plates having higher
mechanical characteristics at the ends.
GL24h for example consists of strips classified in C24 and GL24c consists of plates in C18 inside the
section and C24 outside. The mechanical classification of the woods is explained in part 2 in chapter 2.4.3
Classification of solid wood.

Standard dimensions
The Glue-lam timber beams are available in standard sections and to order. Standard dimensions are:

width: from 6 to 24 cm;

height: from 10 to 60 cm;

length: up to 40 meters.

The standard strip thicknesses vary from 33 to 45 mm For exterior structures, it is recommended that the
best quality strips be used to better control wood shrinkage, and of course to design an effective
protection.

Examples of realization

Photograph 13: Judo Institute (Paris)

Photograph 14: Pinot footbridge

26

Marking and certification

Glue-lam timber is marked EC in compliance with standard EN 14080 (Construction wood - Glue-lam
products - Requirements), that guarantees a minimal manufacturing inspection by the company and by
qualified body. It is anticipated that the EC marking will be mandatory in January 2007.
There is also a quality certification ACERBOIS GLULAM, to guarantee classification of the strips, the
characteristics of the abutments in bending, the characteristics of joining and the classification of the
Glue-lam timber.

Industrial products LVL, LSL and PSL

These industrial products are obtained after taking pieces of wood then slicing (LVL and PSL) or from
long shavings (LSL). Slices of veneer or shavings are piled up (sometimes with changes of orientation) and
are stuck together.
The Lamibois or LVL (laminated veneer lumber) and the LSL (laminated strand lumber) are generally seen
as thick plate, while the PSL (parallel strand lumber) makes up beams (up to 48 cm high by 28 cm wide).
These products show better mechanical characteristics than solid wood, and have a better dimensional
stability (thanks to the orientation of the veneers).
The most used type is spruce, but some applications use pine.
In the field of engineering structures, these products can be used to make struts, support for flooring for
example.

Photograph 15: LVL

Photograph 16: LSL

Photograph 17: PSL

Panels
plywood is obtained from wood slabs: veneers are crossed and glued (similarities with the LVL
with cross folds);
the OSB (oriented strand board) is obtained by the joining of strips, obtained after grinding up
wood, according to a favored direction;
particle boards are obtained by the joining of shavings and sawdust;
the hard fiber boards (HDF) and fairly hard (MDF) are especially used inside.

27

Photograph 18: OSB

Photograph 19: plywood

2.2. - Anatomy of wood

2.2.1. Untreated wood : a natural, living material
Wood is not a material manufactured for use in civil engineering. In the tree trunk it has many functions:
it is the way in which nature fulfilled these functions which gives wood its properties. The tree trunk
functions normally when it is alive: it is saturated with water and protected mainly by its bark. In civil
engineering it is used dry a word to be defined more precisely - and not protected by its bark. It is from
this point of view that the material wood will be presented here.
Wood is a living material. This must be understood in two different ways:
-

wood is the material of a living organism. To know the way of life of this plant makes it possible to
discover some of these properties;

wood adapts permanently to its environment. One of its principal components is absorbent:
cellulose. In the dry state, this cellulose is permanently balanced with moisture in the air and inflates
to some extent.: wood works. It reacts too, because of the surface activity of UV on its organic
components. These properties must be taken into account in the use of a material, in a manner
similar to that for other civil engineering materials: the dimensional sensitivity of wood to moisture is
similar to the dimensional sensitivity of steel or concrete to temperature, the layer of wood damaged
by light on its surface is similar to the layer of burnt lime that protects limestone.

Wood, stemming from living matter, is mainly made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, and a
whole series of minerals (metal silica, calcium, potassium in particular and traces of metallic salts ).
These elements are organized in organic compounds of three principal families:
-

cellulose which, in wood, is organized in elementary microfibrils, themselves agglomerated in fibers.

These microfibrils comprise crystalline parts and amorphous parts. The cellulose molecule is very
absorbent because of the hydroxyl groupings it contains. Cellulose represents 50 % of final material;

hemicelluloses that belong to the sugar family , make up half the matrix of composite cellulose fiber
material hemicellulose lignin matrix. It is the hemicelluloses which attract the majority of insects,
only termites being able to digest cellulose;

lignin, another family of polymers specific to the wood, that constitutes the other half of the matrix.
28

Trees belong to the plant world, reproducing by flowers and seeds (phanerogams). There are two
junctions there including:
-

gymnosperms, plants with opened fruits, among which are conifers thus called because their seeds
are stored in cones formed of protective scales. The wood of conifers is called resinous because the
tree stores resins in special vesicles;

angiosperms, plants with seed included in a fruit, among which one finds the trees called leafy.

The gymnosperms which supply coniferous timber, are further back in evolution because their more
simple structure is made up of non-specialized cells. The angiosperms that supply leafy woods are much
more complex.

2.2.2. From the macroscopic to the microscopic

Wood is strong in both compression and bending
Mechanically, a tree trunk is a post embedded by its foot and carrying a vertical load at its head: the
crown. It thus has naturally a good compressive strength. It also ensures the resistance of the plant to
horizontal loads: the crown catching the wind is very important and the trunk thus transmits a bending
moment and not inconsiderable shear force to the ground. Thus the trunk also has a high bending
strength , regardless of the direction of the wind.

Figure 14: role of the trunk in the transmission of stresses applied to the tree
The symmetry of revolution of a tree trunk can be seen as a response to the fact that the wind can blow in
all directions. The symmetry of revolution is no longer true for trees subjected to prevailing winds (wood
at edges, isolated wood) shown at the right of figure 14: the plant reinforces its structures to offer a greater
resistance in the most stressed direction. Leafy trees generate additional wood at the side in tension
(tension wood) and the coniferous trees on the compressed side (compression wood). These zones have
defects in their microstructure. Also this type of reaction wood is to be avoided in engineering
structures.

29

2.2.3. - Observation of the log

Figure 15: natural reference mark LRT identifiable on block (CNDB)

By sawing a section of the trunk one obtains a block (see figure 15). One highlights its cylindrical
geometry that leads to the fact that the tree grows by adding each year an additional layer of wood, this
layer being that located between the wood itself and the bark.
This structure induces a natural geometrical reference frame to which we will refer constantly: we will
distinguish the longitudinal direction L from the axis of the trunk, the radial direction R, corresponding to
the radii of the annual growth circles , and, locally, the direction T, tangential to the circles. In the local
plane these three directions form two by two symmetry planes that correspond to a particular mechanical
behavior.
The observation of the transverse section below of the tree trunk, in plan TR (figure 16) (Figure 16)
shows from the interior towards the exterior (from the past to the present):

30

Figure 16: transverse section (plan RT) of a trunk of oak (CNDB)

-

a zone of quasi-circles rings of annual increase - each one made up of a clear zone and a dark zone.
It is perfect wood. The clear zone of the ring is the wood of spring, a wet period when vegetation.
Awakens. Here the wood is a little more tender. The dark zone corresponds to the wood that has
grown in the summer, a period of dryness: the wood here is less porous, harder. This perfect wood is
still called heartwood when it can be visually distinguished from sapwood;

a zone which has the same structure of changeover but much clearer in certain cases. It is sapwood.
They are the recent layers of wood;

just after the last layer of sapwood is the cambium, the layer which divides itself to manufacture the
wood of the annual layer, sapwood towards the interior, the inner bark towards outside;

a layer of wood a little thicker, very porous, the inner bark, which constitutes the base of the bark;

a last external layer, the outer bark, made up of inner bark cells which specialized themselves to
ensure peripheral protection of the trunk.

On the section of oak of figure 16 Figure 16, these various layers are characterized rather well by their
color and their more or less porous structure.

31

These differences are explained by the functions of

these various layers. It is then necessary to reconsider
the operation of the plant: to ensure its growth, the
tree takes water and mineral salts (crude sap) in the
ground using its root system and transports them to
the leaves. This rise of the crude sap is ensured by the
vessels (in the leafy trees) and the tracheids (in the
coniferous trees) of sapwood. In the leaves
photosynthesis ensures the transformation of this
water, mineral salts and CO2 taken in the air as
phloem sap, a mixture of sugars and water which goes
down to the roots. This phloem sap is used all along
this path to feed the plant and to manufacture tissue.
The re-descent of the phloem sap is ensured by the
inner bark.

Figure 17: photosynthesis and circulation of

the saps

As we will see further while going down to a microscopic scale, these vertical movements are ensured by
the vertical organization of the majority of the wood cells. Horizontal and radial cells allow the horizontal
movement of the phloem sap and storage.
In the case of the oak shown in figure 16 Figure 16, perfect wood appears as dark in the center of the
figure. The movement paths of the sap were blocked by mineral and metallic salts tannins which give
it its color. It thus plays no further role in the vertical movement of the saps. It does however retain a
reserve function. One speaks about heartwood only when perfect wood is differentiated by its specific
coloring compared to that of sapwood. It is the case with oak, chestnut or Scots and maritime pines. On
the other hand fir or spruce have no differentiated sapwood, i.e. it is not possible to distinguish sapwood
from perfect wood.
The metallic salts that color the heartwood give it resistance to the insects called xylophagous larvae
most common in our areas: the traditional insecticide treatments are nothing more than chemical metal
salts which are forced to penetrate the wood to protect it from insects (except termites which are not just
xylophagous larvae insects, but xylophagous themselves).
This natural resistance of wood to differentiated sapwood explains why a structure in oak or chestnut, if it
is well protected from water stagnation, thus from rot, has nothing to fear from insects, without any
treatment. It will be the case of well-protected parts of bridges, even if they get wet occasionally. Care
must be taken to reject parts containing too much sapwood or to demand its removal if sawing has not
totally eliminated it.

2.2.4. - The ligneous plan

On a microscopic scale there is another level of organization of wood, called the ligneous plan. The
ligneous plan is the representation of the organization of the various types of wood cells. This
ligneous plan is specific to each type of wood; that of coniferous trees is basically different from that of
leafy trees. Microscopic examination is necessary to definitely identify the types, even if an initial
examination with the naked eye gives an almost certain answer.

32

The ligneous plan of the coniferous trees

The drawing below represents a small cube of wood of approximately 1 cm per side cut from a
coniferous wood, the sections being respectively LR, LT and RT. Examination under the electron
microscope of the ligneous plan is typical of a coniferous tree.

Figure 18: on the left, drawing of the ligneous plan of a coniferous tree; on the right microphotography of
a coniferous tree (X 50)
The majority of the cells are vertical. They are named tracheids. Their diameter is about 30 to 40 m,
longest are 7 mm Their function is both mechanical and transport of the saps. The spring wood is the
zone with large-diameter cells, the summer wood is the zone of cells with smaller diameter and thicker
walls. Another detail : the tracheids are equipped with communication points the areole punctuations
which are like pressure buttons between tracheids. The sap moves by capillarity while going from one cell
to another by punctuations. The duraminization, or hardening, corresponds to the obstruction of these
punctuations and hence to the end of this movement.
Other types of cell or structure are visible on the ligneous plan; ligneous honeycombs resiniferous
channels, which are also storage areas for cicatrisation material for the plant. Generally, in coniferous trees,
the ligneous honeycombs are very small and not very visible to the naked eye. These structures are detailed
.below.

Figure 19: details of a ligneous plan of a coniferous tree

33

Figure 19Figure 19 shows on the left microphotography of the aerole punctuations and on the right
microphotography of a section RT of a coniferous tree with resin pockets in the summer wood part.

The ligneous plan of leafy trees

Figure 20: on the left a drawing of the ligneous plan of leafy trees and on the right microphotography of
the oak
The ligneous plan of leafy trees, above in graph and microphotography for oak, is definitely more complex
because their cells are more specialized (distinction between the functions of support of the tree and
conduction of the sap in particular). On the structural level one finds however: a majority of vertical cells,
fibers (support) and parenchyma (filling, storage), vessels (transport of the saps), and radial cells, the
ligneous honeycombs that can be definitely bulkier than in the case of coniferous trees.
It should be noted that there are two large families of leafy trees: leafy trees with an initial porous zone
(ZIP) and leafy trees with a homogeneous zone. Among the leafy trees with ZIP, are the oak and the
chestnut in particular. In spring, the vessels are of a very large section, then they narrow in summer. On
the other hand, the leafy trees with homogeneous zone such as the beech have identical vessel sizes
throughout the vegetation season.
Tropical (and equatorial) woods do not always show differences visible to the naked eye between spring
wood and summer wood, because of the climate. However, a careful analysis of the ligneous plan
generally shows that there is nevertheless an annual vegetative cycle.

Ligneous plan and properties of wood

Two factors are essential for the quality of wood:

regularity of the width of the annual growth rings, which results from the regularity of the
climate;

the proportion of spring compared to summer wood . It is preferable that the summer wood,
more resistant, is in greater proportion, which is evidenced for coniferous trees by the
smoothness of the annual growth rings.

So the culture zones for timber are preferentially the plains for leafy trees, because the seasons are
balanced there, the mountains and the Nordic regions for coniferous trees because springs are short there
and the climate regular. Irregular growth rings produce internal stresses during drying and deformations
during sawing (wood is said to be sensitive).

34

Knowledge of the ligneous plan also explains woods mechanical behavior. Both in compression and
traction, it is obvious that the properties in the longitudinal direction are significantly higher than those in
the tangential and radial directions. In the tangential radial direction compression crushes the cells, tension
stresses the joint between the cells, and the wall tears. On the contrary, in the longitudinal direction, the
vertical organization of the cells, like juxtaposed tubes, favors a good resistance in compression and
tension. This anisotropy is as true for the modulus of elasticity as for the breaking strength as table 4
shows Table 4 , which provides some average characteristic values. The properties of symmetry of these
natural axes make it possible this to classify wood in orthotropic materials. Values of average mechanical
properties are provided to chapter 2.4.
The mechanisms of ruptures in wood are multiple as shown in the following figures (Figure 21, Figure 22,
Figure 23) for wood free from singularities.

Figure 21: various modes of rupture in compression.

From left to right, splitting in corner, shear, by splitting, crushing and splitting, cellular buckling

Figure 22: various modes of rupture in tension.

From left to right, brittle fracture in tension, shear, combination tension/ shear, splitting in tension

35

Figure 23: various modes of rupture under bending of a wood sample free from singularities.
(A) in simple transverse tension, (b) in tension of transverse wire, (c) in tension/ splitting, (D) pure tension of fibers, (E) in
compression, (F) horizontal shear
The various types of rupture bring into play various mechanisms: rupture in compression of the individual
cellular walls, rupture of the whole of the vertical building by lateral buckling of the cells in compression,
rupture in tension or shear of the call joint plans , rupture in tension of the cellular walls.
As such the results of the mechanical characterization tests of wood are always very dispersed, much more
than in civil engineering manufactured materials, such as concrete and steel. The average results from the
calculations are thus always statistical characteristic values including large safety margins.
As for construction wood, it is not conceivable to eliminate knots, pockets of resins and other singularities
of wood, the multiplicity of the forms of rupture shown before (Figure 21, Figure 22, Figure 23) becomes
more and more complex.

2.2.5. - Cellular structure and chemical composition

The living cell of a tree comprises a core, a cytoplasm, a membrane and a primary wall (P). During
differentiation, it stretches, deposits a secondary wall (S) and then lignifies its wall, which seals it from the
exterior. This last phase results in the death of the cell, with disappearance of the core and the cytoplasm,
leaving room for a blank cell.

Figure 24 shows the various layers of the

wall of the lignified cell. The fibers (or
more exactly microfibrils) of cellulose are
stuck by a
mixture of sugars
(hemicelluloses) and lignin-like glass fibers
or carbon fibers in the epoxy resin of the
composite materials. The wall of the
tracheds is made up of several layers: in the
thickest S2 the cellulose fibers are arranged
almost vertically.

Figure 24: model of the layers of the cellular wall of the

36

tracheids
This provision optimizes the longitudinal compressive and tensile strengths, and the bending flexibility.
This layer is framed by two S1 layers in which the cellulose fibers are almost horizontal and hoop the S2
layer. In the external layer P the fibers do not show preferential direction. Lastly, the intercellular layer M,
consisting essentially of lignin, sticks the cells together.

2.3. - Physical properties

2.3.1. - Wood and water
Water is also one of the principal components of wood. In the living tree, it fills the whole inside of the
cell (free water), it impregnates the wall tissues (combined water) and it constitutes one of the chemical
components of the cellulose chain, hemicelluloses and lignin (makeup water).

Wood moisture
In cut wood, there are three forms of water presence :
makeup water, which is an integral part of the material;
combined water, which is combined with the cellulose hydroxyl groupings;
free water, which circulates in the cellular vacuums (vessels or tracheids in particular)

37

Moisture in wood is defined as the ratio of the water mass to the dry mass according to the following :
H= ( mh mdry ) / mdry

with mh mass of wet wood and mdry mass of anhydrous wood

Just after being cut down, wood is green, i.e. its moisture content is very high, that is to say 80 % on
average for the leafy trees.

Drying
Drying of wood is the progressive elimination of the various forms of water. During drying, the free water
is evacuated quickly. Wood is called surface-dry from 60 % moisture. The moisture decreases to
approximately 30 %, the rate which represents the point of saturation of fibers (PSF, to see Figure 25).
Up to this stage, there is no dimensional variation of the material.
By continuing drying, once the interior of the cell is emptied of its free water, combined water is released
gradually and the wood shrinks (see figure 15)Figure 25). According to standard NF B 51.002, wood is
known as commercially dry with moisture at 22 % (see table 1) Table 1).
It should be noted that the sections of wood are given for a wood moisture of 20 %. The
calculation sections according to Eurocode 5 (moisture at 12 %) are thus to be reduced. According
to the standards, for a rough section b x h a reduced calculated section will be adopted according to the
following :

b12 % =0.98 b20 %

h12 % =0.98 h20 %

Where the section and the wood moisture are guaranteed by the supplier, it is advisable to adapt the
calculated sections.

Figure 25: stages of drying

38

Moisture

Qualification

Beyond the point of saturation of

fibers

Green

PSF to 23 %

Mid- dryness

Of 22 % to 18 %

Commercially dry

From 13 to 18 %

Dryness with the air

In lower part of 13 %

Dryness (or desiccated)

0%

Anhydrous

Table 1: qualification of wood according to its moisture (NF B 51.002)

Due to the cellular organization, the balances between the moisture in the air and the cellulose are slow to
establish by natural drying (in the air); a few months for a coniferous tree plank, one year per centimeter
of thickness approximately for an oak plank. In the climates of Western Europe, the relative humidity
values depend on storage conditions :

100

90

80

70

60

in France, the surface water content of a wood, outside and sheltered, ranges annually from 10%
to 22% according to the area and season (see chart 3);

12% for a wood kept in a well ventilated room, without heating;

5 to 7% for a wood kept in a heated building ( furniture, parquet floor).

This balance is a function of the
temperature and the relative humidity of
the air. Normally the outside relative
humidity is that of the air. The curves
represent the zones of Iso-moisture, i.e.
equal moistures of wood.

30%
28%
26%
24% 22%
20%
18%
16%
15%
14%
13%
12%
11%
10%
9%
8%

50

Figure 26:
hygroscopic balance of wood in outside

7%
40

6%
5%

in X-coordinate the temperature of the air,

in Y ordinate the external relative humidity,
in curves : the balanced humidity of wood.

30

4%
3%

20

2%
10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

39

LILLE
14-23

ROUEN
17-20

BREST
18-20

CAEN
16-20
RENNES
14-22
NANTES
14-22

REIMS
15-22

STRASBOURG
13-20

PARIS
13-20
TOURS
12-20

ANGOULEME
12-20

BORDEAUX
14-21

TOULOUSE
12-21

BELFORT
14-21

BOURGES
12-20

CLERMONTFERRAND
13-18

LYON
11-20

AVIGNON
10-15

MARSEILLE
11-16

NICE
15-17

PERPIGNAN
11-16

Chart 3: hygroscopic balance of wood according to CTBA'S

During artificial drying, the process is speeded up and moisture can be reduced to reach the desired
service humidity.
The cellular organization explains that a wood stored outside remains overall at a moisture content lower
than 20 % on condition it is not soaked in water: if it rains, only the outside cellular walls of the piece of
wood will swell with water. The transfer of this water to the interior must then be done by molecular
exchange, a phenomenon much slower than the effect of drying by evaporation after the rain stops. This
explains the attention which must be paid to the constructive provisions: no water trap (like grooves or
mortises turned upwards), no pieces of wood in continuous contact with a sealed surface causing water
retention by capillarity.
Another characteristic of these exchanges of water between cellulose and the air should be considered :
- a permanent property of cellulose, whether the wood has been dry for a long time or not
- these exchanges are not completely reversible, which induces a shrinkage deformation .

An anisotropic shrinkage
Shrinkage, a consequence of hygroscopic balances
During periods of high humidity, the cell walls swell and the wood expands in radial and tangential
directions, very little in the longitudinal direction. In periods when the humidity in the air falls, the walls
lose part of their combined water and dry up a little. The wood shrinks, especially in the radial and
tangential directions.
During changes in humidity and drying, the walls undergo a residual shrinkage. The phenomenon is
stabilized provided that the extreme rates are not too far apart and that the piece of wood remains in a

40

stable environment. On the other hand, as soon as the thermo-hygroscopic conditions are modified, the
swelling-shrinkage phenomenon starts again.
This shrinkage phenomenon should be considered as
inexorable and, like the thermal expansion of steel, managed
by constructive provisions. It is useless and dangerous to want
to block shrinkage : it will happen anyhow, possibly by cracking
in the width of one of the planks, perhaps all of them.
The realization of very wide panels, such as noise-insulation
panels, by juxtaposition of parallel boards must thus take into
account this phenomenon, for example, by envisaging
sufficient overlap of the joints boards.
The drawings of Figure 27 represent solutions used to manage
this shrinkage whilst avoiding cracking.
Figure 27: solutions allowing the free
shrinkage of wood

Anisotropy of shrinkage
The shrinkage caused by the removal of combined water is not isotropic. Indeed, the cellulose fibrils are
mainly longitudinal, leaving their hydroxyl groupings in the plan perpendicular to the axis of the log. This
is why shrinkage in the longitudinal direction is less (but not null).
Radial shrinkage is lower than tangential shrinkage due to the presence of ligneous honeycombs. On
average, tangential shrinkage is double radial shrinkage, itself 20 to 50 times higher than longitudinal
shrinkage.

Retractability
Shrinkage is proportional to the decrease in humidity : the coefficient linking the two parameters is called
retractability (coefficient r, see figure 28)Figure 28).

Figure 28: shrinkage of wood

Each type of wood has a total shrinkage and a specific retractability for each of the three directions. Table
2 Table 2 gives values of retractability in % per % of variation of humidity. For example, an oak board
drying from 20 % to 15 % loses 5 % moisture, inducing a radial shrinkage of 1 %.

41

retractability (%/%)
Wood

radial

tangential

Azob

0,31

0,40

Oak

0,20

0,32

Douglas

0,17

0,27

Doussi

0,12

0,20

Spruce

0,17

0,31

Iroko

0,16

0,27

Larch

0,17

0,30

Maritime pine

0,15

0,30

Scots pine

0,17

0,31

Table 2: coefficients of retractability of some types of wood

Retractability is an important parameter, more often taken into account than the total shrinkage, in
particular in calculations of creep.

Consequences of shrinkage
Shrinking and swelling of wood are thus phenomena not to be forgotten in the design of structures. The
parts will be free to deform (it is the wood working) and the joints will take up the play. These phenomena
are much more serious than humidity during construction and a long way from it in service.
The consequences of the anisotropy of drying are that the cut pieces deform differently according to their
origin in relation to the initial log (figure 29, figure 30) (Figure 29, Figure 30). Thus a plank from a slab (D)
will tend to warp, while the quarter planks (Q) will deform more uniformly. This is why to make up large
panels without anisotropic dimensional variations, composite panels were created: strips, plywood, long
wood-chip boards. By sticking together layers of thin wood, either crossed or disordered, transverse
shrinkage-swelling of each layer is blocked by the absence of shrinkage-swelling in the longitudinal
direction of the layer against which it is stuck.

42

Figure 29: deformations from drying

Figure 30: deformations due to shrinkage or swelling

43

The working humidity

As a consequence of the phenomena of shrinkage and swelling, the wood must be worked , to avoid as
much as possible the risks of splitting, so that it can again take up moisture. The working humidity and the
construction season are thus two control factors.
It may be considered that the working humidity is the woods average service humidity less one
point. If the average moisture in service is 16 %, it is thus advisable then to put the log at a humidity of
15 %.

Influence of water on mechanical properties

When the wood moisture varies, the mechanical properties change too. Overall, the more water in the
wood, the lower its mechanical strength and deformation modulus. The deformation modulus
decreases according to the woods humidity and the stress under permanent loads.
As soon as the moisture exceeds the fiber saturation point, the properties remain about constant, except
the density which increases linearly.
The coefficient of Eurocode 5 that takes account of the woods humidity is the coefficient Kmod.
The strength of the wood is to be modulated by this coefficient according to the class of service
of the structure, which is directly related to the humidity of the wood in service (class 1 if
humidity H is less than 12%, class 2 if H < 20% and class 3 in other cases).

2.3.2. - Behavior with respect to fire

It is necessary to distinguish the reaction to fire (flammability and combustibility) from stability with fire.
The reaction to fire defines the aptitude of the material to ignite and propagate a fire, while stability
with fire qualifies the ability of the material to preserve its mechanical properties during a fire.

Flammability, reaction to fire

All building materials are classified with respect to their reaction to fire, on a scale going of M0
(fireproof) including concrete and steel, to M5 (combustible, very easily flammable).
Wood is a combustible material, which decomposes
under the effect of heat, classified m3 in general and
M4 for thicknesses lower than 14 mm for leafy trees
and 18 mm for coniferous trees.
Fireproofing treatments make it possible to reach an
M1 classification.
The flammability of wood is reduced with density. The
exotic woods, generally denser, are thus better adapted
to footbridge coverings.
This classification is modified by European standard NF EN 13238 Fire reaction tests of construction
products. Procedure for conditioning and general rules for substrate selection which defines seven euro
classes A1, A2, B, C, D, E, F.

44

This classification harmonizes fire tests in the European Union. The euro classes are A1, which
corresponds to a completely fireproof material; A2, which applies to the old M0 class and certain materials
classified M1; B to the other materials classified M1. Euro class C corresponds to M2.
Euro classes D, E and F correspond to the most inflammable construction materials previously classified
M3 and M4, hence to wood.
The span of the structure in the photograph
opposite was burnt and had to be rebuilt. Since
then it is strictly forbidden to camp under the
structure and only under surveillance.
Thus no structures too exposed to the public will
be built, particularly in urban areas.
Photographs 20: span of end of bridge at Isar in
Munich

Stability with fire

Wood is an insulating material, also the very high surface temperature (1000 C) decreases quickly with
thickness: the carbonized zone is thin and protects wood inside. The temperature falls rapidly as soon as
there is penetration in the wood (figure 31) (Figure 31). On average, the speed of progression of the
carbonized zone is of 0,7 mm/min.
Wood keeps good mechanical characteristics in fire, and undergoes only one reduction in section
corresponding to the carbonized zone. To ensure the stability of the structure, it is possible to dimension
it accordingly by regarding fire as accidental.
With respect to stability with fire, the weakest
elements are the joints made with metal interfaces.
To increase stability, it is necessary to use joints
with metal elements anchored deeply in the wood.
An austenitic stainless steel has the double
advantage of better corrosion resistance and of
retaining good mechanical properties up to
approximately 1000 C.

Figure 31: carbonization of wood

It should be noted that for bridges, the stress of stability with fire is in fact less than for buildings. In
effect, the free evacuation of smoke ensures good heat dissipation, which explains the good behavior in
fire of certain metal bridges.

45

2.4. - Mechanical properties of wood

2.4.1. - Mechanical properties
Wood is distinguished from other civil engineering materials by its manifest orthotropism which increases
considerably the number of mechanical characteristics to take into account.

Density
The density of wood varies from one type to the other, from one tree to the other in the same forest and
even inside the same tree. In general the density is given for an average humidity of 15%.
For woods overall, densities can vary from approx. 100 kg/m3 to 1300 kg/m3 . However for the most
common logs the following indicative values may be considered:
Average density at 12
% humidity

Wood
Fir tree, Spruce

400 kg/m3

Maritime pine, Scots

Pine, Larch

450 kg/m3

Oak

650 kg/m3

Chestnut

650 kg/m3

Iroko

700 kg/m3

Bubinga

850 kg/m3

Table 3: density of the various wood types

For more precise details, reference is made to standard NF EN 338: Timber structures - strength
Classes.
Knowledge of the ligneous plan makes it possible to understand that these average values hide a great
heterogeneity inside the material:
-

summer wood final wood - is denser than spring wood initial wood;

the presence of knots increases the density locally;

for small sections and wood at a very strong annual growth rate (for example the Douglas ) the
ratio of spring and summer wood in the part can change its strength and make a batch very
heterogeneous in strength.

There is a very strong correlation between average density and mechanical properties. The control of the
density of a batch of wood is thus an important quality control tool.

Orthotropism
Wood is an orthotropic material, which means that it does not have the same properties along the 3
principal axes. In other words:
-

the matrix relating to the linear elastic behavior brings into play 9 independent coefficients: 3 moduli
of elasticity ER, ET and EL, three Poissons ratios RT, TL and LR and three shear moduli GRT, GLR
and GTL;

46

behavior with regard to rupture results in different compression and tension strength values, and in
each orthotropic direction : RCR, RCT, RCL, RTR, RTT, RTL. Moreover these values show an
unquestionable dispersion linked to the multiplicity of rupture modes, as shown in chapter 2.2.4. The
relation between mechanical properties and density was established in spite of inherent dispersion in
the material.

The cylindrical reference point is best adapted to the structure of wood, because it highlights the various
sections of wood (see figure 32) Figure 3232).

Figure 3232: various sections of wood

In the part concerning the anatomy of wood (chapter 2.2), it will be recalled that cellulose fibrils were
mainly oriented in the longitudinal direction (L), still called axial. This gives to this favored direction better
properties that in the transverse plan. In the radial direction (R), the properties are improved by the
presence of ligneous honeycombs.
In general, the mechanical properties are organized the following direction: L>>R>T. In practice one
speaks only about characteristics in the axial and transverse direction.
Thus the axial compressive strength is approximately 5 to 10 times higher than the transverse compressive
strength. For tension, the ratio is generally between 20 and 50. It is thus necessary to consider the effects
of tension perpendicular to the longitudinal axis in wood.

47

Woods
Spruce, Fir tree
Pines, Douglas
Chestnut, Beech, Iroko
Oak, Doussi

Average breaking strength in MPa

Compression
Tension
axial
transverse
axial
transverse
35 to 45
6 to 8
90 to 100
1,2
40 to 50
7 to 8
100 to 120
1,8
40 to 60
12 to 15
100 to 120
3
50 to 80
18 to 20
120 to 150
4

Bending
50 to 70
80 to 90
75 to 130
100 to
170

Table 4: examples of average strengths of some wood types

Rheology of wood
Wood is a material with elastic, plastic and viscous components. The viscous aspect is dealt with part on
creep.
Behavior in compression resembles that of steel: there is an elastic range (up to approx. half the breaking
load) followed by an elastoplastic range. Plasticity in compression is explained by micro-buckling of
cellulose fibrils.
In tension, there is brittle fracture, i.e. there is no plastic range.

Figure 33: typical laws of behavior of wood

In bending and compression, breakage is ductile. The general behavior of material is thus ductile, which is
adapted to civil engineering uses.
Various modes of breakage are shown in chapter 2.2.

48

Factors influencing performance

Density
Density is a factor very representative of mechanical performance. The more the density increases, the
better are the mechanical characteristics of the material.
For example, for spruce, the longitudinal tensile strength increases approximately 2% per % of density.

Humidity of wood
As already mentioned in chapter 2.3.1, moisture is an influential factor: the more humid the wood , the
lower the mechanical performance , and this up to the saturation point of the fibers.

Heterogeneity
The density of wood varies according to its porosity and its humidity. The ligneous material has a density
of 1.53.
In general, the density is given for a humidity of 15%. Thus, according to the type of wood, the density of
wood varies from 100 kg/m3 (balsa) to 1300 kg/m3 (amourette).
If the density partly conditions the mechanical properties of wood (increase in resistant ligneous matter
with density), the wood is far from homogeneous in density for several reasons:
the final wood is denser than the initial wood;
the presence of knots increases the density locally;
cutting in rectangular section modifies the distribution of density.
Moreover the presence of other singularities, such as cracks, makes wood heterogeneous.
Knots considerably weaken the tensile properties particularly. For example, the tensile strength can fall 50
% in the presence of a few knots.

2.4.2. - Dynamic Damping

As regards dynamic damping of timber structures, not much data is available at present.
Overall, dynamic damping of a timber structure is at least as good as another structure. For the design
assumptions reference should be made to Eurocode 5, part on bridges (part two).

2.4.3. - Classification of solid wood

Methods
The mechanical properties of wood depend on the type of wood, the speed of growth, and the presence
of defects and singularities. Consequently, there are several strength classifications. Two methods of
classification are possible:
visual classification, by observing the defects, according to standard NFB 52-001 or standard EN
518. This classification is rather subjective, but simple;

49

 classification by machines (standard EN 519), which measure the modulus of elasticity of wood
(by bending, vibration, ultrasounds). The various strength values are deduced by correlation.
Classification by machine is very rare, and is used only in the high-output Scandinavian sawmills.

Figure 34: example of distribution of compressive strength of wood

(stress in MPa in X-coordinate, density of probability in ordinate)
The strength classifications (EN338) go from C18 to C40 for coniferous trees and from D30 to D70 for
leafy trees. The number shown after the letter represents the characteristic value of the compressive
strength in MPa.
This characteristic value (fC,K) is established, in regard to weighted coefficients(1), so that 95 % of the
breaking stresses measured are higher than this value. Figure 34 shows for example the distribution
modeled in log-normal law the compressive breaking strengths of a sample population. The first 5 percent
of the population is colored in blue.
In this case, the characteristic value (fC, 0,05) is approximately 52 MPa.
(1) According to NF EN 384, fC, k

fC 0.05 . ks . kv

where

ks depends on the number of sample (ks 1)

kv=1 for the visual classification and 1.12 for the classification by machine.

This characteristic value is employed in the justification of the structures within the meaning of Eurocode 5.
Some characteristic values are shown in the two following tables:

50

Wood type

Average density at 12 %
humidity

Mechanical classification easily

available in France

400 kg/m3

C18-C24

450 kg/m3

C18-C24

Oak

650 kg/m3

D30-D40

Chestnut

650 kg/m3

D30

Iroko

700 kg/m3

D40

Bubinga

850 kg/m3

D60

Fir tree, Spruce

Maritime pine, Scots Pine, Larch

Table 5: usual classifications according to type of wood (EN 338)

* For larch, it is possible to find in Switzerland and Germany at least C30, and even more.
Bending
Axial Tension
Transverse tension.
Axial compression
Transverse compression.
Shear
Average longtdnl modulus
Shear modulus

C18
18
11
0,5
18
2,2
2
9 000
6 000
560

C24
24
14
0,5
21
2,5
2,5
11 000
7 400
690

C30
30
18
0,6
23
2,7
3
12 000
8 000
750

D40
40
24
0,6
26
8,8
3,8
11 000
9 400
700

Table 6: characteristic values of strengths and moduli in MPa (EN 338)

For more precise details, refer to standard NF EN 338: Timber structures - Strength classifications.
The longitudinal modulus taken into account in the calculations is in general the average modulus,
except for the justifications with respect to instabilities (buckling, discharge) where it is the characteristic
modulus which is taken into account.
This characteristic modulus is worth approximately 0.84 times the average modulus for leafy trees and
approximately 0.67 times the average modulus for coniferous trees.
It will be observed that the characteristic values of axial compression are higher than those in axial
tension, although it is the reverse for the breakage values (see table 4) Table 4). This is explained by the
fact that breakage in compression is ductile whereas breakage in tension is brittle. Safety coefficients are
thus already included in these values.
It should be noted that the values are given for a humidity of 12 %. Beyond this, it is necessary to correct
these values according to Eurocode 5.

51

Singularities of wood
The expression singularities of wood was preferred with the expression defects of wood because, in
addition to the pejorative character, many singularities are exploited for their decorative character: burr
walnut and elm are the best known cases.
The list of the singularities of wood is very long. We will evoke here only the most common and those
that have who have a significant effect on the quality of the log and on the structures built with this wood.
Knots are the most common singularity. They correspond to the branches that grew from the core of the
tree, when it was still young. Each year, the additional layer of wood the annual growth ring is formed
in continuity on the trunk and the branch. There is thus creation of a cellular structure with a general
direction different from that of the trunk, whence the singularity. The knot will appear different
according to whether the cut is radial or tangential (see photos 21) Photographs 21). Moreover, if during
the life of the tree, the branch is broken or cut, the continuity of the growth ring from the trunk to the
branch is interrupted. The knot corresponding to a living branch at the time of the felling of the tree is a
healthy knot in continuity with perfect wood. On the other hand, the knots corresponding to the dead
branches are known as dead knots, vicious knots or black knots owing to the fact that the continuity of
tissue is no longer assured and that the knot has a tendency to come off the piece of wood.
Knots are generally rejected where appearance is important (furniture, certain cladding) but are
unavoidable in structures. Their presence generally weakens the piece of wood, and their presence and
their number determine the visual classification of the wood.

Photographs 21: various forms of knot

(A) normal healthy knot, (b) normal dead knot, (c) healthy knot sawn in the radial plan, (D) dead knot sawn in the
radial plan
The resin pockets are also a singularity of coniferous timber. Their only disadvantage is that they make it
difficult to fix the finish on the wood preservative and especially painting.
Cracks between annual growth rings are due to drying shrinkage having started on a log that was not sawn
quickly enough.

52

Rolled edges are defects of a similar nature separation of the annual growth rings but which are due
either to a lower tree disease or to a wound. It is an ideal refuge for fungi and insects which makes for
reductions in the woods mechanical performance .
Frost-shakes are longitudinal slits in the bark due to periods of extreme cold. The slit never closes again
completely inside the trunk and constitutes a weakness in the pieces of wood.

2.4.4. - Creep
As wood has a viscous component (creep), the mechanical properties and in particular the modulus of
elasticity are a function of several parameters: length of application of loads, service humidity (Eurocode 5
defines 3 classes), type of wood (solid or reconstituted).
For example a plank from a coniferous tree (density equal to 500 kg/m3, modulus of elasticity equal to
11000 MPa, of 5 meters length section of 75 X 225 mm and, laid flat on two supports (isostatic beam in
the direction of the lowest inertia) will become deformed under its own weight. The instant arrow is
Finst=7,9 mm
In the long run (more than 10 yrs), considering to be in service class 2 (humidity less than 20 %), the
coefficient to be applied is kdef=0,8 for solid wood, or Ffinal=Finst (1+kdef) = 14.2 mm.
The arrow will increase with time to go from approximately 8mm to 14 mm, or a 6 mm increase.
Note:
For solid wood worked at a humidity close to the fibers point of saturation (or nearly 25 % for coniferous
trees or in a more general way 5/6 of the PSF), the coefficient of creep kdef must be increased by 1 (kdef
wood humid=kdef EC5 +1).

2.5. - Durability
To ensure the durability of wood is initially to avoid moisture, and to manage its sources.
The major risk of deterioration of wood is damage from fungi which leads to rot. Insects are a more
moderate risk, particularly for outside structures.

2.5.1. - Aggressors
Wood is an organic material (contains carbon) and thus a source of food for living species with the
enzymes necessary to digest it. The predators of wood are certain fungi, insects, molluscs and shellfish.
The aggressors presented here are those commonly found in Metropolitan France. In the DOM TOM,
some specificities are to be taken into account, in particular concerning termites.

Fungi
Fungi make up an entire kingdom in the natural world. They are in the plant family, but they are not
autotrophic. They thus need an external source of carbon for nourishment (for example wood). They are
known as saprophytes when they are nourished by a dead organism (like wood).
A characteristic of fungi is their digestion, which is extracellular. Thus, to ensure hydrolysis of cellulose to
give glucose, the fungi must find a wet substrate.
Fungi is made of a vegetative material called mycelium, and of a sporiferous material to reproduce. The
spores are released in the air and give birth to a new mycelium in contact with a wet medium in the
presence of oxygen. In the air, there are thus millions of spores looking for a welcoming place to settle. If
a wood shows adequate characteristics, it will be automatically and systematically invaded by fungi.

53

The development of fungi is only possible with a wood humidity between 20 % and 80 %, therefore
practically only when wood has been in contact with liquid water for a good length of time.
Among xylophagous fungi, there are lignicolous fungi and lignivorous fungi.

Lignicolous fungi
These fungi nourish themselves exclusively on wood reserves, stored mainly in the parenchyma of
sapwoods (for example starch).
The generated damage is purely aesthetic and does not compromise the mechanical performance of the
wood (except the impact resistance). Wood becomes blue to gray in the case of fungi that turn blue and
act in depth. The color can be different (white, black, green) in the case of mould which acts
superficially.
The wood humidity necessary for the development of these fungi is higher than 30 %. Anti-blueing
treatments can be applied in sawmills where the risks are great.

Lignivorous fungi
The lignivorous fungi nourish themselves on ligneous material, and allow rotting to appear. According to
the degraded compound, it will be fibrous, soft or cubic rot. In all cases, these fungi cause considerable
damage and a great loss of mechanical characteristics. The various treatment methods are shown in
chapter 2.5.3.
White fibrous rot
In this case, the fungi nourish themselves on both lignin and cellulose. Wood is then a whitish color and is
very light. The wood humidity must be at least 40 % for these fungi to develop.
The fungi Coriolus versicolor is an example of a fibrous rotting agent acting externally.
Brown cubic rot and soft rot
These fungi damage wood cellulose, leaving lignin. The wood is then a brownish color and looks like
burnt wood. (see photo 12).
The soft rot develops on very humid wood (optimum at 60 % of moisture).
A formidable fungus of the cubic rot type inside the buildings (but absent outside and a fortiori on the
OA) is the house fungus, which develops on wood starting from 22 % humidity and at temperatures
between 7 and 26C. Present in confined and obscure places, it is able to move and go through masonry
while transporting its necessary water.

54

Photograph 22: cubic example of rot

Outside, the lenzites attacks particularly coniferous trees, from the sapwood to the heartwood.

Insects
Moths and beetles with timber boring larvae
The adult insects live only a few weeks, time to reproduce. They deposit their eggs in the rough and the
slits of wood. Throughout a cycle, the larvae life is the longest: it can vary according to species from
approximately 1 to 10 years.
After hatching, the larvae nourish themselves on cellulose and lignin from surrounding wood, i.e. the
sapwood that contains sugars. These larvae do not attack the heartwood and seldom undifferentiated
perfect wood.
After several moults, the new adult insect (which is not xylophagous) leaves the wood, leaving behind a
tunnel.
Among these insects we find the capricorn beetle on coniferous trees (see photos 23 and 24), the lyctus
(on leafy trees except their heartwood), the small vrillette and the large vrillette (on rotted zones).

Photograph 24: damage due to the Capricorn

Photograph 23: adult Capricorn (scale x4

approximately)

55

To fight against these aggressors, there are treatments with three types of action:
ovicide: the eggs cannot hatch (preventive);
repulsive: the female does not deposit its eggs (preventive);
biocide by ingestion: poisoning of the larvae (preventive and curative).

Termites
In Metropolitan France, the only two species of underground termites are the Saintonge termites
(Reticulitermes santonensis) and the lucifugous termites (Reticulitermes lucifugus). They fear the light and need
water (present in the ground) and heat to develop. Moreover, around the Mediterranean basin, there are
seasoned wood termites, Kalotermes flavicollis, which are satisfied with the wood moisture as a water supply.

Photograph 25: damage due to termites

Interior cavities in the longitudinal direction of fibers, often presenting a laminated aspect.
The termites (Isopter order) are social insects. They live in colonies, and can be classified in several castes:
larvae and nymphs; soldiers; swarming or secondary sexuals; workers.
The workmen dig the wood from the interior by tunnels and nourish themselves with cellulose contained
in the wood: by trophallaxis, they distribute food to the other members of the colony.
Propagation is carried out either by swarming, or by propagation : workers too far away from the sexuals
undergo a special moult to become secondary sexuals and then found a new colony .
Propagation is the origin of fast propagation of termites in France, particularly because of transport of
ground, wood, etc
Practically no type of wood is safe from termites (Heartwood included), except some very dense tropical
woods.
Preventive methods to fight termites consist of either creation of a continuous chemical or
physicochemical barrier around the structure, or in-depth treatment with an anti-termite product.
In curative, the treatments by chemical barrier are possible. There are also treatments by toxic bait, where
the workers are poisoned and contaminate the whole colony (by trophallaxis).

56

In the DOM TOM, particular species of termites are able to live in arboricolous nests. This complicates
curative and preventive measures in particular by neutralizing the chemical barriers.

Marine borers
They are molluscs (like ship worms) and shellfish (of which the limnoria) which dig wood in marine
environments. The majority of these borers find their food directly in wood.
Only some tropical type woods are resistant, like the greenheart and the angelica.

Sun and rain

The sun attacks wood in two ways:
the ultraviolet radiation damages lignin and slightly erodes the wood surface . In the case of an
unfinished wood, the surface color becomes gray (graying): this can be not very aesthetic in
certain cases, but never leads to a reduction in mechanical performance. Photograph 26 Photo 16
shows that wood became gray on the faces exposed to the rain and sun, but remained brown on
the unexposed face;

Photograph 26: greyish aspect of timber left outside

infra-red radiation heats the surface of wood and locally modifies the woods humidity : this leads
to the formation of very small slits, which can trap water and contribute to the development of
fungi.
As for the rain, it is responsible for the appearance of fungi and it causes dimensional variations in wood.

2.5.2. - Preservation
General principle
To avoid the aggressions previously quoted, it is necessary to choose a type of wood and a treatment
adapted to the desired end use. The major principles of preservation are :

57

to design the structure so as to limit the biological risks of attack;

to use the natural durability of the wood selected;

to protect wood wherever damage is likely.

The goal of preservation is to ensure a lifespan acceptable to all parts of the structure. Concerning
bridges, Eurocode 5 fixes the minimum lifespan at 100 years for non-replaceable parts, and at 25 years
for replaceable elements.
The flow chart of figure 35 shows the various questions that should be asked when choosing a type of
wood and a preservation treatment. The various stages are detailed in the following chapters.
On the diagram of figure 35, the green path is that which we recommend to ensure good durability of a
structure. It can lead for example to the use of exotic woods for railings in contact with the public.
The red boxes pose two types of problems: for the health of the workers and the public on
the one hand and for the environment at the end of the structures lifespan on the other
hand.
These questions are treated in Part 3: Use of chemical preservatives. The red path is not
formally prohibited by current regulations, but must be avoided for floorings decks and
railings. In certain exposed situations, it allows improvement of the durability of locally
available wood types, with a view to making up structures not directly in contact with the
public.

58

Figure 35: stages of the choice of preservation

59

Classes of employment (standard EN 335)

The risks of biological attack differ according to conditions of use of the wood.
Five classes of employment allow characterization of the hydrous environment of wood in service.
Within a given structure, the risks may differ according to the exposure of the parts to the weather. Each
element will be classified according to table 7 Table 7.
The class of employment then determines the choice of wood and the possible preservation treatment.
Classes

Situation in service

Examples

Significant zone

Biological risks

Dry wood, moisture always lower

than 20 %

Interior wood products

2 mm of depth

insects

termites

insects

termites

surface fungi

rot

insects

termites

rot

insects

termites

rot

insects

marine borers

Dry wood , whose moisture can

occasionally exceed 20 %

Wood whose moisture is frequently

higher than 20 %

Wood whose moisture is always

higher than 20 %

Frame

2 mm of depth

Vertical external
constructions: boardings,
windows

All the humidifiable part of

the nondurable zone
naturally

Wood external horizontal

All the nondurable zone
(balconies) and in contact naturally
with the ground

Wood in permanent contact with sea pontoon

water

All the zone naturally

non-durable

Table 7: definition of the classes of employment

For the bridges and footbridges, we will consider the three following classes particularly:

employment class 2 for elements sheltered from bad weather (covered bridges);

employment class 3 for the vertical and inclined elements which allows easy water evacuation
(boarding, vertical exposed wood) ;

employment class 4 for horizontal elements that favor water stagnation (flooring) and elements
in direct contact with the ground.

Note:
Employment class 3 is sometimes separated into two: 3.1 weak exposure, 3.2 strong exposure

Natural durability according to wood type

Each type of wood has different properties, which make it more or less sensitive to biological aggression.
For example, the woods of leafy trees, whose heartwood vessels are blocked by tylosis, are naturally
resistant to fungi attacks.
60

The natural durability of the woods is classified in the standard EN 350 according to the type of
aggression. These classifications stem from field tests and laboratory tests (governed by standards EN 252,
113, 46, 49-1, 20-1, 118 and 275).
The durability of the heartwoods in relation to fungi includes 5 classes from class 1 (very durable wood) to
class 5 (non-durable wood). All sapwoods are classified non-durable.
As regards xylophagous larvae insects, the woods are either sensitive, or durable. Moreover, only
sapwoods (S) and perfect wood not duraminized (SH) are sensitive. The heartwoods are classified durable.
Lastly, as regards termites and ship worms, a type of wood is either durable (D), fairly durable (M), or not
durable (S).
Table 8Table 8 gives examples of natural durability of woods with respect to 3 particular aggressors.
Wood

Fungi

Capricorn

Termites

Azob

Oak

Douglas

Doussi

Spruce

HS

Iroko

1 to 2

Larch

3 to 4

Pines

3 to 4

Fir tree

HS

Table 8: natural durability of some woods

Natural durability and class of employment

Natural durability is specific to a wood, whereas the class of employment is linked to its use. These two
parameters may however be linked: the better the natural durability of the wood, the wider its field of
application.

61

Standard EN 460 links natural durability with respect to fungi and the classes of employment according to
the following table:

Class
of
employment
1
2
3
4
5

1
A
A
A
A
A

Class of durability
2
3
4
A
A
A
B
D

A
A
B
D
D

A
B
C
E
E

5
A
B
C
E
E

A-

Sufficient natural durability

B-

Natural durability normally sufficient,

but for certain employment a preservation treatment is recommended

C-

Natural durability can be sufficient, but a preservation treatment may be necessary

according to final employment and the permeability of the wood

D-

Preservation treatment recommended, but for certain employment

natural durability can be sufficient

E-

Preservation treatment necessary

Table 9: relation between natural durability and class of employment

For the very durable woods, the field of application is very wide, but for less durable woods, a
preservation treatment may be necessary in high-risk class cases.
Some examples:
a preservation treatment is necessary for beech, fir , spruce and all sapwoods from class of
employment 1 (risk of attack by insects);
the natural durability of the heartwoods of Douglas and larch may be sufficient up to class of
employment 3;
The heartwood of the oak, the iroko, the doussi, the bilinga and the azob may be used up to class of
employment 4 without preservation treatment .

Impregnability
Certain woods require a preservation treatment for certain uses. However, not all woods are suited to
receive an anti-fungus or insecticide product.
The ease with which a wood can be penetrated by a liquid is called impregnability. It qualifies the aptitude
of a wood to absorb preservation treatments.

62

The standard EN 350-2 defines 4 classes of impregnability and gives the associated lateral penetration
depths:
Class of impregnability

Name

Description

Impregnable

Easy to treat (penetration complete)

Fairly impregnable

Easy enough to treat (penetration >6

mm)

Not very impregnable

Difficult to treat (penetration 3 to 6

mm)

Non-impregnable

Almost impossible to treat

Table 10: classes of impregnability

The axial penetration depth is greater (5 to 10 cm), because the preservative can be introduced into the
vessels or the tracheids.
Note:
A wood naturally slightly durable but easy to treat, like the beech, can be used for exposures
corresponding to classes of employment 4 and 5. On the other hand, a wood naturally rather durable but
not very impregnable, like the Douglas , could not be used under these same conditions of exposure.

2.5.3. Preservation treatments

Products
Composition
The preservatives contain:

active matter (insecticide, fungicide);

a solvent (to convey the active matter);

fixers (to fix the active matter to the wood).

The active matter makes it possible to fight against one or more types of aggressors. Sometimes it is
necessary to associate several types of active matter, for example copper as a fungicide and arsenic as an
insecticide, for acceptable efficiency.
The solvent can be either water ( particularly used to dissolve mineral salts), or a petroleum product (such
as white spirit)
Lastly, fixers can act either by chemical reaction (creation of contacts on wood, as with chromium which
fixes copper and arsenic), or by gluing (resins that fix synthetic substances).

Large families
There are three large families of products:
water-soluble products, such as the arsenic CCA salt described in Part 3, Use of chemical
preservatives;

synthetic products ;

creosote.
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These types of products and their impact on health and the environment are detailed in Part 3. Use of
chemical preservatives

Implementation
Short immersion
Wood is immersed in a vat filled with product. By capillarity, the product penetrates the wood.
During the first minute, a large quantity of product is absorbed, then absorption slows down: the product
homogenizes while penetrating in the slowest zones to be impregnated.
The CTBA recommends three minutes minimum to obtain a suitable treatment.
The products used for this process are products using petroleum or emulsion solvents. Short immersion
makes it possible to treat wood exposed in classes of employment 1 or 2.

Painting and spraying

Painting and spraying involve spreading a product on the wood surface, with a brush or by a spraying
method.
These processes resemble short immersion since the products used are the same, transmission is still
natural and the treatment is relatively superficial.
With correct application the results are similar. These solutions are particularly to be used as a preservative
for on-site application or for very long elements such as Glue-lam.

The autoclave
There are several autoclave processes. The objective is to treat wood in-depth, by filling the cells to the
maximum with preservative, in general metal salts (CCA, CCB, chemical preservation products described
in part 3). This technique is used to preserve the most exposed woods.
The process known as vacuum pressure is most usually used. The wood, dried beforehand to 25 %
humidity maximum, is introduced into a closed enclosure (autoclave). Then the vacuum is developed to
displace the air occluded in the ligneous cells (30 minutes to 1h at least).
The preservative is then introduced, and a pressure of ten bars is applied, to speed up absorption. The
duration of this phase varies according to the desired performance (from 30 minutes to 3h and more).
The product is then drained and a new vacuum is applied to rebalance the internal pressures and to
evacuate the surplus product contained in the surface layers.
An alternative is the process known as doubles vacuum where the pressure phase is replaced by an
immersion at atmospheric pressure to allow the product to breathe. There is less penetration, but the
dimensional variations are more limited and allow the use of petroleum products.

64

Requirements of penetration and retention

Definitions

the requirement of penetration indicates the minimum depth the preservative must reach;

the requirement of retention is the quantity of preservative prescribed in the analysis zone . It is
in general equal to the critical value;

the critical value defines the minimum quantity of preservative required to be effective with
respect to a class of employment. This critical value varies according to the product and the class
of employment considered.

It is given in kg/m3 for autoclave treatments and gms/m2 for surface treatments.

Classification
The standard EN 351 defines 9 levels of penetration, which are correlated with the risk classifications.
Only 6 levels are really recommended (see table 11) Table 11).
Classification of
penetration

Requirements of penetration

Zone of analysis with respect to the

retention

P1

None

3 mm under lateral faces

P4

At least 6 mm in lateral in sapwood

6 m in lateral in sapwood

P5

At least 6 mm in lateral and 50mm in axial in 6 mm in lateral in sapwood

sapwood

P7

Round wood only: at least 20 mm in 20 mm in sapwood

sapwood

P8

All sapwood

P9

All sapwood and at least 6 mm in exposed All sapwood and 6 mm in exposed

perfect wood
perfect wood

All sapwood

Table 11: levels of penetration

The quantity of preservative must be adapted to the class of employment. For example for coniferous
trees, a treatment with CCA salt is between 5 and 8 kg/m3 of wood to obtain the critical value of class of
employment 2 (level of retention R2), and between 15 and 20 kg/m3 to obtain the critical value of class 4
(level of retention R4).

Refractory and impregnable woods

A distinction is made between woods considered to be impregnable (sapwood in class of impregnability 1)
and refractory woods. A treated refractory wood has a better durability, because humidification is more
difficult. It will thus need to be treated less deeply to reach the same performance.
Impregnability characterizes the capacity to absorb a liquid rather quickly (for a few hours) and determines
the protectable zone. The zone to be protected can on the other hand be larger according to the class of
employment.
If humidification is permanent (class of employment 4), the woods humidified zone will be deep and may
cover the whole volume of the wood, but the zone that might be treated in a few hours will be generally
more restricted.
65

Requirements according to classes of employment

Standard NF B 50-105-3 proposes minimum requirements according to classes of risk considered (see
table 12) Table 12).
Requirements of
penetration and
retention

Exposure to
weather

Class of
employment

R1P1

Null

R2P1

Very weak or
temporary

R3P4 or P1

Weak

31

R3P8 or P5

Strong

32

R4P8 or P7

Strong

R5P9

Strong

Table 12: minimum requirements

For the class of employment 3, sub class 3.1 corresponds to weak exposures for small sections, sub class
3.2 includes the remainder of class 3.
Note:
Although no requirement appears in connection with the heartwoods (except for the class of employment
5), these should not be machined after treatment or be naturally sufficiently durable with respect to the
class of employment considered. Moreover traces of preservative must be applied in these zones.

Guarantees
Control of conformity
This control is not obligatory. It may be carried out at the request of the building owner for example by
the CTBA.
After treatment, samples are taken according to the EN standard 351-2.
Penetration is generally checked by the use of chemical reagents, whilst control of retention is carried out
in a laboratory by chemical analysis (extraction of biocide matter).

The certificate of preventive treatment

This certificate is not obligatory, but may be demanded by the building owner.
It is supplied the company which carried out the wood treatment. To conform to standards EN 351-1 and
NF B 50-105-3, the class of retention and the class of penetration must appear, as well as the name of the
product and the treatment process.

CTBA certifications
The CTBA manages two quality certifications :
CTB P+ for the preservatives (according to EN 599);

CTB B+ for treated wood (according to EN 351).

66

Certification CTB B+ on treated wood guarantees a field of application (in the form of a class of
employment): the level of penetration and the level of retention are guaranteed, and the certificate of
treatment is provided.
Certification CTB P+ specifies the critical values of the accessible classes of employment as well as the
implementation method.
The mention all faces treated ensures that the parts out of duraminized perfect wood contain traces of
the preservative.

2.5.4. - Finishes
The role of a finish is to protect wood against humidity and to provide an aesthetic function. In particular
a finish makes it possible for water to be more quickly evacuated by decreasing surface adherence.
Among the common products, we find particularly preservatives, varnishes and paintings, creosote and
thick plastic coatings.
In no case can finishes play the role of preservative, but the protection conferred against moisture makes
possible an indirect fight against fungus attacks.
Lastly, it is necessary to be conscious that finishes require a consequent and regular maintenance.

Protective coatings
According to standard NF T 36-001, this is a product of protection and decoration of the surface of
wood, transparent, pigmented or not and which makes it possible to carry out maintenance work easily.
They dont leave a film, and degrade by chalking (erosion), which facilitates removal prior to maintenance.
Then it is necessary only to clean the wood and apply another protective coat.
The protective coatings may be colored or not, and may contain biocides against blueing in service.
The protective coatings are either solvent-based, and polymerisation intervenes by oxidation, or waterbased which forms the finish evaporation and coalescence.
The protective coatings may be of the impregnation type (used as an undercoat) or finishing. The finishing
types have a service life that varies, according to the exposure, between 4 and 6 years
The possible shades are colorless, clear (colorless with clear brown ), intermediaries (medium brown to
red) and dark (dark brown to black).
Varnishes and paint
Varnish is a transparent and film-forming product that degrades by flaking. The disadvantage of a filmforming finish that is impermeable is that once cracked, water can penetrate but has difficulty
escaping.
The external use of varnish is prohibited , since it degrades very quickly with the sun.
Paint is a varnish to which pigments are added. Painting has a certain porosity, but this porosity decreases
as the number of coats increases. Paints known as micro-porous are used outside to allow vapor
exchanges. On the other hand, gloss paints (of glycerophthalic type) are film forming, more durable but
there is a risk of water retention (as with varnish).
The flaking of paint and varnish is due to a weakening of their adhesion to the wood, due to the surface
erosion of the wood, a victim of ultraviolet rays. To limit this action, dark pigments are a solution, but this
has the disadvantage of overheating the wood with a risk of surface cracking.
67

Paint has a lifespan of 4 to 8 years. Re-painting is however more difficult than applying a protective
coating.
The possible colors for paint are clear (white to yellow), intermediaries (orange to medium blue) and dark
(dark blue to black).

Other finishes
Creosote from distillation of coal has been widely used particularly for railway sleepers and telephone
poles. It acts effectively against water, but softens under high temperature. Its use is no longer authorized
(see Part 3 which follows).
Thick plastic coatings (RPE) resemble paints with solid particles and larger pigments. They are used on
the facades of wood-framed houses. DTU 31-2 recommends their use on non-structural elements.

68

3. - Use of chemical preservatives: regulations and

management at end of life
The realization of engineering structures must as far as possible favor untreated wood, which is obviously
a good material with respect to health and the environment if it can be used. But untreated wood is easier
to use in sheltered buildings than in engineering structures. Subjected directly to the climatic factors, like
heat and moisture, untreated wood has in fact only a limited lifespan in unsuitable situations.
To improve the lifespan of wood, the first step thus consists of studying the constructive provisions to
avoid maximum risks: this is preservation by gray matter, obtained thanks to the general design, and the
choice of constructive provisions of well-adapted details.
As a substitute or more often in addition to these provisions, chemical preservation allows, thanks to the
addition of biocide products to eradicate all the aggressors like fungi, mould and the insects which nourish
themselves on wet wood..
However, this toxicity generates hazards to human health, and to the environment.
Today many countries are adopting restrictive legislations concerning the use of treated wood. The
European directives going in this direction are being translated into French legislation, which are currently
in development.

3.1. - Respect of constraints related to health and the environment

Wood preservation uses chemical treatments that have a biocide action on insects and fungi. The dose
must offer an effective level of toxicity for these organisms, but is limited by safety criteria (regulations in
terms of human toxicity and eco-toxicity).
Certain substances used are carcinogenic to humans, in particular arsenic, the aromatic poly-cyclical
hydrocarbons (HAP) contained in creosote, which requires precautions in the workshop and on the
building site, like wearing gloves when working or masks during machining.
With respect to the environment, the danger of pollution of the ground and underground layers exists, in
particular in treatment plants. During the lifespan of treated wood, the washing out of the product, in
general, is very limited.

3.2. Preservation treatments for class of employment 2

These treatments are insecticides used superficially, generally with synthetic products.
For this kind of products, there are no major risks of toxicity and eco-toxicity. Moreover, woods thus
treated are generally not regarded as dangerous waste.
It is advisable however to check for each treatment considered these criteria of toxicity, eco-toxicity and
treatments of end of life.

3.3. Preservation treatments for classes of employment 3, 4 and 5

These treatments are necessary only for types of wood not naturally durable for these classes of
employment.
Large families of products used in Europe and France:
Water-soluble products
69

The solvent is water and chromium the fixer of the preservatives. The active matter are the salts (often
metal), used alone or as mixtures . The most current combinations are:

CCA: chromium, copper, arsenic;

CCB: chromium , copper, boron. Boron is not fixed by chromium;

CC: chromium , copper. This combination does not contain an insecticide;

CCF: chromium, copper, fluorine. The fluorine is sensitive to evaporation.

In France, the CCA was up to present most used. It was already forbidden in Austria and Switzerland for
reasons of toxicity. Boron, less toxic, is preferred. However, this salt resists not as well to washing out ,
which can pose other problems of local eco-toxicity.
Today, taking into account the limitations of use of CCA treated woods, prohibited particularly in
domestic use, substitute products containing copper compounds are being developed for classes 3 and 4.
Lastly, as a localized treatment, boron may be used in the form of short sticks, placed at sensitive locations
(high degree of humidity and risk of attack by fungi).
Synthetic products
The active matter are synthetic substances fixed by resins. The solvent can be of a petroleum type (case of
organic products) or water (case of emulsions).

PCP: pentachlorophenols, cadmium and compounds (fungicides, exterior wood , with varnish
covering): this product has not been used at all in France for more than 10 years;

creosote: creosote has no solvent. The active matter is a mix of a hundred or so molecules
obtained by distillation of coal. Creosote was largely used for the treatment of railroad sleepers
and telephone posts. Use is already prohibited for certain applications (like playgrounds)
because of its high degree of toxicity in the event of very frequent contact.

3.4. - Regulations applicable to treated wood,

concerning the use of toxic products
3.4.1. - General regulation context
The modified Directive 76/769 provides the list of the products prohibited for sale to the general
public because of their carcinogenic character. This list integrates substances used in France for the
treatment of wood such as the CCA (chromium and arsenic) or creosote.
Since, Community and French texts came to complete the conditions of use, even their prohibition, of
toxic products for the treatment of wood. (See the summary table of the regulation texts in appendix 6.3:
European and French Regulations: health, environment and biocides directive).
The Directive 98/8 of the 16/02/1998, commonly called Directive Biocides, aims to guarantee a high
level of human and environmental protection, with respect to biocide products and to hitherto harmonize
the European market for these very disparate products. The principle, copied on directive 91/414/EC
relating to phytopharmaceutical products establishes that a biocide product cannot be put on the market
if not authorized beforehand. A Community list of active substances whose inclusion in biocide products
is allowed is being established according to a toxicological and eco-toxicological evaluation program of
the existing substances (see procedure in appendix 6.2. - Procedure of classification of authorized
substances). The goal is to know if a certain dosage of a toxic substance contained in wood presents a
health risk to humans by cutaneous contact, or to the environment (leaching and pollution of the
70

underground layers). One of the licensing requirements of a product is that the active substances that it
contains be registered in appendix I, IA or IB of directive 98/8/EC.

3.4.2. Regulation situation of traditional chemical treatments

Arsenic salts (CCA)
CCA is a wood preservation agent used mainly for the elements intended for external installations, such as
logs, construction beams, electric transmission posts, marine piles, noise-insulation walls, fences. CCA is a
mixture of copper, chromium and arsenic, each component having its use: chromium (34% in a
preparation) is the fixing agent , copper (13% in a preparation) is the fungicide, and arsenic (25% in a
preparation) is the insecticide. Water (28% in a preparation) ensures the spreading out of the preparation.
These woods have usually a light greenish color because of the copper content of the product.
Until 2002 arsenic (CCA: copper-chromium-arsenic) introduced under pressure was the treatment most
used in France against fungi and insects to prevent wood rot .
In France the use of substances such as CCA is regulated (Decree n 92-1074 of October 2, 1992), and
dispensations concerning the use of wood were allowed for the bridges and other engineering structures.
In Switzerland and Austria, CCA is prohibited because of the carcinogenic character of arsenic and
chromium.
The European Commission adopted a directive prohibiting, at the latest on June 30, 2004, the use of
arsenic in the treatment of the wood intended for certain uses. The substances contained in CCA appear
in the list of notified substances to be evaluated in view of their registration in appendix I of the
Biocide Directive 98/8 of 16/02/1998 (list of the substances authorized for sale and use after 2005).
Two horizons are thus profiled in 2006 for the toxic compounds CCA, CCB and CCF:

either they were taken off the market in 2006 following the risk evaluation carried out between
March 2004 and 2005; this is the case, not defended, of CCA

or they profit from a marketing and use authorization, valid for 10 years (2015). In which case,
they will be registered in appendix I of the Biocides Directive .

In any event, this guide warns the building owner against the use of toxic products to carry out work likely
to be in frequent contact with the skin, in particular railings and flooring decks on footbridges. The use of
salts of type CCA must be used as a last resort for parts not accessible to the public, subjected to a class of
employment 4 or 5.
More detail will be found in part 4 of the chapter in 4.4.4:Wood in classes of employment 4 and 5.

Pentachlorophenol (PCP)
Wood treated with PCP is generally dark red to brown because of the oil-based solvent used as a vector.
Since decree 94/647 of July 27, 1994, the authorized uses relate to wood structures or frameworks, on
condition they are covered with a coat ( varnish type) if they are in areas inhabited by or receiving the
public. In practice, taking into consideration the technical constraints related to the impossibility of
painting, the CCA treatment was preferred to that of PCP.
The draft Regulation 2003 related to the Biocides Directive puts PCP as a product to be withdrawn
from the market from here to 2006, which is already the case in fact, since this product has not been used
in France for more than 10 years.

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Creosote
The creosote is a complex mixture which includes more than one hundred chemical compounds, mainly of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, as well as phenolic and aromatic nitrogen and sulphur compounds.
The principal properties of creosote are:

a fungicidal action of great effectiveness;

an insecticidal action of great effectiveness;

a long-term effect;

a resistance to washing and decomposition by bad weather.

This product is an excellent preservative but has also disadvantages from the toxicological point of view
(carcinogenic substances) and from the practical point of view. This treatment is not employed for
structures that must be painted. Woods treated with creosote emit a dark brown to black oily exude likely
to ooze into the environment and to allow contact with humans.
In France, a decree of 07/08/1997 by the Ministry of Health limited the use of the distillates of tar and
creosote for certain uses. Directive 2001/90 of 26/10/2001 again took these elements and prohibited in
particular the use of wood treated with creosote in playgrounds, parks, gardens and urban furniture
because of the health risks related to a cutaneous contact.
In the scope of the Biocides Directive , creosote appears in the list of notified substances to be
evaluated in view of their registration in appendix I (appendix comprising the list of the substances
authorized for sale and use post 2005).
In theory two horizons are thus profiled at the beginning of 2005 for creosote:

either it is withdrawn from the market in 2006 following the risk evaluation carried out between
March 2004 and 2005;

or it benefits from a marketing and use authorization , valid for 10 years (2015). In which case,
creosote will be registered in appendix I of the Biocides Directive .

The use of creosote is to be avoided and its prohibition for all uses in accordance with the European
directives is imminent.

3.4.3. - Alternative treatments

Woods treated at high temperature
For thin (<40mm as for planks) non-structural elements, it is possible, without recourse to chemical
treatment, to improve the natural durability by a high-temperature treatment : this involves heating the
wood to between 230 and 250C for a few hours. This allows chemical reactions, in particular of the
hydroxyl groupings
The mechanical characteristics of the wood decrease, but it becomes dimensionally more stable and better
resists biological aggressions (except for termites).
This kind of treatment is under development and wood treated at high temperature is not yet available in
large quantities. For the moment, it is not planned to use such wood in structures. For footbridges, the
high-temperature treatment may be used for the planks and handrails for example.

72

Substitutes for CCA

There currently exists on the market substitute products for CCA within the framework of the treatment
of wood to give it a high durability. These products are based on a strong copper concentration with
additives such as boric acid. The toxicity of these products is much lower than that of CCA. They are
classified as non-dangerous in relation to decree 2002-540. Certain additives in very restricted quantities
(less than 1 % in general), like tebuconazole or propiconazole are however classified as harmful by
ingestion.
The fungic and insecticidal effectiveness of this type of treatment is recognized, since some of these
products are certified CTB P+ by the CTBA (Tanalith E and Wolmanit CX10) for the classes of
employment 3 and 4.
Note: the oil-type wood treatment products for the classes of employment 1 to 3 are also not very toxic.

3.5. - Regulations concerning treated wood waste:

3.5.1. - Demolition of old structures
This chapter deals with existing structures approaching their end of life that were treated with products
that today are outdated or prohibited..
The end of life of a wooden structure involves management of construction timber that becomes waste (Law of July 15, 1975
relating to the waste disposal and the recovery of materials, modified by the laws of July 13, 1992 and February 02, 1995).
The disposal of waste produced by the demolition of the structure is the responsibility of the
building Owner. It must characterize previously waste that the waste disposal company will deal with
and must keep proof that the waste was disposed of in accordance with the regulation. Wood treated with
CCA or creosote can be regarded as SAY dangerous (Special Industrial Waste), and the building owner
must thus produce an industrial waste monitoring form(BSDI). The forms are not obligatory for
untreated wood or that not regarded as dangerous.
It should be noted that certain products formerly used like lindane or aldrin are prohibited today by decree
(92-1074 for aldrin). The use of the pentachlorophenol (decree 94-647), creosote ( European directive
EEC 94-60) and products containing arsenic (directive 2003/2/EC) is limited.

3.5.2. - Treated wood waste: classification and nomenclature

The classification of waste is not an exhaustive list, but is evolving. Decree n 2002-540 of April
18, 2002 draws up a single list of dangerous and non-dangerous waste in accordance with the European
directive and preserves the concept of special Industrial Waste (DIS), registered in addition in the
code of the environment.
The concept of DIS is a purely French concept which makes it possible to ensure a continuity of texts.
Indeed, the code of the environment and certain national texts refer to it, such as the texts relating to the
planning of waste management ( special regional plans for special industrial waste disposal, to the
generalized tax on polluting activities (TGAP) etc
The DISs are defined in article 2 of the decree as being dangerous waste other than municipal
packing waste. The classification of waste wood is shown in appendix 6.5: Waste classification
procedure .

Wood treated with CCA or creosote: a waste classified as dangerous

Whatever the origin, wood treated with CCA or creosote can be regarded as a Special Industrial Waste
(asterisk corresponding to dangerous waste), because of the toxicity of the products. Waste resulting from
73

wood treated at high temperature or treated with products with lower toxicity could be classified like nondangerous.
The dangerous substances are mainly creosote, chromium, arsenic if they are present in a certain
proportion: more than 0,1 % of carcinogenic substances, more than 3 % of toxic substances. Thus
treatment with CCA to obtain a class of employment 4 is generally proportioned at 15 kg/m3, or
for coniferous tree 3 % in mass (which classifies this treated wood as dangerous waste).
As an indication, waste is classified as dangerous if it comprises in particular more than 0.05 mg/liter of
arsenic, more than 0.5mg chromium or copper. These limits led to a reclassification of certain wood
wastes when treated with CCA and creosotes or if they contained biocides in a certain proportion (see
appendices 6.5 and 6.6).
Thus, the use of the CCA in the treatment of wood is called into question today because it
contains arsenic and chromium, two substances which in sufficient amounts can induce the
classification of wood treated with CCA as dangerous waste (DIS).

3.5.3. Channels of waste treatment:

Wood is a potentially biodegradable organic matter and a combustible material
Untreated wood waste could naturally be the subject of:

Valuation by re-use, either by recycling in the wood channel (for example in panels after crushing)
or again by composting with other plants for an agronomic valuation;

energy valuation as fuel in heating with wood.

The problem is very different as regards treated wood.

The majority of treated wood contains biocides showing risks of toxicity for the environment and for
humans.

note: there is no PCP treated wood in civil engineering. The woods of old structures might
contain lead, cadmium (old paint) and even in certain cases of mercury (very old and exceptional
treatments);

woods of recent manufacture might have been treated with CCA and contain arsenic, or with
creosote and show risks of decomposition of polycyclic aromatic compounds.

The preferred for the end of life of treated wood is incineration in a specialized center equipped to collect
gaseous fluxes. The incineration of waste is regulated (see appendix 6.8: Regulations relating to waste).
It is also advisable to keep in mind that classification as dangerous waste does not completely exclude
the re-use of these wastes. They remain potentially reusable for similar uses. For example, certain
telegraph poles were re-used for a long time for agricultural parks (stakes) or vineyard supports . But this
practice ceased, taking into account the biocide directive relating to arsenic.
The residues treated with CCA should not be burned without precautions, the fume being highly toxic,
nor reduced to sawdust for composting, to prevent the chemicals of the preservative from spreading in
the environment or becoming involved in the food chain.
Wood waste that is likely to contain organic halogen compounds or heavy metals following a treatment
with preservatives should be treated in special facilities for the incineration of dangerous waste (DIS).
The storage of waste is regulated at both the community and national levels.
At the community level
74

The Council Directive of April 26 99 concerning waste disposal, aims to set up strict standards for waste
disposal and to encourage valuation.
At the national level
Underground storage facilities are subject to title III (a) of the law of 75.
Special regulations regarding waste aimed at by the technical burying center (CET) of class I:
DIS:
The ministerial decree of December 30 2002 relating to the storage of dangerous waste, contains the
technical specifications relating to the new and existing special industrial waste storage facilities ultimate
and stabilized.
This text poses:

a prohibition to deposit this waste in storage facilities receiving other categories of waste (art. 2-1
of the law of July 15, 1975);

an imperative condition of acceptance of waste on a storage site : the preliminary certificate of

acceptance;

a sample of waste is sent to the storage center for analysis which delivers the producer or holder
of the waste the preliminary certificate of acceptance.

The regional plans of special waste disposal, drawn up under the control of the prefect under the
terms of the law of July 13, 1992, state:

objectives of treatment;

the fluxes quantified by nature of waste;

the threshold acceptance values in the treatment sites ;

the list of the companies approved on the territory concerned.

These documents will be able to guide the building owner in the definition of the choices of treatment
best adapted on their territory and to enable them to find the sites locally, under the terms of the principle
of proximity.

Particular case of wood waste contaminated by xylophagous insects (Article 10 of the

decree of October 2, 1992)

In the event of demolition of constructions, the wood and materials reached by the termites and other xylophagous insects are
burnt on the spot or treated before any transport, if their destruction by incineration appears impossible, so as to avoid the
maintenance or the extension of the homes of termites or xylophagous insects
This exemption is only proposed with the objective of avoiding external pollution at the building site by
these insects. Since wood treated with CCA or creosote cannot be burnt on the spot, decontamination
methods are being studied in order to comply with this lawful regulation without attack on the
environment. However, if one is sure that this is the only waste treated with these products, their antitermite effectiveness can be regarded as a guarantee that these woods are not contaminated by termites.

3.5.4. - Obligation of the building owner, producer of waste

The producer of waste remains responsible for his waste until it becomes the responsibility of a
suitable waste center. The building owner, the producer of the waste, must thus characterize the
toxicity of the waste in order to define the suitable treatment or disposal.

75

The DIS producer , like the other players in the disposal chain, must, when they give them to a
third party, emit a follow-up form of industrial waste (BDSI) which must accompany the waste
until its final disposal. [Decree of 4 January 1985 relating to control of disposal systems generating
harmful waste OJ of February 16, 1985 (addition to decree n77-974 of August 19, 1977).
This form is valid both for the companies generating DIS and for the groups producing the dangerous
waste.
This form (CERFA n07-0320 and n 07-0321) indicates the source, the characteristics, the destination
and the methods planned for the intermediate operations of collection, transport and storage, as well as
for waste disposal.
It also specifies the identity of the companies authorized by prefectoral decree and concerned with these operations (Circular
DPP/SEI n4311 of August 30, 1985 relating to the classified facilities for environmental protection emanating from the
Service of Impact studies of the Management of the Prevention of Pollution: transit facilities, regrouping and pre-treatment of
industrial waste OJ of December 17 1985).
Appendix IV of the decree of January 4 1985 relating to inspection of disposal systems of harmful wastes
effects indicates the contents of the declaration of disposal of industrial waste.
Before proceeding with transfer of waste, the shipper must notify the proper authorities of destination,
shipping and transit, according to the EEC Council Regulation n259/93 of February 1 1993 relating to
the transfer of waste.
The notification is done by means of a follow-up document. In French law, the form was registered
under number CERFA 30-3546. This form must contain all the information necessary for the
intermediate transfer stages. It must contain precise details such as the origin, the inventory of waste and
the identity of the initial producers, as well as information relating to the identity of the recipient, of his
location, methods and operations of processing waste, and value of the recycled matters, if necessary.

76

3.6. - Conclusion
Treatment of wood: medical and environmental risks
At the place of
treatment

Construction of
structure

Wood in service

Structure at end of life

Risks of leaching of the product

and contamination of the natural
environments (grounds, drinking
water, accumulation by certain
plants)

Medical implications

Risks related to bad

Risk of ingestion by the users or management of waste (wild
Risks related to the exposure of the agents
residents (note: extremely low deposit, burning without
in service to toxic substances
probability)
filtration of the fumes)
Risks related to cutaneous
contact and ingestion of traces With risks of contamination of
remaining on hands in the case the natural environments and
populations
of parts of structures accessible neighboring
(inhalation,
ingestion)
to the children

Environmental
implications

Risks of leaching of the product

Risks related to emissions towards the
and contamination of the natural
natural environment
environments (grounds, water)

Precautions

Industrial places of
treatment concern
installations
classified for the
environmental
protection.
These
sites are protected
from the point of view
of the environment,
and the safety of the
workers (under the
terms of the fair labor
standards
act)
applicable,
is
subjected
to
prefectoral
authorization
and
controlled by the
DRIRE.

To limit structures
sensitive zones:
These
building
sites must be
protected from the
point of view of the
environment, and
the safety of the
workers (under the
terms of the fair
labor
standards
act) is applicable.

near

- collection points of drinking Selective Deconstruction

water
AND
- adventure playgrounds and
Re-use if possible
vegetable gardens
- cultures AOC or Bio

OR

The work completed within the Choice of the path of adapted

framework of the Directive elimination
Biocide will decline the
treatments which will remain
authorized post-2006 and will
enact additional conditions of
use.

Low for the future structures Low if elimination in an

(see conclusions of the biocides approved center or adapted
directive )
re-use.
Medical
and
environmental RISK
Low

Low

TABLE 13
77

Medium for the old

structures, in particular for
the special cases of
structures in contact with
or near significant zones
(see above)

Medium to high currently

for the structures treated
with
CCA (problem of
path).

4. - DESIGN OF ENGINEERING STRUCTURES IN WOOD

4.1 - TYPES OF STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO WOOD
4.1.1. - Principles of use of wood in bridges
In engineering structures, the materials are not adapted to all types of stress . Concrete is well adapted to
parts working in compression, steel with parts working in tension. It is advisable to use for each structure
or part of structure the material best adapted .
Although the performance of healthy wood in bending and axial tension is very satisfactory, bending will
be limited by the sliding forces on supports (longitudinal shear between fibers) and the axial tensile
stresses are limited by the nature of the joints that produce localized shear stresses. The yield of the joints
(i.e. fraction of the force of the rough wood section that can be transmitted by the joint) in tension is
limited to the 70 % at best, whereas it reaches without problem 80 % for joints in compression. Moreover,
even if the healthy wood has good performance in tension, wood with singularities such as knots, loses
part of its characteristics in tension.
For wood, the optimum is thus to make the material work in axial compression, preferably in full section.
This brings in arch type load bearing systems, beams under braces or lattices for example. As only round
or rectangular wood sections are available industrially, contrary to steel which allows the manufacture of
I-sections with good bending properties, timber beams in general do not have optimized bending
properties hence the need for supports, and the possible spans are rather modest.

Timber bridges and heavy vehicle traffic

For footbridges, the constructive solutions are very broad with in particular the possibility of creating
structures based entirely on wood.
On the other hand, during movement of heavy trucks, experience with emergency bridges shows that the
timber deck flooring generates very heavy noise. Moreover, skid risks represent a danger in particular to
two-wheeled vehicles because ovehicles, it is finally desirable, for the durability of the flooring, to favor
concrete road surfaces with a load-bearing timber framework.
For highway bridges supporting heavier traffic with more than 300 heavy trucks every 24 hours it
is recommended that very particular attention be paid to joint design as regards fatigue,
particularly when wood is used as a load-bearing structure.
This aspect also concerns joints in the case of mixed wood-concrete structures.
The joints are justified with respect to fatigue with Eurocode regulations or, in particular with regard to
highway traffic loads, with those of the Stra guide of May 1996 Fatigue strength of metal and mixed
bridges (appendix 6.11/31).

General design principles

When designing a wood structure, it is advisable to bear in mind a certain number of elements:

one cannot make everything out of wood: the spans must be reasonable, in general less than
about fifty meters. Beyond this, we are talking exceptional structures which must be studied,
designed and built with great care;

one cannot easily order beams in glued-laminated wood with an I-beam section as with
metallic elements. Only massive rectangular sections are available industrially;

78

any contact between wood and water or ground harms the durability of wood. For
example, structures with Glue-lam lateral beams without boarding lead quickly to disease due to
the development of fungi attacks;

joint design differs a lot from that usually found in the construction of engineering
structures in concrete or steel: wood joints are in general more ductile;

in the case of an overpass , care must be taken, for any light structure, to guarantee
sufficient headroom, or 60 cm of clearance over size.

Timber structures are sensitive to shocks and are

regarded as light. A protection clearance of 0.50 m, as per
the circular of October 17, 1986 of the Ministry for the
Equipment is thus recommended. Added to this is a
construction and maintenance clearance of 0.10 meters.
Thus, over a highway or a heavily traveled road, the total
headroom is 4,75 m + 0,60 m or 5,35 meters.
This value constitutes a minimum, and it is necessary to
increase the protection clearance further if the structure
is particularly sensitive or not very redundant, and if the
neighboring structures upstream do not hinder the
extreme sizes.

In the case of structures with crutches, the swiveling of a heavy truck which would topple on its side
near the heavy lateral (GBA) must be prevented from interfering with the structure. As in the vertical
axis, a protection clearance is recommended.
Eurocode 1 envisages shocks to be taken into account on the deck up to 6 meters above the pavement
to justify the structures going through a road. The intensity of the shocks to be taken into account on
piles up to 1.50 m high is defined in the absence of protection by BAEL or Eurocode 1.
Further, it is recommended to justify the piles by calculation with respect to a shock of an intensity five
times less than that required by BAEL or Eurocode 1 up to 4 m above the roadway, in addition.

Importance of association of wood and other materials

The association of materials having different and complementary properties makes it possible to improve
operation of the structures, by using each material in its preferred field . One can thus associate wood with
concrete or steel, even with both.
Concrete has a good compressive strength , but a low tensile strength. It can be associated with wood as a
collaborating compressed slab, which will allow removal of shear stresses harmful to bending in wood
alone and can also ensure protection of the wood frame from bad weather.
Steel has excellent tensile characteristics but is limited in compression because of the phenomena of
buckling. The association of tensioned steel and compressed wood will make it possible to lengthen the
spans. It will be necessary to give a light camber to the timber part to avoid any excessive deformation
after creep.
The wood-concrete joint must ensure a sufficiently rigid connection between the timber beams and the
reinforced concrete slab in order to use these materials to their full capacity.
There are several systems whose justification is approached in the Bridge Section of Eurocode 5. The
connector shown below as an example, was the subject of a Stra opinion within the framework of the
79

Innovation Charter. It is the result of successive developments in particular following fatigue tests, and
gave way to a patent, like the majority of the devices of this type. It consists of a 10 mm thickness double
angle connector in S355 steel stiffened on the wooden side by two 12 mm thick flats. The intermediate
horizontal part of the connector is fixed to the timber by pins which complete the connection.

Photograph 27: example of timber concrete connector

This connector is well adapted to the building of road bridges of narrow isostatic span in mixed woodconcrete framework with load-bearing beams under a slab. In addition to static tests, a dynamic test was
carried out on a timber-connector-concrete sample for more than two million cycles.

80

4.1.2. - Various structures

Arch bridges
These structures are interesting because the arch works mainly in compression and all the wood section is
used mechanically. Steel is often used advantageously for the stiffening girders like for the ties.
The span range of these structures is from 30-60m

Tied arch bridges (Bow string)

Below is detailed the example of the PINOT footbridge in BLAGNAC, built in 1998, with a span of 36
meters.

Photograph 28: Pinot footbridge

This multi-material structure is composed of a principal structure in a tied arch in wood, of a reinforced
concrete slab, of tie-beam, parts of bridge, as well as steel suspending rods, and of a cover in polymethyl
methacrylate.
The arches have a constant section of 324 mm X 627 mm, or a slenderness ratio of 1/57th. The noncombined slab is built from reinforced concrete prefabricated panels, 14 cm thick.
In this example, the arched beams are protected from the bad weather by the roof in polymethyl
methacrylate (Pmma) which ensures the durability of the load-bearing wood .
The type of wood selected is Scots pine, treated for class of employment 4 at level R4P8. The classes of
employment, as well as the retention levels and penetration of the treatment are defined in chapters 2.5.2
and
2.5.3
The Glue-lam used for the manufacture of the arches is classified GL24, which corresponds to a
characteristic bending stress of 24MPa.

81

Figure 36: detail of the connection between the arcs and the suspending rods

Intermediate arch
This road bridge built in 1993 is in the mountains, in Strada, in the Grison canton in Switzerland. The
arch has a span of 39 m and the overall length of the structure is 48 meters. The deck has 3.5 meters of
pavement and 15 m of sidewalk, or 5 m total.

Photograph 29: general views of the bridge between Strada and San Nicla
The load-bearing structure is entirely wood, with beams in spruce Glue-lam, untreated, but protected by
a larch boarding and a copper protective hood. The secondary structure is made up of wood spacers ,
which support a flooring of pre-stressed wood, i.e. a flooring made up of timber elements tightened
together by steel bars.

82

No finish was applied, which does not detract from the good durability of this structure. The boarding
simply became gray with time, even blackened in the zones most exposed to the sun.

Photograph 30: sight from the roadway

Photograph 31: boarding of the arch and the

spacers

The composite timber-concrete bridges

The principle is the same as for the mixed steel concrete bridges. The concrete slab contributes to taking
up the stress, by compression. The span range of these structures is 20-80 meters. The long spans can be
achieved with arch bridges whose deck rests on intermediate supports (small piles, suspending rods, etc)
every 5 to 10 meters.

Among the rules to be considered for this type of structure:

the thickness of the concrete slab must be at least 22 cm for highway structures;

joints may be made from angles, tubes or steel reinforcing bars;

the section slenderness ratio (ratio of height to width) of the beams in Glue-lam should be limited
to 5. For higher slenderness ratios, close study of humidity gradient phenomena is required;

the slenderness ratio for the major beams borders on 1/30th;

tests of fatigue behavior of joints, adapted to traffic, are required.

Bridge at Resgia
An example is the bridge on the Resgia at Inneferrera in Switzerland built in 1998. The 60 m long
structure consists of 4 principal Glue-lam arches with a 45 meter span. The slab which carries only light
traffic consists of pre-slabs 6 cm thick and concrete cast in place 16 cm thick.. The types of wood used are
larch for the arches and spruce for the remainder.
Below are a section and two photographs of the structure.

83

Photograph 32: bridge at Innenferrera: 60 m of length, 3,50 m of road width

84

Figure 37: bridge at Innenferrera

85

Farm bridges
Farm bridges are made up of triangular structures. Historically, the first covered bridges were farm bridges
to which roofs were added. An evolution of these farm bridges was bridges with lattice beams.

Bridge at Vihantasalmi
The bridge at Vihantasalmi in Finland was brought into service in 1999 to replace an old metal bridge. The
length of the structure is 168 m, distributed on 5 spans of 21 and 42 meters. The width is 11 meters.
The principal spans of 42m are supported by triangulated timber beams assembled like a roof truss, whose
tension elements are steel bars. The load-carrying beams are in wood and are joined to a concrete slab,
which contributes to the mechanical strength of the whole structure via connectors specially developed
for this structure.
To ensure good durability in the absence of a cover, all the wood is treated with creosote or metallic salts.
The wood above the pavement is protected by boarding and the other wood is protected by the sealed
roadway.

Photograph 33: bridge at Vihantasalmi

86

Figure 38: longitudinal section of the bridge of Vihantasalmi

Lattice beam bridges

The important thing is to create very high
beams that will cross rather wide spans
while leaving a pleasant luminosity.
The span range of these structures is from
20-50 meters. The general slenderness
ratio should be limited to a maximum of
1/10th of the span.
An example of this type of structure is the
bridge over the river Dore at SaintGervais-sous-Meymont, built in 1994. It
is the first timber bridge without a
load limitation, of road class II in
France. It profited from the IVOR seal
(innovations validated on reference
structures ) in 1996.
The principal structure is made up of a
lattice formed by beams of Scots pine
Glue-lam. The oak flooring is suspended
on the joints of the main frame.

Photograph 34: bridge over the river Dore (interior view)

The headroom 4.70 m and the width 6 meters. The span of the structure is 33,25 m with a low general
slenderness ratio (approximately 1/7th) but the structure is very luminous.
Each of the main beams is formed of two elements in Glue-lam, 185 x 528 mm. The diagonals are formed
by two beams of glue-lam 185 x 363 mm. The posts are beams of glue-lam 200 x 363 mm. The joints are
bolted, with threaded rods inserted and glues into the timber beams.

87

Photograph 35: bridge over the river Dore (exterior view)

88

Figure 39: transverse section of the bridge over the river Dore

Strut frame bridges

Strut frame bridges are well adapted to wood, because they allow a reduction of the effective spans and
generate a compressive force in the piers. The span range of these structures is 20-40 meters.

Bridge at Merle
A recent example of a strut frame timber bridge is the bridge at Merle near Saint-Geniez-O-Merle in Corrze,
built in 1999. This structure, 57 m long and 10 m wide overhangs the bottom of the valley to more than
30 m high at the highest.

Figure 40: bridge at Merle - longitudinal Section

89

Photograph 36: bridge at Merle - general view

The wood used for the strips in the manufacture of Glue-lam is the Douglas, purged of sapwood, of
mechanical classification C30. The structure is isostatic thanks to two articulations.

Figure 41: bridge at Merle - transverse Section

90

The longitudinal beams have a section of 160 X 16 cm

Figure 42: bridge at Merle section of a strut frame
The strut frames crutches have a T section in glue-lam : 90
X 16 cm + 80 X 16 cm, of 12 m to 25 m length. The
reconstruction of the T-beams was carried out by gluing
and by metal rings which ensure the transmission of the
shear stresses.

A concrete slab 25 cm thick contributes nothing to the general functioning of the timber structure. Figure
43 Figure 42 shows detail of assembly. The slab is placed on neoprene supports and is supported via
threaded rods sealed in the timber beams.

Figure 43: bridge at Merle - detail of assembly

Bridge at Crest

Photograph 37 a: bridge at Crest

91

The bridge at Crest in Drme is

currently longest of France. It is 92
m long and is divided into three
spans. It has two traffic lanes of 2,75
m for a width of 8,50 meters.
The principal structure is made up
of four ribbed frames, spaced at
1.85 m, of variable height from
Douglas Glue-lam
purged of
sapwood.
These frames are
supported by strut frames linked to
the concrete supports. The flooring
is in oak, supported on elastomer
pots. Moreover, a seal was installed
under this flooring to protect the
secondary structure and the
principal structure.

Photograph 37 b: bridge of Crest

Suspension bridges or stayed

Suspension bridges, or stayed, allow the design of very long spans. Wood can be used in particular for
construction of the stiffening girders and for the flooring. The span range of these structures is from 30100 meters. There are two exceptional structures : the timber bridge at OJUELA in Mexico, built in 1892,
with a 278 m span and in France, the bridge at Tournon dating back to 1845, consists of two spans of
97.50 meters. These two structures works have been limited to pedestrian traffic since the 1970s.
Among recent structures, particular note should be made of the footbridge on the Doubs, offering a one
meter wide passage. This footbridge, built in 1993, and located in the community of Oye and Pallet (25) is
from solid fir and spruce. The length is approximately 52 m for 37 m of span.

Photograph 38: footbridge over the river Doubs - general view

92

Photograph 39 footbridge over the river Doubs - view of lower part

The structural parts of the structure are protected by the deck coating and by a roof for the tops of the
stays.
An insecticide treatment was applied superficially, but no finish was applied, which explains the gray color
of the wood.

Composite timber- steel bridges

A combination of wood and steel is very common in structures, but also finds applications for the general
design of structures, steel offering ties and beams that are particularly effective in bending, wood
providing posts or arches working in compression.
The example below shows a structure under tension with steel ties. It is 35 m long, 5 m wide, and allows
passage of forestry equipment..

Photograph 40: composite timber-steel bridge at Sur-En (Switzerland)

93

4.1.3. - Examples of footbridges

The design of footbridges differs basically from that of highway engineering structures. In particular
fatigue problems are less severe, but wind and shocks are more serious.
The small loads allow a greater design freedom, which is brought to the fore in the following examples.
However, the dynamic behavior of these structures must be carefully studied.. Wood structures are lighter
hence problems of dynamic behavior are a concern. Eurocode 5, dealing with timber structures, was most
precise on these questions at the ENV pre-standard stage of voluntary application.
To ensure the good dynamic behavior of a project, the guide Footbridges - Evaluation of vibratory
behavior under the force of pedestrians, published by Stra. (appendix 6.11/33).

Vaires footbridge
The new footbridge covered at Vaires ( Seine et Marne) is today Frances biggest covered footbridge at 75
m long, 49 m of span, 9.40 m wide. The Owner is Rseau Ferr de France.
This Glue-lam timber structure overhangs future TGV lines at 6 m high. The arches support a double
passage each offering a clear width of 3 meters. The first passage corresponds to a public way while the
second allows travelers to reach the platforms by escalators or elevators. A square goes to either end of
town.
The woods used are the Douglas for glue-lam, oak for the flooring and spruce for the ceiling.

Photograph 41: footbridge and railway station at Vaires-sur-Marne

Ajoux footbridge
Built in 2001 at Ajoux in Ardche, this footbridge has two arches under the flooring. The overall length of
the footbridge is 20 meters. The whole of the footbridge is made from solid wood, with small sections
that allow easy handling in a site. where .access is difficult.

94

Photograph 42: footbridge at Ajoux

The wood selected was the local chestnut which is naturally very durable for these condition of uses. No
chemical preservation treatment was necessary.

Footbridge at Saint-Jorioz
This 1993 footbridge was built under the
project supervision of the DDE of Haute
Savoie and has required no intervention
since its construction. The length is 20 m
for 2.70 m of width of passage. The height
under the roof is 3 meters.
The principal structure is a triangular
structure of solid Douglas untreated, except
for the bottom Glue-lam timber member
treated for of employment 2, given it is
well protected from bad weather. The road
surfacing is a bituminous mix, to allow the
passage of light vehicles. The cover is of
sheeting planks (split pieces of wood).
Photograph 43: footbridge at Saint-Jorioz

Footbridge in Grigny
The Grigny footbridges ( Essonne) built in 2002 are a model for small-span footbridges, because of their
design based on the natural durability of wood and protection of the structural elements. No chemical
preservation treatment was necessary. They are made from two load-bearing arches in Douglas Glue95

lam covered with an open Douglas boarding and a protective oak hood , under which is a waterproof layer
that improves the sealing of the load-bearing structure.

Photograph 44: footbridge in Grigny

All wood is purged of sapwood so as to use only the durable part of the woods selected.
The flooring consists of oak planks, 120 X 22 mm, arranged on their edge and spaced at approximately 5
mm which allows a good ventilation of the wood and ensures a good adherence for the pedestrian.
The slenderness ratio of the arches is
approximately 1/30th . The principal beams have
dimensions of about 300 X 300 mm, which
makes the arches compact and not very sensitive
to variations in humidity.
The metal elements are in stainless to guarantee
good durability and to avoid harmful chemical
reactions with oak in particular.
All the wood was given a protective coating in
the workshop to allow homogeneous ageing.
Maintenance will thus be limited to the
replacement of the flooring or cladding units
when they are worn, insofar as one accepts
graying of the wood.
This type of footbridge is well adapted to spans
less than 15 m, with a reasonable cost of
approximately 1,500 per square meter in 2002.
For longer spans, the transverse stability of the
arches must be studied in detail.
Photograph 45: detail of flooring with edge
and open boarding

96

Figure 44: detail of the open boarding

Bridges with full side beams

The span range of these structures is 5-20 m
Structures with full side beams (of Glue-lam type), although simpler and often more economic, are less
well adapted to wood, because rectangular sections have a low mechanical bending strength and loadbearing unprotected beams are not very durable.
However this type of footbridge was essential in France in the years 1970-1980, with often a CCA
preservation treatment . One regularly finds lateral beams with a very slim section of 20 x approximately
97

180

cm,

causing

deformation

98

problems

(see

chapter

4.2. Diseases and causes of damage ").

This principle may be used however for short spans, provided that the side beams are protected to
protect the load-bearing structure from heavy exposure and subsequent fungus attack, and a maximum
surface slenderness ratio (relationship between the height and the width) of 5.

Photograph 46: footbridge at Danjoutin

Photograph 47: footbridge at Wald

The footbridge at Feisterbach in Wald (Switzerland) dating back to 1984, is 56m long in three spans with a
principal span of 28 meters. The beams are in fir treated with CCF and do not suffer from severe diseases.
The design is well thought out because the sections at 1 200 x approximately 200 mm show a surface
slenderness ratio (relationship between the height and the width) of 6 and of the vertical stays connected
to the spacers ensure transverse stability of the beams. Some design errors remain like the absence of
boarding and ventilation between the beam and the handrail in particular.

99

4.2. Diseases and causes of damage

4.2.1. Lack of drainage and ventilation
Bad drainage and ventilation of wood lead to the development of fungi.

Sealing
On photo 48, Photograph 48, sealing is not continuous and water can stagnate in direct contact with the
beam. This phenomenon is aggravated by non-ventilation of the wood: the beam is in direct contact with
the access road and the sealing.

Photograph 48: connection beam apron and roadway of access

Wood badly ventilated

On photo 49 Photograph 49, the beam in Glue-lam is in contact with the roadway that is likely to be wet
(no visible sealing). The fungi have begun their work

100

Photograph 49: connection beam apron

Assembly trapping water

A cause of bad drainage of water is the design of assemblies trapping water. Wood on wood assemblies
(mortise and tenon, joggle-joint, etc) which form sensitive areas that are badly ventilated and badly drained
must be avoided. (see photo 50)

Photograph 50: Wood on wood assembly to avoid

101

Flat surface
To obtain good drainage, flat surfaces should be avoided since water can infiltrate wood in possible
surface cracks.
But wood should not be inclined without forethought. On photo 52 Photograph 52, the handrail is well
inclined , but the longitudinal joints are badly ventilated, leading to fungus attack. On photo Photograph
51, the fixing of the handrail is insufficient in view of the handrails heavy section.

Photograph 51: handrail badly fixed

Photograph 52: fungus attack on the handrail

4.2.2. - Solar Aggression and humidity gradient

Footbridges, particularly those facing south, undergo solar aggression, which creates slits and deteriorates
the finish. Water can then accumulate there to form true fungi nests. Photo 53 Photograph 53 testifies to
this reality

Photograph 53: degradation of protective coating and wood

The footbridge represented in photo 54 Photograph 54 is made up of two glue-lam lateral beams.

102

The beams curved towards the south side because of a humidity gradient, the sunny face having shrunk
more than the other.

Photograph 54: poured side beams

The deviation noted of approximately 80 mm is reached for a humidity gradient of approximately 4 %.
Measurements showed that the humidity gradient varied between 3 and 7 %.
A protection of the beams would have been an effective solution to avoid this kind of premature damage.

4.2.3. - Other causes

Among the other causes of damage are structural problems:

bad adhesion of glue-lam : the joints open or the glue is not appropriate for the use (chemical
attack,) ;

bad
design
causing
tension
perpendicular
to
the
wood
fibers,
either by an assembly stressing the Glue-lam laterally in tension , or by bending of a curved
beam , an effect that causes a thrust on the glued strips when bending reduces the curvature of
the beam;

Figure 45: Possible examples of causes of damage

lack of specialized studies: assembly, unevenness of support;

the wrong consideration of the phenomena of shrinking and swelling of wood as a function of
its humidity.

103

4.2.4. - Maintenance
A minimum standard maintenance is required to ensure correct operation of wood structures. Care should
be taken not to allow accumulation of organic matter (topsoil for example) in contact with wood.
On photo 56 Photograph 56, it is observed that this minimum maintenance was not carried out: the
development of fungi is thus favored. On photo 55 Photograph 55, an external soil source puts the wood
in danger.

Photograph 55: accumulation of soil in contact with wood

Photograph 56: increase in vegetation

104

4.3. - Constructive Provisions

Constructive provisions are the first method of ensuring a structures good durability. They must thus be
studied precisely in relation to the following rules.

4.3.1. - General Rules

In the preceding chapters, it was shown that the too high humidity in the wood led to the appearance of
fungi, which are the causes of the most serious damage.. Damage due to insects remains minor in France
in the field of engineering structures. The first objective of design is thus to prevent humidity in the wood.

The basic principle to obtain a reasonable durability is to keep the wood dry.
For that, it is necessary that:

the minimum of water can come in contact with the wood, which urges its protection;

water can be evacuated as soon as possible;

the wood is well ventilated

To obtain a good durability, design of the details is the essential point. It comes into play before the
choice of the chemical preservation treatments. The preservation treatments are to be studied later, to
adjust if necessary the field of application of the wood.
Following, several constructive provisions are examined.

4.3.2. - Covered bridges

Among the most durable bridges or footbridges, the great majority have a roof, which allows the loadbearing structure to be protected from bad weather (see photo 57).

105

Photograph 57: example of the covered bridge crossing the Bouzanne river
near Argenton sur Creuse: It was built in 1849.
A covered bridge involves a higher initial investment but offers better guarantees of the structures
lifespan.
A beam is considered protected from bad
weather if the roof overflow allows the
beam to remain dry under a rain falling at
an angle less than thirty degrees to the
vertical. In this case, the beam can be
considered in class of employment 2,
except if there are risks of spray, in which
case the class of employment is 3).

Figure 46: angle to envisage to protect the

beam

Photograph 58: beams under roadway protected from the bad weather
For beam bridges under the roadway, when this one is waterproof (reinforced concrete slab protected by a
sealing), a good protection of the beams is assured. For the edge beams , a roadway overflow may also
protect a beam (see photo 58) Photograph 58).

4.3.3. - Boarding
A solution to prevent water on the load-bearing beams is to cover the lateral faces with boarding and the
horizontal surface with a protective hood (or handrail).

106

Boarding arrangements
The boarding can be a coating made up of planks of wood generally 18 or 27 mm thick 80 to 200 mm
wide. To prevent the distortion , the ratio width to thickness should not exceed 7 ( a slenderness ratio of
7 is accepted because the boarding is not structural. For structural elements , the slenderness ratio should
be limited to 5).
These planks may be arranged horizontally or vertically, ensuring good ventilation between the boarding
and the protected wood. An example of ventilated boarding is given on photo 59 Photograph 59.

Photograph 59: ventilated horizontal boarding

Figure 47: vertical boarding with covering

The vertical arrangement allows a faster water run-off. The simplest way is to use an overlapping
boarding. The strip of overlapped boarding is fixed by two austenitic stainless steel pins (only one for a
width less than 100 mm), and the interior strips of boarding are fixed by only one stainless steel pin. The
length of the pins is 2.5 times the thickness of the boarding strip, without it penetrating less than 35 mm
into the wood.
Note: to facilitate the maintenance of the boarding, the pins may be replaced by screws.

107

To ensure good ventilation, the boarding is spaced by a network of laths. The best solution is to use
double laths (see figure 48 )Figures 48), which allows good air circulation. Diagonal laths may also be
considered.
The vertical strips should be shaped at the bottom in the form of a drip groove.

Figures 48: bad, good and very good lathing for a vertical boarding
Boarding made up of horizontal planks may also be considered. Among the three types of arrangement of
horizontal boarding represented very schematically in figure 49 Figure 49, the solution represented in (a) is
the worst since the planks are in contact over a width of approximately 10 % of the width of the plank. In
this zone the wood is badly ventilated. Moreover, the plank does not have the shape to form a drip groove
: water can find its way to the badly ventilated zone and cause damage to the wood.

Figure 49: various boarding arrangements

In cases (b) and (c), the planks are well ventilated and the drip groove may be formed. Solution (c) is
preferable, because it has fixings well protected from the rain. The solution with strip, usually used in
buildings, is also possible as well as open boarding, which leaves principal beam visible while protecting it
from bad weather. The open boarding was used for the footbridge at Grigny (see chapter 4.1.3).

Protective hoods
To protect horizontal wood, as well as wood at the ends, protective hoods of stainless steel, copper or
aluminum may be installed, as is the case for the Tharlkirchen bridge on the Isar in Munich. This 1991
bridge of spruce Glue-lam timber and solid larch measures 183 m per 13m span, and has 5.50 m of
roadway and 7 m of sidewalk.
The use of different metals for protection is to be avoided because of the risk of galvanic corrosion.

108

Photograph 60: Protective hoods on the bridge at Thalkirchen

Another example is the cover of the arches of the Europe-Bridge in the valley of the Mur in Austria near
Saint-Georgen, (see photos 61), built in 1994, 128 m long with a 45 m principal span. On the other hand,
the strut frames are only covered at the bottom foot to avoid water finding its way into the mechanical
connection.

Photographs 61 a and b: Europe-Bridge at Saint-Georgen

109

The same type of detail is found near the joint, and the bottom of the strut frames of the bridge at Merle
(see photos 62).

Photographs 62 a and b: details of the bridge at Merle

Protection of the end wood
The end of the planks or the beams (called end wood) must be protected to avoid water infiltration in
fibers of wood.
There are various solutions :

treatment with resin is to be avoided since sooner or later the resin will crack because of sun
damage and shrinkage or swelling of the wood, and will no longer do its job;

wood must be protected by a metallic protective hood or boarding (as on photo 63) Photograph
63).

Photograph 63: protected end wood

Note: on photo 63 Photograph 63, the boarding of the end wood could have been better ventilated at the
connection with the upper wood cover

110

Handrail
Arrangement to protect a load-bearing beam
The handrail may in certain cases, in particular for structures with lateral beams, be used as protection
against bad weather.
In figure 50 Figure 50, the handrail protects the principal beam. The slope of 5 % in the transverse
direction improves drainage. A slope in the longitudinal direction is also desirable.
The handrail has notches to allow drip grooves to be made. Ventilation of the handrail and the principal
beam must be assured.
Lastly, the vertical boarding is ventilated thanks to a double lathing.

Figure 50: handrail

As far as possible, the assemblies are protected from bad weather. In the case of Figure 50, metal squares
may be installed between the handrail and the lathing (before placing the boarding).

Case of independent handrails

In this case the handrail does not protect the structure. The handrail represented in figure 51 Figure 51 is
fixed on the angle overhanging the crash barrier posts by pins in the under faces. The risk of damage to
the points is reduced and the upper face of the handrail has no singularities likely to trap water. Moreover,
the angle is smaller than that of the handrail that forms a drip groove.

111

Figure 51: protected assemblies

Photograph 64: example of fixing of handrail

Special care must be taken with longitudinal joints. In effect, a minimum space (2cm) must be left to
ensure ventilation of the wood. Moreover the end wood of the crash barrier post must be protected by a
metal plate, as in photo 64 Photograph 64.
Figure 52Figure 52 shows a good arrangement. A double protection system is set up.

112

The joint allows an initial sealing, which will not be too durable. In the event of damage to the joint, the
metal cap takes over: a drip groove is at the end of the handrail, and water is evacuated in a metal section.

Figure 52: longitudinal connection of the handrail

Another possible solution is covering the joint by a ventilated metallic protective hood.

4.3.4. - Joints
Some rules about joints
Traditional joints or wood on wood
Traditional joints are those that utilize only wood. Among the many examples are mortise and tenon, the
joggle-joints, splayed indent scarf, dovetails. These joints transmit primarily compressive forces.
The performances of these joints are relatively limited and are to be studied carefully for external
structures to avoid the risks of water traps (see photo 50) Photograph 50).

Figure 53: mortise and tenon joints

Figure 54: slit-and-tongue joints

113

Combination wood-metal joints

Among this type of joint are nails,
bolts, spike nails, and joints using
notched rings.
The pins (nails) can be smooth, be
twisted or striated. They are small
diameter and many are required to
ensure a good joint.
The spike nails are smooth, and are
forced into a bore hole of a diameter
slightly lower than that of the nail.

Figure 55: some examples of metal joint parts

Figure 57: bolted assembly

Figure 56: gusset joint connection and spike

nails

The principle of operation is based on shear of the metallic parts. These joints are more or less rigid (see
figure 58 Figure 58 which shows the stress-strain curves of the various joints), according to the type of
part, of the number and the size of the metal parts.

114

Figure 58: rigidity of the joints

It should be noted that some of these joints have initial play: before transmitting stress the joint must take
up the play that exists between the bolts for example and the timber.
The layout of the parts has an influence on the joint strength (spacing of the nails in particular).
When choosing a type of joint, it is advisable to consider the following points:

a more rigid multi-part joint will be preferred to a mono-part one;

the joint strength does not increase linearly with the number of parts: the increase in strength
becomes gradually indistinct and may in certain cases become harmful;

preservation treatments (CCA in particular) speed up corrosion of the metal parts;

it is necessary to check chemical compatibility between the wood and the metal, and to avoid
using different metals.

115

Glued and mechanically-stuck joints

Glued joints are used particularly for making beams in glue-lam . Gluing may be used to complement
mechanical joining by metal parts. There are thus glued/nailed joints with excellent mechanical
performance (breakage through tension is in the metal, but the results strongly depend on the procedure
for putting the joints in service and the loading period). The glued joints are very rigid and have no
installation play.
These joints are still being developed and for the moment it is advised to use them only under the
guidance of experts recognized by the insurance companies, particularly where permanent tensile stresses
are involved.

Justifications of joints
Calculations of joint justifications are to be carried out according to Eurocode EC5. It is a question of
comparing the properties of wood in general with transverse stresses, as well as the performances of the
joint parts.

Ventilation of wood
For wood to dry quickly after humidification, joining two pieces of wood over a long length should be
avoided (see figure 59) Figure 59).

Figure 59: ventilation in joints

The better solutions involve minimizing the surface of contact and spacing the pieces of wood sufficiently.
For this it is possible to use large washers (or several superimposed washers) which have moreover the
advantage of having a convex surface allowing easy evacuation of water .

116

In photos 65 Photographs 65 and 66 Photograph 66, the contacts were minimized to allow good
ventilation of wood.

Photographs 65: ventilation of wood on all faces

Photograph 66: minimization of surfaces of contact

Note: in the place of square sections, round sections are preferable for the spacers, to ensure a better drainage. Another
improvement consists of inclining the square sections, to have no horizontal surface.

117

Joining using supports

Direct contact between wood and concrete is to be avoided because the concrete of the supports is a wet
substrate or likely to be, which can lead to humidification of the wood. This will have more difficulty
drying since it is not ventilated.
The solution consists of separating the wood (from the concrete) using a metal part : humidification by
the concrete is no longer possible if the wood is ventilated. The metal section supporting the post is
smaller (at least 10 mm for each side) to avoid water traps by capillarity. The solution can be further
improved by creating a drip groove under the rim of the wooden post (see photo 67 example 2
)Photographs 67 b).

Figure 60: joint with concrete support

bad design of assembly (solution a) and good design of assembly (solution b)

Example 1

Example 2

118

Photographs 67: two good examples of bottom of ventilated posts

Water traps
Water accumulation in joints is to be avoided. The use of metal shoes, which cause formation of water
retention zones, is to be prohibited if they are not completely protected from bad weather.

Figure 61: bad joint design (solution a) and good joint design (solution b)
Solution (b) is preferable because the risk of accumulation of water is reduced:

washers space the nuts, allowing better water drainage and better wood ventilation ;

washers welded to the metal plate space the wood from the braced metal part (i.e. sandwiched
between the wood), to ensure ventilation; notches could be put in the foot of the post to allow
formation of a drip groove and to avoid water penetration in the end wood.

4.3.5. - Flooring decks

Several types of flooring can be considered:

timber flooring, particularly for footbridges;

timber flooring covered with a bituminous working layer;

Concrete may be used for the decking (composite timber-concrete bridge ) covered with a
bituminous working layer.

119

Wood flooring

Bituminous coating

Composite timber-concrete bridge

Photographs 68: various types of siding

Wood flooring
To avoid having too slippery a cladding, the wood may be grooved in the direction perpendicular to
movement. An example of grooving is given in Figure 62. The dimensions are given in millimeters. Fixing
may be carried out by screws inserted in certain grooves.
Latticed flooring has 8 to 12 mm spaces between planks to compensate for shrinkage and swelling of the
wood.
Resin with corundum may be put in the grooves, but these products are expensive. Finally there are nonskid plastic mats, which then hide the wood.

Figure 62: Grooved wood for flooring

To protect structural beams (bracers and principal) from possible water, a protective hood may be
installed. To be effective, it must overhang at least 20 mm and finish for example vertically to form a drip
groove (see the example given in figure 59) Figure 59).
The wooden strips should be delivered in a state close to hygroscopic balance. Drainage slits could be put
in the underside to control the slits during drying. To ensure a good connection between the flooring
elements and the joists and to reduce the noise, rubber washers might be placed between the elements.
The role of the rubber would be also to take up the deformations from drying, to avoid play.
Another possible technique to make timber flooring decks is to put the boards on their edge, and to space
them approximately 10 mm, as was done for the footbridge at Grigny (see chapter 4.1.3).

Bituminous flooring
The bituminous coatings ensure a good adherence and are to be favored for motor vehicle and cycle
traffic.
It is important to control the sealing to prevent damage to the structure. For this, it is necessary to avoid
contact of bitumen with wood, particularly with the principal beams.
Figure 63 proposes in a schematic the use of an aluminum section to ensure lateral closing of the
pavement zone and to allow continuity of sealing.

120

Figure 63: detail of sealing of roadway

In Figure 63, the boarding of the principal beam does not go down to pavement level (10 cm height
minimum). This space must allow easy cleaning of the dirt that might form there, but the initial
protection role of the boarding must always remain. If the space left is too restricted , it becomes difficult
-- even impossible -- to clean, which harms its durability.
For the longitudinal pavement stop, a T section may also be used.
Lastly, to improve the sealing, an anti-rain layer may be stretched across the first boarding lathing bed, to
maintain good ventilation of the structural wood .

Photograph 69: metal section delimiting the bituminous zone

121

4.4. - Choice of woods

4.4.1. - Wood in class of employment 2
Parts concerned
In a passage structure, the wood may be considered in class of employment 2 if it is protected from bad
weather. This is the case for :

covered bridges: the frame and all wood protected from the rain, except for the side beams of
highway bridges exposed to the risk of spray during the passage of vehicles;

woods protected by boarding.

Woods usable
Most types of wood are suitable, but in practice the woods commonly used are the Scots pine and the
Douglas.
These Woods are suitable for easy manufacture of Glue-lam (spruce is the wood most used for Glue-lam
).

Treatments
No fungicide treatment is necessary. Insecticide treatments are advisable, particularly against termites in
infested zones.
The application of the insecticide treatment is short immersion for small lengths and painting for long
lengths (glue-lam ).

4.4.2. - Wood in class of employment 3

Introductory remark
Class of employment 3 is divided into two: the sub-class 3a corresponding to mild exposure and sub-class
3b to strong exposure.
In practice, only the boarding may be really considered to be in class of employment 3a, this is why it is
treated separately in chapter 4.4.3).
Following, only the class of employment 3b is examined.

Parts of structure concerned

The parts concerned are the beams under the pavements of highway bridges, all non-protected wood but
allowing good drainage because of their slope.

Woods usable
Without fungicide treatment
The sufficiently durable woods must be purged of their sapwood. The most common are:

the Douglas ;

122

the larch;

the oak and the chestnut.

The coniferous woods quoted may be used for the construction of glue-lam .

With fungicide treatment

All woods (not purged of sapwood) sufficiently impregnable are suitable.
The choice will be mostly for the Douglas, the larch, the pines, the fir and the spruce.
Treatment is obligatorily done by metallic salts, creosote or petroleum products.
In all the cases (with or without fungicide treatment) an insecticide treatment is preferable.

4.4.3. Special case of boarding

Generalities
Boarding wood is considered in the class of employment 3. For this non-structural element, the normal
lifespan may be limited to 25 years, even less if its replacement within the framework of a regular
maintenance is accepted. This makes it possible to use a large range of woods, without having to resort to
heavy preservation treatments.
The boarding planks are generally of a width ranging between 120 and 150 mm, for a thickness of 18 to
27 mm.
There are various boarding principles, the simplest being an overlapping vertical type.(see figure 47)
Figure 47).
The fixing nails are of austenitic stainless steel (with exceptions) and must penetrate at least 35 mm into
the batten.

Woods with sufficient natural durability

To be sufficiently durable, woods will have to be systematically purged of their sapwood.
Among the sufficiently durable Woods, the choice can be established between:

Douglas

Larch

Western Red Cedar

The oak and the chestnut can also be considered. In this case, the nails are obligatorily out of nongalvanized steel or stainless steel.

Durability conferred by treatment

For boarding, all the woods are suitable after treatment. For boarding in contact with the public
treatments presenting a health risk are avoided.
The most common treatment method is the autoclave. Short immersion is sufficient, particularly for a
vertical boarding.
123

High-temperature treatment is possible, but the start-holes have to be bored before driving in the nails
(risk of bursting).
The Woods can be used with their sapwood. The choice will be done mainly among the following Woods:
Douglas, Larch, Pines, Spruce, Fir tree

4.4.4. - Wood in class of employment 4 and 5

Parts concerned
The class of employment 4 is for horizontal wood in contact with concrete, the ground or water. Class of
employment 5 involves contact with sea water.
The parts of a structure concerned are:

any horizontal wood, non-protected, particularly flooring;

joists for flooring wood, if it is not protected by a protective hood;

piles and small piles (class of employment 4 or 5).

Types of wood usable

Without fungicide treatment
Among the indigenous European woods, only the oak and the chestnut are naturally sufficiently durable in
class of employment 4. For class of employment 5 no European wood is suitable without treatment.
Among tropical woods on the other hand, many types are naturally sufficiently durable in class of
employment 4, and some in class of employment 5. The iroko can be used only for flooring decks, doussi
covers all the class of employment 4. Azob, bilinga, ip cover the classes of employment 4 and 5. The
bilinga, the iroko and doussi are able to be glued. It is possible to widen the range of woods by taking
advice at the CIRAD forest.
Note: to ask with little detail for an exotic wood does not guarantee the durability of wood: certain
woods (like Kondroti, Koto, Bahia) are indeed not very durable.

With fungicide treatment

In practice pine is the only wood usable. Except for flooring, woods are not squared off, because the
heartwood is almost not impregnable and is not sufficiently durable for such exposure.
The treatment is based on metallic salts or creosote. It is obligatorily done in an autoclave. Dosage is a
function of the class of employment.

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4.4.5. Summary table of choice of woods

Class of
employment

Zones of bridge
concerned

Possible woods

Treatments

Depth of the
treatment

Medical and
environmental
risks

Wood under roof

Fir tree, Spruce

Insecticide

Surface

low

Wood coated
and ventilated

Douglas, Pines,
Oak

None if purged of
sapwood

3.a

Boarding

Chestnut, Larch,
Douglas
Fir tree, Spruce

Wood under sealed

roadway

Oak, Chestnut,
Larch, Douglas

Wood not coated or

covered, inclined
minimum 30

Pines, Fir tree,

Spruce

Flooring

Oak, Iroko, Azob,

Bilinga

Wood under nonsealed roadway

Wood horizontal
or slightly tilted
(<30)

Pines, Fir tree,

Spruce

3.b

Wood in contact
with sea water
Wood in contact
with sea water

Azob, Bilinga

None if purged of
sapwood

Nothing

None

Insecticide +
fungicide

Surface

low

None if purged of
sapwood

Nothing

None

Insecticide +
fungicidal

In-depth

None if purged of
sapwood

Nothing

None

Insecticide +
fungicide

In-depth

High: toxicity of
the products,
and at the end of
the lifetime

None

None

None if
sapwood

Pines

None

purged of

Insecticide +
fungicide

In-depth

IN GREEN: solutions to be retained

IN LIGHT ORANGE : possible, but

think well of the design

BEIGE: possible, but to prefer other

Woods

IN RED: Precautions to be taken

Table 14

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High: toxicity of
the products,
and at the end of
the lifetime

High: toxicity of
the products,
and at the end of
the lifetime

5. Help for writing order

5.1. - Definition of the order
5.1.1. - The program of the structure
It is recommended to first of all draw up a preliminary study that considers the various technical and
architectural solutions possible. The adopted solution is then the subject of a detailed pre-project.. During
these different phases, from the gestation of the project, the geotechnical studies, the hydraulics, the risk
evaluation, or others that are launched to validate the various choices which particularly concern the
foundations and supports and the structure itself.
Only those elements specific to timber construction are dealt with in this part.
For more general details reference is made to Stras other guides concerning the organization of
studies, and the follow-up of the execution of the engineering structures, in particular:

guide for the ordering and the control of the studies of engineering structures, Stra
November 1997. (appendix 6.11/27);

guide for a Quality Assurance program - Studies of design and execution of civil
engineering structures : Stra SNCF, December 1997 (appendix 6.11/28);

guide for the Project Manager of Engineering Structures, Stra January 1999 (appendix
6.11/29);

Technical Bulletin n 8, of Stra, on the assembly of metal bridges, can give useful information
in the study of the construction of a timber bridge. (appendix 6.11/30).

The consultant specifies in his order the nature of the work, by giving in particular the major geometrical
and functional characteristics of the structure: length, width, loads (pedestrians, VL, PL). The
pedestrian loads in Eurocode 1 are the most complete, and are adapted to justifications of structures
carried out with Eurocode 5. Cases of transversely dissymmetrical loads are particularly to be considered
for timber pedestrians bridges, because of the relative lightness of the frames.
In the order the lifespan under consideration for the structure must be specified. In general, the lifespan
of an engineering structure can be estimated at 50 years at least for a footbridge, and at 100 years for a
highway bridge. The easily replaceable and clearly identified elements may have a lifespan reduced to 25
years (boarding, flooring).
Additional instructions related to the environment and the end of life of the structure could be stipulated,
by prohibiting for example the recourse to certain chemical preservation treatments.
Sufficient headroom must be left under the structure that crosses a pavement open to road traffic. Timber
structures are sensitive to shocks and are regarded as light. A minimal protection clearance of 0.60 m,
within the meaning of the circular of October 17, 1986 of the Ministry for Equipment is thus
recommended, as specified to the beginning of Part 4, design.
Lastly, generally, the recommendations of this guide must be reformulated in the contract, and adapted to
the particular case dealt with, in a manner to be thus made contractual, because there is no CCTG booklet
(Book of the General Technical specifications) devoted specifically to timber construction.

126

5.1.2. - Qualification of the company

Concerning glue-lam , there is a certification ACERBOIS GLULAM to guarantee a manufacture in the
code of practice. This qualification and the EC marking may be required in the contract.
Glue-lam timber has received EC certification since the end of 2004. EC European marking will be
obligatory from 2007..

5.1.3. Project Management

The project manager defines, for each part of the structure :

the durability expected;

the class of employment;

the type of wood;

possible treatments;

the class of service within the meaning of Eurocode 5;

principles of protection of wood.

5.1.4. - External Control

Moreover, the building owner envisages a control outside the company and his engineering and design
department. His engineering and design department monitors the studies on behalf of the project
manager, and a laboratory controls in parallel the materials and the conditions of their use on the building
site.
These controls include at a minimum the following points :

validation of the constructive provisions;

validation of the choice of the woods and the treatments;

the checking of the calculation notes;

recognition of the woods (in particular in the case of tropical wood );

the control of the water content of wood;

dimensional check of the various elements;

the performing of mechanical tests on materials or the visual inspection of the delivered
elements.

Some of these controls can be checked by outside sources, and in no case are a substitute for the
companys own controls (internal or external). The major points from the companys control on the
points previously mentioned are examined by outside sources.
5.2. Site preparation and organization

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5.2.1. - Documents to be supplied by the contractor

Before being allowed to bid, the company presents its references in terms of construction of engineering
structures, or failing this shows its technicality in the realization of structures of spans corresponding to
those of the project.
The selected company provides a note of calculations according to Eurocode 5. It specifies the class of
service retained (2: moisture lower than 20 % or 3: moisture higher than 20 %) as well as the assumptions
selected, in particular concerning the mechanical properties of materials.
The company gives a list of the plans and execution procedures and a time schedule. In particular the
following plans are provided:

overall plan (installation, plan view, elevation, location of the elements);

longitudinal and transverse sections (on support and span);

constructive details: joints, connections with the supports, connection with the pavement.

The company specifies how the durability of the structure is ensured and what maintenance should be
envisaged. For each part of the structure , the company will recall the class of employment, the type of
wood and the possible treatment (product and method of application).
In addition, the company draws up a note in connection with the taking into account of the shrinkage and
swelling phenomena of wood (generated stresses, solutions to the distortion phenomenon for sections
with a high slenderness ratio,).

5.2.2. - Plan of quality assurance (PAQ)

The company proposes a plan of quality assurance (PAQ) in which the following points in particular
are mentioned :

resources of the company (personnel and material);

possible sub-contractors;

the origin of the products, wood and fasteners;

certifications;

realization methods of tasks adapted to the building site ;

the organization of internal control;

the internal control (moisture, recognition of type of wood, validity of gluing,);

the management of waste in the factory and on the building site;

provisions of hygiene and safety for the workers, in the factory and on the building site, while
referring for example to the PPSPS (Special safety and health protection plan).

It is thus one of the objects of the PAQ to establish the traceability of wood, from being cut down to
reception of the structure. Methods of realization, like the various provisions taken on the building site
must be specifically adapted to the project and it is not a question, by regard for the forests, to
systematically provide thick master documents.
128

The points that follow require special attention. They are defined in the written parts of the invitation to
bid and are made contractual. The RPAO (Regulations particular to Invitation to bid) is the part of the
contract best adapted to this function. One distinguishes the critical points and the stopping points
according to the importance which they have for the quality of construction. In order to avoid a drift
towards a show of quality of bureaucratic character, the stopping points must be laid down in a limited
number: not more than one a week on average for a company! If necessary, the contractor completes this
list according to his organization.
The critical points are the points where it becomes important that the executant checks the formal
verification of compliance.
The stopping points are points of passage where the executant must obtain the agreement of the control
acting on behalf of the Project manager, because it is essential there be a conflicting report. It is the
customer or his representative, often called in France Project manager, who signs the lifting of the point
of stop.
The principal stopping points to be considered in the contract during the construction of a
timber bridge are enumerated and underlined below. They generally break up into controls and
elementary verifications that are mostly critical points whose follow-up documents are examined and
inspected. However some of these elementary controls, because of their importance, constitute also
stopping points:

Reception of woods by the company ( stopping point)

- inspection of the delivery form showing in particular the name and the address of the sawer, the
method of classification, the type of wood, the mechanical classification, the source of the wood (
stopping point);
- inspection of dimensions (critical point);
- inspection of the wood humidity (stopping point);
- inspection of the wood by sample or according to delivery form (Critical point);
- control of treatment (verification of the certification and possibly control of compliance)
(critical point);
- strength check (visual or tests) (critical point).

Controls before gluing ( stopping point)

- inspection of the wood humidity (critical point);

- verification of adhesive certificate (critical point).

Controls after joining ( stopping point)

- inspection of dimensions (critical point);

- test of de-lamination or shearing of the adhesive joint (critical point).

Finishing in workshop ( stopping point)

- inspection of the product (origin, type) and of the means of application (critical point).

Trial assembly in workshop: required ( stopping point)

129

- verification of geometrical compatibilities (critical point);

- verification
(critical point).

of

fittings

(origin,

material,

chemical

and

electrochemical

compatibility)

During assembly ( stopping point)

- control of installation method ( critical point);

- control of sealing installation (critical point);
- control of finishing product and the means of application (critical point);
- control of installation of secondary elements (critical point).

After assembly

- load test (stopping point);

- control of humidity (stopping point).

5.2.3. Execution procedures

The company must communicate the various execution procedures necessary to manufacture of the
structure. This, of course, should be specified in the contract.

For the workshop fabrication part:

description of the manufacturing process of the beams in glue-lam , with information on

the assembly dimensions, of the tightening pressures, the temperatures of gluing, the tightening
times, the type of gluing (single or double face), of the quantity of adhesive used, the preparation
of the adhesives;

description of the cutting method, with information on the dimensional check;

description of drying, with information on humidity control;

description of the treatment method, with information on control of penetration depth and of
retention requirements;

description of the trial assembly .

For the on-site assembly part :

article III.8 of booklet 66 of the CCTG (Book of the General Technical specifications
applicable to public contracts) can be made contractual for the wood construction.

5.2.4. - Constructive Provisions

The consultant will insist on the importance of the design details. He will reiterate that the minimum of
water must come into contact with wood and that there be efficient drainage of water and ventilation of
wood.
For this, it is advisable to respect the following principles as well as possible:

130

to protect wood by a roof, a protective hood or a boarding;

to avoid direct contact with ground or concrete;

to avoid exposing directly to the bad weather the end grained timber by protecting it by a
protective hood or a boarding;

to avoid direct contact of two wood surfaces: metal parts are to be used to space wood and to
allow good ventilation;

to avoid laying out wood horizontally. If not, to envisage a transverse profile with a slope of 5 %
to allow correct evacuation of rain;

to envisage overflows and notches to form drip grooves;

to avoid water traps, particularly in joints;

to prefer assemblies not exposed to bad weather.

Among the other principles of good design, the following points are to be considered :

beyond a slenderness ratio (ratio H/b) of the timber structural parts of 5, distortion phenomena
are to be taken into account;

to envisage abutments (for example in the form of sidewalks) on highway bridges to avoid direct
shocks on the structure. Their height is at least 20 cm;

not to forget to take into account the phenomena of shrinkage and swelling of wood.

5.2.5. Regulation texts and calculations

The technical clauses of the contract must specify the prevailing regulation texts. For calculations,
Eurocode EC5 is applied.
It is also advisable to make explicit reference to the various standards concerning the preservation of
wood (NF EN 335 - 1 and 2, NF EN 350 - 1 and 2, NF EN 460 in particular), and all the standards
specifying the criteria of geometrical acceptance. The list of the standards concerning wood is appended.

5.2.6. - Forces, stresses, justifications

The forces are defined in Eurocode EC1. For timber structure, it is advisable to take into account the
effect of a variation of wood humidity.
The stresses and the justifications are defined in Eurocode EC5.
The company specifies and justifies the design assumptions used for materials according to tests.

5.3. - Source, quality and preparation of materials

5.3.1. Wood material
Types of wood
In general the woods most used are the coniferous types.

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The consultant defines precisely the type of wood or gives an equivalence criterion (durability with respect
to fungi, density, hardness, retractability,) according to a precise reference (standards, tropical wood
atlas,).
For example, the consultant may ask:
The Wood for the boarding is larch or Douglas, purged of sapwood, or failing this a wood of natural durability
with respect to fungi of class 3-4 or better, according to European standard EN 350-2.
The consultant is invited to select the type of wood among those shown in chapter 4.4 Choice of
woods.).

Wood humidity
Wood must be used with an average service humidity, which depends on the geographic situation, reduced
by at least one point. In any event the average humidity should not exceed 18 %.
The consultant shows the maximum humidity of a fraction of the batch from which a batch of wood may
be refused. He also indicates who (project manager or external control) checks the wood humidity and
based on which sampling.
For example, the consultant may ask:
The batch is refused so at least 5 % of wood checked has a humidity higher than 20 % or if the average wood
humidity is higher than average service humidity plus 2 %.
During storage and transport, wood is protected so as to avoid taking up more moisture.

Mechanical classification
The consultant indicates the mechanical classification of the wood, according to standard EN 518 (visual
classification) or 519 (mechanical classification).
The classifications C18, C24 and C30 may be required for coniferous trees. However the choice of the
C30 classification is not recommended because of the high cost . Its use is reserved for large structures.
For example, the consultant may ask:
The wood for structures is classified mechanically to at least C24.
For Douglas the C30 classification is obligatorily realized by machine. This is also for all classifications
higher than C30 whatever the wood type.
For glue-lam , the choice is limited in practice to GL24 and GL28. The GL32 is not very available in
France.

Section of woods and tolerances

For solid wood , the sections are preferably selected among standard sections defined in appendix 6.9.
Dimensions are given at 20% humidity.
For Glue-lam timber, beyond a slenderness ratio of 5, a justification is included to take account of the
distortion phenomena : the beam is for example: either protected by boarding, or stiffened by metal parts.
The consultant indicates the recommended tolerances or refers to a standard.

132

On this subject, DTU 31.1 (NF P 21-203) wooden structures shows for example tolerances of + or 8
mm on lengths less than 6m, + 0 to 5 mm on transverse dimensions of more than 50 mm.
Standard NF EN 1313-1 gives different tolerances: - 2 to +4 mm for transverse dimensions greater than
100 mm and 1 to + 3 mm for transverse dimensions lower than 100 mm.

Adhesive
The adhesive used to produce Glue-lam must have external approval (from the CTBA). The most
common adhesives are resorcinol, formalin melamine urea and the polyurethane adhesives. Up to 2005
the strip is certified Acerbois Glulam, to guarantee the manufacturing process.
We recommend that the consultant asks that the product be marked EC.
For example, the consultant may ask:
Glue-lam is marked EC, and the glue used is exclusively resorcinol.

Tropical woods
For tropical woods, the consultant must impose the woods traceability. He may ask that the wood come
from a durably-managed forest, i.e. a PEFC certification or equivalent, without requiring however FSC or
PAFC certifications, which would be excessive for the reasons detailed at the beginning of the structure in
chapter 2.1.1.
It is advisable to clearly define the type of wood or the equivalence criteria (density, hardness,
retractability,) if the availability of the wood is low.

Chemical interaction with metal

Certain woods and treatments are not compatible with material of certain fittings.
With oak and chestnut, only stainless steel and copper are used.
With the fir and the spruce treated in class of employment 3, and with the pine treated in class of
employment 4, aluminum and zinc are to be avoided.
Generally, the company makes sure that there is no incompatibility between the wood and the metal
selected or its possible protection, for example by galvanizing. External control acting for the consultant
checks these compatibilities.
Galvanizing is not very durable in corrosive condition, is avoided to ensure compatibility.

Receiving
The wood is new and rough sawn.
The project manager, helped by his external inspector, validates receiving the wood after identification of
the type, check of the humidity, and validation of the strength classification, either visually or by
mechanical tests. The tests are carried out by survey or in a more systematic way according to the
companys internal inspection system.
The consultant may insist that for each different wood (various types, and treatments), a sample
representing the average section of the batch be taken to carry out analyses: recognition of the type,
control of compliance of treatment, mechanical strength tests.

133

5.3.2. - Treatments
Requirements, implementation
The consultant defines the type of treatment, the method of application, the penetration depth and the
retention requirement.
The term treated to the core is to be avoided, because it is an incorrect, not very clear expression.
For example, the consultant may ask:
The flooring wood is maritime pine treated in accordance with NF B 50-105-3, in autoclave, R4P8, with a
product certified CTB P+ containing metal salts in conformity with the requirements envisaged with respect to
health and the environment.

Certificates, attestations
The consultant asks for a treatment attestation, in compliance with the model shown in standard NF B
50-105-3.
Samples are taken by the contractor in additional woods envisaged to this end, according to the sampling
standard EN 351-2. External control must be able to check the compliance of the treatment (penetration
and retention).
The consultant may ask that the wood be certified CTB B+, which ensures a certain quality of production.
The seal CTB P+ guarantees the effectiveness of the product according to proportion for a given class of
employment.

Finish
The consultant may require that wood be with or without a finish. Two layers of protective coating, or
another type of protection or finishing product, applied in the workshop are recommended, even if the
wood might become gray.
The nature of the finish (protective coating, painting, etc) is indicated.
The number of impregnating coats to be applied before installation, preferably in the workshop, and the
number of finishing coats (after installation) are to be specified.
Lastly, the finish must obligatorily be pigmented, of average color preferably (medium brown ). For the
choice of the initial color, it is necessary to remember that stained wood has a natural tendency to darken.
For example, the request may be:
The boarding is covered with a protective coating containing insecticides and fungicides.
Two layers of pigmented protective coating, of medium color, are applied in the workshop before installation, and a
layer of pigmented protective coating of medium color is applied after installation.
DTU 59-1 (NF P 74-201-1) concerning painting of buildings specifies the conditions of use.

134

5.4. Execution of the work

5.4.1. - Execution and assembly of the wooden structure
Article III.8 concerning the assembly of manual 66 of the CCTG execution of civil engineering structures
with steel frameworks can be made contractual for the assembly of timber structures. The whole of
manual 66 can be made contractual for the execution of metal structures.
The technical clauses of the contract must specify the reference standards concerning manufacture and
dimensional tolerances (NF EN 386,387,390 for Glue-lam for example).
It should be remembered that follow-up controls to be implemented by the company, whose detail was
dealt with previously, must be specified by the technical clauses of the contract.

5.4.2. - Tests of the structure

The tests of the structures regulatorily defined in manual 61 title II are obsolete.
It is desirable to refer to the recent Stra guide of March 2004: Footbridges : loading tests of
road bridges and footbridges (appendix 6.11/32). The clauses extracted from this guide, which are
relevant to the structure, must then be made contractual.
If the frames are light, particular attention should be given to the detection of possible upheavals of
supports. Cases of transversely dissymmetrical of load tests are also to be envisaged on footbridges.

5.4.3. - Internal control

Internal control must provide Execution follow-up documents to the project manager and to
external control at the end of each critical point. A delivery date for these follow-up documents is to be
fixed.
A workshop and building site journal is kept, in which atmospheric conditions and particularly assembly
incidents are noted.

5.4.4. - External control

The exercise of external control, carried out on behalf of the building owner and in connection with the
project manager, is not a substitute for internal control or external control specific to the company.
External control examines the follow-up documents of the internal control and spot checking the
operations listed with the PAQ in the critical points and stopping points.
For the stopping points, a time of notice and a deadline for reply are specified in the contract with the
CCAP (Book of General Administrative Clauses).

5.5. - The unit and contract price schedule (CPS)

For the parts of wood structures, the CPS must be written by pointing out the principal characteristics of
the material and the part of the structure.
Below are some examples of the writing of the CPS to adapt according to the cases (the elements to be
modified are in bold). Certain prices can be repeated several times, according to the type of wood selected
for example.

135

The price schedule concerns the major execution contract. External control is thus not evoked since it is
not remunerated within the framework of this contract.
As for the companys internal control, it is specific to the companys PAQ and is generally not paid for
apart from in Civil Engineering: the price of each service thus includes then in this case the remuneration
of the corresponding internal controls.
However, internal control may also be the object, in the price schedule, of a price specific to that fixed
price that pays for supply of a PAQ and the whole of the services that result from this (dimensional
checks, humidity checks etc). This second organization is preferable for wooden structure contracts,
and it makes it possible for example to remunerate special tests described by the technical
clauses of the contract on control elements.
In both cases, the minimum consistency of the PAQ is described in the technical clauses of the contract,
and the CCAP specifies the method of remuneration of the internal control.

5.5.1. - Price of framework

This price pays for supply to site (delivery to the site included, installation excluded) of glued-laminated
wood in spruce of class GL28 of section ranging between 200 x 400 mm and 200 x 900 mm.
The price also remunerates cuttings, preservation treatments defined by the technical clauses of the
contract, the setting of hydrous conditions (average service humidity minus one point), the whole of the
machining operations, the final assemblies put together in the workshop.
The price is paid for in installments: 20% at receipt of wood, 50% at the end of the operations in the
workshop, 30% at delivery. The volume of wood paid for is that obtained after all initial cuttings.

The cubic meter of wood (after cutting and machining):

5.5.2. - Price of boarding

This price pays for supply and putting up of vertical shingles in Douglas purged of sapwood, of a
section 18 X 120 mm, of choice * 2 according to NF EN 1611-1, including all connected constraints
(supply and putting up of lathing and counter-lathing into Douglas purged of sapwood).
*:

the choice represents a classification of appearance (presence of knots, etc). In the case of nonstructural elements, this classification is to be favored because it better ensures aesthetic homogeneity
better.

The square meter of boarding:

5.5.3. - Price of pedestrian flooring

This price pays for the supply and laying of the flooring and tie bars in bilinga purged of sapwood,
thickness 75 mm and mechanical classification D50, including the execution of the grooving filled with
corundum, as well as all cutting constraints.

The square meter of flooring (including spaces between the blades).

5.5.4. - Price of on-site assembly

This price remunerates that fixed for the whole of the operations necessary for the on-site assembly of the
wooden structure defined in price 5.5.1. It includes the assembly studies, the studies and the execution of
temporary structures, the assembly devices, handling and adjustment equipment, propping up, provisional

136

wind-bracing
and
putting
away
of
the
assembling
devices.
All the assembly devices are approved by a control body recognized by the companys insurance company.

The fixed price.

5.5.5. - Steel Price for assemblies

This price pays for the supply and installation of all the metal connection parts :

kg of steel S355 K2G3 (NF EN 10025);

kg of stainless steel X2CrNiMo 17-12-2 (NF EN 10088-1);

kg of austenitic stainless steel A4-70 for screws etc.

5.5.6. - Price of protective coating

This price pays for the supply and the application of protective coating whose characteristics are defined
in the technical clauses of the contract:

the m2 applied in the workshop;

the m2 applied on the building site.

5.5.7. - Price of tests

This price pays for the previous examination of the structure, the assumption and calculation notes, the
development of the testing program , the supply, the carrying out and the setting of the testing loads , in
compliance with the information defined in the technical clauses of the contract:

the fixed price.

5.6. - Follow-up of the structure

A wise building owner maintains his structure. He can ask the company in the contract, the CCAP, to
have taken out a ten-year responsibility assurance.
The coordinator of safety and health protection (SPS) establishes the Bulletin of Later Interventions on
Structures (DIUO) under the responsibility of the building owner who overlooks it directly. This file
gathers all the technical plans and notes likely to facilitate the later intervention on the structure (Law
n93-1418 Art L.235-15, Decree n94-1159 Art R.238-37 to 39).
In the case of a timber bridge the DIUO must envisage:

to clean periodically certain parts of the structure to avoid contact of the wood with wet bodies;

to follow the condition of protective coatings;

to follow the condition of the boarding;

to carry out maintenance , defined from the design stage, which may include painting/protective
coating of the boarding for example.

137

To ensure correct follow-up of the structure, detailed inspections should be carried out regularly,
particularly in the first years. The origins of damage are indeed generally quickly identifiable. There are
Visits similar to IQOA visits every 3 years, and detailed inspections every 6 years.
During a detailed inspection of the structure, the following points are examined with particular care:

check of wood humidity at several points;

statement of slits and cracks;

consistency and humidity of wood in slits;

condition of the finish (if there is one);

general condition wood of structure, of protection;

condition of fixings;

condition of flooring;

presence of stains.

The inspection report ends on the overall condition of the structure and proposes a schedule for the
maintenance operations.
In the event of proven damage, the project manager should recommend if necessary filling of the slits by
suitable resins, or the taking of a sample for analysis of the residual proportion of treatments and to
precisely determine the attackers. This makes it possible to proceed with a suitable treatment.

138

5.7. - Summary: who does what?

This table recapitulates for each stage which interlocutor is concerned. These very diagrammatic
recommendations are purely indicative.

BUILDING OWNER

PROJECT
MANAGER

COMPANY

EXTERNAL CONTROL

Definition of the building

program

Decides the
orientations

Impose in the
contract

Engages its
responsability
in the contract and
with its PAQ

Definition of the classes

of employment, woods,
treatments by part of
structure

On a proposal from the

Project manager, he
decides on the woods
or treatments
authorized and
prohibited

Imposes in the
technical clauses of
the contract

Notes the
requirements in the
plans of execution

The engineering and

design department (BE)
checks the plans

Imposes qualities and

checks

Provided his
references at time of
candidature.

The laboratory possibly

gives an opinion

Certification
of
the
products
Technical references

Provides certifications
at time of bid.

Calculation note (with

assumptions) note on
durability, plans and
procedures, note on the
shrinking of wood

Visa

Provides,
with if necessary
the help of a
specialized
engineering and
design department

PAQ

Controls himself and

accepts

Writes

Definition of the critical

points and the stopping
points

Imposes in technical
clauses of the
contract

Note in PAQ
proposes

Removes stopping
points

Internal control

Receipt of wood
Treatment of wood
Shop fabrication
Trial Assembly
Assembly on site

Final receipt

The engineering and

design department
controls

engineering/design
department and laboratory
give their opinion to the
project manager
engineering/design
department and
Laboratory. control

Examines the documents

of internal follow-up,
spot checking, delivers an
opinion on the removal of
the stopping points.

Table 15: indicative roles of interlocutor

External control generally consists of an engineering and design department specialized in bridges and
wood, and of a laboratory of control. The external control agents act on behalf of the Building Owner
who remunerates them directly.

139

6. - APPENDICES
6.1. - Lexicon
Sapwood

Functional part of the wood which ensures the conduction of the crude sap, corresponding to the
external rings most recently formed

Spraying

Process of treatment by spraying of a product

Autoclave

In-depth treatment of wood in a hermetic enclosure under pressure by saturation of the wood cells by a
chemical preservative.

White-washing

Surface treatment of wood by brush application

Boarding/siding/cladding

Metal or wood protection around an element

Batten

Rectangular sizes ranging between 55mm x 155mm and 65mm x 185mm (e.g batten of 63x175)

Commercially dry wood

Wood whose moisture is lower than 22 %

End wood

End section of a wood element

Perfect wood

Whole of cells of wood entirely lignified.

Green wood

Wood whose moisture is higher than that of the saturation point of fibers

Spray

Saturation of the air in fine water drops

Cambium

Combination of undifferentiated cells, which generate wood or inner bark

CCA

Acronym of Chromium Copper Arsenic: chemical preservation wood treatment product containing
metal salts, based on chromium, copper and arsenic

CCB

Acronym Chromium Copper Boron: chemical preservation wood treatment product containing metal
salts, based on chromium, copper and boron

CCF

Acronym Chromium Copper Fluorine: chemical preservation wood treatment product containing metal
salts based on chromium, copper and fluorine

Ring

Increase in quantity of wood in one year

Lignicolous fungi

Fungi that nourish themselves on wood reserves, contained in sapwood.

Lignivorous fungi

Fungi at the origin of rot which nourish themselves on wood components.

Strip

Rectangular sawing (almost square) with dimensions ranging between 40mm and 120mm

Class of employment

Biological risks of same seriousness corresponding to a field of employment of wood.

Classification of structure

Classification of woods according to their mechanical properties.

Protective hood

Fine metal part of wood protection

Creosote

Preservative product resulting from the distillation of coal

CTBA

Acronym of Technical Center of Wood and Furnishing

Natural durability

Aptitude of a wood to resist attackers naturally.

Heartwood

Perfect wood which underwent a duraminisation.

140

Duraminisation

Mineral and metallic salt deposits in the cells ensuring a natural antiseptic protection of wood

Free water

Water circulating freely inside wood, when the wood moisture exceeds the point of saturation of fibers

Combined water

Water trapped between the cellulose chains, whose variation of quantity is at the origin of the
phenomena of shrinkage and swelling of wood.

Type (of wood)

Ensemble of trees having the same ligneous plan, i.e. of the same anatomical structure

Leafy trees

Tree of the angiosperm family, like the oak, the beech, the majority of the tropical woods

Fungicide

Quality of a substance to kill fungi

Drip groove

Device allowing the concentration and drainage of water

Graying

Gray coloring of wood due to damage to surface lignin of wood by UV.

High temperature (treatment) Treatment consisting of heating wood between 180 and 250C for a few hours in order to improve its
durability.
Wood humidity/ moisture

Ratio of the mass of water contained in wood to dry mass of wood.

Impregnability

Capacity of wood to be penetrated by a liquid (see standard EN 350-2).

Impregnable

Said of an easily impregnable wood, which corresponds to the class of impregnability 1.

Harmful insects

Xylophagous insects or with xylophagous larvae (termites, Capricorn beetles, lyctus, borers)

Insecticide

Quality of a substance to kill insects

Glue-lam

Large-sized beams made from joined and glued boards

Lamellist

Manufacturer of Glue-lam .

Protective coating

Finishing product , transparent, pigmented or not, which limits hygroscopic exchanges and can contain
fungicide and insecticide agents

Lignification

Sealing off the wood cells by lignin, chemical compound exclusive to wood

Batten

Rectangular size ranging between 18mm x 35mm and 40mm x 40mm

Liber

Functional part of the tree, located between the outer bark and the cambium, ensuring the circulation of
the elaborate sap.

Plank

Rectangular section of size ranging between 75mm x 205mm and 105mm x 225mm (e.g. plank of
75x225)

Orthotropism

Property of a material to have different physical and mechanical characteristics in three perpendicular
plans.

Paint

Finishing product, pigmented, which forms a tight film on the surface, not recommended for exterior
wood, except micro-porous paints.

Penetration (requirement)

Minimal penetration depth to obtain to satisfy a class of employment

Penetration (depth)

Depth to which the preservative penetrated

Photosynthesis

Process fed by solar energy allowing the crude sap to transform itself into elaborate sap

Plank

Rectangular sawn section whose ratio of sides is at least 4, and the thickness is higher than 22mm

Saturation point of fibers

Wood moisture in lower part of which the free water was completely evacuated and which marks the

141

beginning of the shrinkage of wood.

Rot

Modification of the chemical composition of wood resulting from the action of fungi and involving an
important loss of the mechanical properties of wood

Chemical preservation

Ensemble of chemical processes aimed at improving resistance of wood to deterioration by biological

agents

Protection

Ensemble of the actions of design and preservation aimed at preserving the wood healthy for a given
employment

Coniferous tree

Trees of the gymnosperm family, containing conifers like fir , spruce, larch, the pines, the Douglas.

Refractory

Said of a type of wood that is little or not at all impregnatable, which corresponds to the classes of
impregnability 2,3 and 4

Retention (requirement)

Minimum quantity of product to be found in a volume defined to satisfy the conditions of the class of
employment considered.

Shrinkage/Swelling

Dimensional variations of wood due to a modification of the hygroscopic conditions of the ambient air
which involves a variation of the quantity of combined water in the wood

Crude sap

Ensemble of water and mineral salts that the tree draws from the ground

Elaborate sap

Sugars obtained after photosynthesis of the crude sap intended for the growth and the breathing of the
tree

Marine borers

Molluscs (like the ship worm) or shellfish (of which the limnoria) which destroy wood

Texture

Relationship between the width of final wood (wood of summer) and the width of the growth ring .

Treated to the core

Familiar expression to define a wood treated in an autoclave

Short immersion

Complete immersion of wood in a vat filled with preservative for at least 3 minutes.

Varnish

Film-forming, transparent finishing product, not for exterior use

Critical value

Minimum concentration of preservative required to be effective in relation to a given class of

employment

142

6.2. - Classification procedure of the authorized substances

Biocides Directive N98/8 of February 16 1998
Completed by Regulation 1896/2000 of 07/09/00
The
notification
dossier of January
2002 contains a
simplified study of
risk to health and
environment

List of substances existing

* on the market
(community inventory)

List of substances to
notify proposed by the
producers
of
substances

Compounds of
CCA, CCB, CCF
and creosote

List of substances to
notify proposed by
member States

List of substances notified

proposed to European
commission, with view to
registration on list of
authorized substances

Notification accepted: The producers submit

a complete evaluation dossier of the
health and environment risks to the
Commission.

March 2004

March 2005

Cf
regulation
1896/2000.
inventory done by the member
States and producers of
substances, accompanied by
an administrative dossier.

The existing substances not

notified should be taken off
market in 2006

Notification rejected:
The substances concerned
are taken off the market in:
2006

The list of existing

substances,
notified is shown
in a regulation
(September 2003

EC
Statute

ACCEPTANCE of dossiers / substances

The substances concerned will be registered on
the list of substances authorized, as Appendix to
the Biocides Directive.
Appendix IA: low-risk substances
Appendix IB: basic substances

143

Authorization
valid to
2015

Rejection of dossiers:
The substances
concerned are taken off
the market in: 2006

6.3. - European and French Regulations:

health, environment and biocides directive
Topic

Text

Key idea

Directive 67/548/the EEC of the 27/06/1967 Provides the list of carcinogenic and mutagenic substances.
MOD. (bringing together of the provisions
relating to classification, the packing and the Any substance appearing in the appendix of this present directive cannot be
labeling of dangerous substances).
prevailed upon to appear in appendix 1A of the biocides directive
(substances authorized for employment)
Directive 76/769/the EEC modified Appendix 1: list of carcinogenic and/or mutagenic substances (*) such as
(appendix 1) relating to the elimination of the (chromium trioxides, arsenic pentoxide, composed of CCA; coal tars, oils of
marketing and the use of dangerous creosote, benzo (a) pyrene (*))
substances
MOD. By directive 94/60/EC for the creosote, distillates of tar and similar, and
preparations with Benzo-a-pyrene or phenols. (restriction of use of PCP,
except for countries on the ocean)
Since January .2003: prohibition of use of arsenic in the treatment of wood as
from June 30, 2004 /risks (except for bridges and engineering structures).
Directive EC n89/677 of the 21/12/1989, The mercury compounds are prohibited for the protection treatments for
MOD. the directive n76/769 relating to the wood. Restrictions of use of compounds of arsenic
elimination of the marketing and the use of
dangerous substances

Treatments of wood and products dangerous

Decree n92-1074 of October 2 1992 Prohibition of marketing (sale, free transfer), of use of wood protection
relating to the marketing, the use and the products containing mercury or arsenic. Except:
elimination of certain dangerous substances
and preparations
ICPE which uses vacuum processes or impregnation of the CCA
Directive 93/67/the EEC establishing the (Evaluation of incomplete risks/ Biocide Directive since does not take the risks
principles of evaluation of the risks to related to the non-professional users and the general public)
humans and the environment of the
substances notified in accordance with
directive 67/548/the EEC
Regulation EC n 793/93 of the 23/03/1993 Enact the parameters to be studied for the potentially toxic products
concerning the evaluation and the control of (evaluation of the risks to health, the environment)
risks from the existing substances
(biocides)
Regulation EC n 1488/94 of the principle of evaluation of the risks to humans and the environment from the
28/06/1994 establishing the principle of existing substances
evaluation of the risks for humans and the
environment from existing substances in
accordance with Regulation EC n 793/93
Decree of the 07/08/1997 of the ministry List prohibited substances (distillates of tar, creosotes, benzene)
for health (MOD. in 98)

144

Directive EEC 98/8 of the 16/02/1998

known as Directive of Biocides (concerning
the marketing of biocide products )

2 letters of warning and

notice were addressed by
the EC to France in
particular, for defect of
transposition in the French
law (14/05/00 and 19/02/01)

Development of positive lists (appendix IA and IB) of allowed products

(according to ERS evaluation of health risks, VTR) over a 10 year period
as from the date of adoption in the Member States. (products of protection of
wood = biocides of group 2, type 8) Currently, a list of 84 active substances
would be authorized until 2006 (see European draft Regulation September
2003)
Appendix 1A: list of the active substances in biocides at low risk
Appendix 1b: list of the basic substances

Regulation EC n 1896-2000 of the

07/09/2000 concerning the 1st phase of the
program aimed at art 16 par. 2 of the
Directive of Biocides

Law n 2001-1 of the

03/01/01 concerning the
enabling of the government
to transpose the Directives
by Order (of which the
Directive of biocides).
up to publication of the community list of the substances put on the
market on May 14 2000, the proof of the presence of an active
substance on the market at this date may be brought by any means.Delay of decree of application so that transposition of the Directive
be effective (following definition of national structures that will evaluate
the dossiers : AFSSE ?

Treatments of wood and products dangerous

Ruling n2001-321 of the 11/04/2001 for

transposition and implementation of certain
provisions of the Community legislation in the
field of the environment (art 5 and 12 of
Regulation EC n 1896-20)

Directive 1999/45/EC (bringing together of

the legislative, administrative and regulation
provisions
of
the
Member
States/classification, packing and labeling of
the dangerous substances

Directive 1999/51/EC of 26/05/1999

Definitions dangerous substances, effects on health or environment

and

Criteria of classification

Denomination of the substances in generic families (compounds of

boron, copper, arsenic, fluorine, chromium)

Prohibition of the use of the PCP because toxic and eco-toxic

(/Decree 94-647 of 27/07/1994 relating to Exemption until 2008 for:

the limitation of the marketing and the use of
the PCP (pentachlorophenol), cadmium and Industrial facilities/ preservation of wood, outside and if covered with varnish.
their compounds

145

Directive EEC n 2001/59 of 06/08/2001

bearing on the 28th adaptation of technical
progress of directive 67/548 of the Council.
Directive 2001/90/EC. of 26/10/1990 Creosote is prohibited as treatment, in the play-grounds, parks, gardens,
relating to appendix 1 of directive 76/769
open-air recreational areas, urban furniture because of the risk related to a
cutaneous contact.

Treatments of wood and products dangerous

Notice of the CSHF of June 13, 2000

Recommendation of limitation of the use of wood treated with CCA

Regulation EC n 1687/2002 of the

25/09/2002 foreseeing additional time to art.
`of regulation n1896/2000 for the notification
of certain active substances intended to be
used in the biocide products , which are
already on the market;
Directive 2003/2/EC of January 6, 2003 on The use of CCA for the treatment of wood has health risks (children and playthe prohibition of the marketing and the use grounds). Prohibition of the use of arsenic in the treatment of wood as from
of some compounds of arsenic
June 30, 2004/risks (completes appendix 1 of Dir. 76/769) by exemption,
CCA may be used for the timber bridges and structures () under certain
conditions including professional and industrial usage and stabilized wood
(point 20 of appendix 1 of dir 76/769 MOD.)
Regulation EC n304/2003 of the 28/01/03
concerning export and import of dangerous
chemicals
Notice of the European Parliament of the To prohibit the marketing of substances classified carcinogenic, mutagenic or
27/03/2003 on the proposal for a Directive toxic for reproduction (CMR). The commission must draw up the list of the
76/7769/the EEC
products in order to complete appendix 1 of Directive 76/769 (items 29,30 and
31).
Notice of the CSHPF (project September Additional restrictions for the use of CCA in France
2003)
European regulation concerning the 2nd Provide the list
phase of the program of the Biocides
Directive
substances on the market at May 14, 2003

Risks and Environment

(project September 2003)

Law n76-663 of July 19, 1976 relating to

facilities classified for environmental
protection
Law n 95-101 of February 2, 1995 known
as the Barnier law relating to the
reinforcement of environmental protection

146

substances to withdraw from market in 2006

notified substances which will be evaluated for registration in

appendix 1 of the directive of biocides (substances authorized by
10 year periods)

6.4. - Principal products used for wood preservation in France, and regulations
1976

1989

1992

1994

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2003

Dir. 89/677 of the

21/12/89
The compounds
of mercury are
prohibited

Mercury

Dir. 89/677 of
21/12/89
Restrictions
use
compounds
arsenic

2005

2006

2006 to 2015

European regulation
Decree
92/1074
Prohibition
mercury

Dir. 76/769
Appendix I
Carcinogenic
substances:
Trioxides
of
chromium,
arsenic
Pentoxide (not for
sale to general public

2004

French regulation
of

the

Directive 2003/2 of the

06/01/2003
Medical CCA = risks.
Prohibition of use as
of the 30/06/2004
(exemptions
for
bridges and O.A.)

Biocides
Directive 98/8 of
the 16/02/1998
(see II.1.3.C)

of
of
of

CCA

Notice of the
Parliament of the
27/03/2003
Prohibition of the
marketing of
carcinogenic or
mutagenic substances
(supplements
appendix I to dir it.
76/769)

Decree
92/1074
Restrictions for
arsenic
(exemptions/C
CA
under
controlled
conditions

EC
Biocides

in project Sept. 2003

Notified
substances:
- Diarsenic
pentaoxyde
- Trioxyde of
chromium plate

File of risks
evaluated by the
Commission
between March
2004 and March
2005
Accepted file:
authorization for
10 years

Notice
of
the
CSHPF
with
request
for
additional
restrictions of use
for
France
(09/2003)

Notice of the
CSHF of the
13/06/2000
Limitation
of
the
use
of
wood treated
with CCA

If not, withdrawal of
the market in 2006

Payment

Biocides
Directive 98/8 of
the 16/02/1998
(see II.1.3.C)

CCB

Regulation
to
dir.

Opinion
of
Parliament
of
27/03/2003

EC

dir.
biocides
the to
the in project Sept. 2003
Notified substance:
boron trioxyde

File of risks
evaluated by the
Commission
between March
2004 and March
2005

Accepted file:
authorization for
10 years
If not, withdrawal of
market in 2006

Opinion
of
Parliament
of
27/03/2003

Directive of
Biocides 98/8 of
the 16/02/1998
(see II.1.3.C)

CCF

Payment

EC

the
dir.
biocides
the to
in project Sept. 2003

Notified substance:
sulfuryl difluoride

File of risks
evaluated by the
Commission
between March
2004 and March
2005

Accepted file:
authorization for
10 years
If not, withdrawal of
the market in 2006

Dir. 76/769
Appendix I
Carcinogenic
substances:
Phenols (dioxanes)

PCP

Creosote

Directive
ofBiocides 98/8
of the 16/02/1998
(see II.1.3.C)

Directive 99/51 of
the 26/05/99 (cf
decree
94/647/limitation
and condition of
use

Opinion
of
Parliament
of
27/03/2003

the Payment
EC
the to
dir.
biocides
in project Sept. 2003

NOT notified
substance PCP and
Boron

Withdra
wal of
the
market
in 2006

Decree 94/647
Prohibition of use of
the PCP (toxicityecotoxicity)
Exemption until 2008
for industrialists of the
preservation of wood,
use in outside with
varnish
Dir. 76/769
Appendix I
Carcinogenic
substances:
Coal tars, creosotes,
benzo (A) pyrene
(dioxanes)

Directive
ofBiocides 98/8
of the 16/02/1998
(see II.1.3.C)

Dir. 2001/90 of the

26/10/2001
Prohibition of use of
wood
in
playgrounds,
parks,
gardens,
urban
furniture/cutaneous
contact)

Opinion
of
Parliament
of
27/03/2003

the Payment
EC
the to
dir.
biocides
in project Sept. 2003

Notified substance:
creosote

File of risks
evaluated by the
Commission
between March
2004 and March
2005

Accepted file:
authorization for
10 years
If not, withdrawal of
the market in 2006

Decree of the 07/08/97

of the ministry for Health
Limitations of use of tar
distillates,
creosotes,
benzene

6.5. Waste classification procedure

Waste classification serves to indicate the waste so that the various partners concerned with the production and
the elimination of waste speak the same language within the European Community. It results in a single list
grouping together dangerous and non-dangerous waste (it comes from Commission decision n
2000/532/EC of May 3 2000 which brought together in a single list the old European catalogue of waste and the
list of dangerous waste.). The classification of waste is not exhaustive but evolutionary.
This chapter thus presents the architecture of the classification, which will guide the building owner in time, with
a view to checking if the wood waste at his disposal was the subject of an evolution in terms of nomenclature
because of their dangerousness.
Decree n 2002-540 of April 18, 2002 integrates this classification in French law. This decree draws up a single
list of dangerous and non-dangerous waste in compliance with the European decision and preserves the
concept of Special Industrial Waste (DIS), registered in addition in the code of the environment. The concept
of DIS is a Franco-French idea and does not appear in the Community list of waste. This concept has the role to
ensure a continuity of the texts. In effect, the code of the environment and certain national texts refer to this,
such as the texts relating to the planning of waste management ( regional plans for special industrial waste
disposal, to the generalized tax on polluting activities (TGAP) etc
DIS is defined in article 2 of the decree as being dangerous waste others that municipal packing waste
mentioned in section 15 01 (packing and packing waste (including municipal packing waste) separately collected and
municipal waste mentioned in chapter 20 of the list.

Structure of the classification of waste

Categories
Of origin
(chapter):
20

Intermediate regrouping
(sections):
111
Headings of waste (of which 404 classed as
dangerous)
(waste code)
839

The coding of waste is organized by

category
of
origin,
intermediate
regrouping of waste and designations of
waste.

There are 20 categories of origin and they are indicated by a 2-digit code. They correspond to the
source of waste by identifying :

148

n A sector of activity
Ex: code 17 Construction and demolition waste
(including rubbish from contaminated sites)

A process which produced waste

Ex: code 03 Waste coming from the transformation of wood,
production of paper, cardboard, pulp and paper,
panels and furniture

The waste produced by the households

Chapters 03; 17
and 20 are the
three categories of
origin in which
treated
waste
wood
may
be
found.

Ex: code 20 municipal Waste (domestic waste

and similar waste coming from businesses ,
industries and the administration), including that
collected separately

o
The sections or categories of waste identified by their nature total 111 and are indicated by a 4digit code .
E.g.: the section 17 02 Wood glass and plastic
Treated wood waste may be grouped together in the three following
sections:

03 02 Waste of wood protection products

17 02 Waste wood, glass or plastic
20 01 Collected separately (except section 15 01)

The
complete
designation of waste. There exist more than 600 designations of waste. Waste is identified by a code
with 6 digits, of which the first two are those of the category of origin and the following two those of the
intermediate regrouping to which the waste considered belongs.

149

Treated wood waste may thus cover the complete denominations below:
03 Waste coming from the transformation of wood, the production of paper, cardboard, paper
pulp, panels and furniture
03 02 Waste of wood protection products
03 02 01 * - non-halogen organic compound wood protection ;
03 02 02 * - organo-chloric compound wood protection ;
03 02 03 * - organo-metallic compound wood protection;
03 02 04 * - inorganic compounds of wood protection.
03 02 05 * - other protection products of wood containing dangerous substances
03 02 99 - protection products of wood not specified elsewhere

17 Construction and demolition waste (including rubbish from contaminated sites)

17 02 Wood, glass or plastic waste

17 02 01 - wood
17 02 04 * - wood, glass, and plastic material containing dangerous substances or contaminated by such
substances
20 Municipal waste (domestic waste and similar waste coming from the businesses, industries
and the administration), including the separately collected parts
20 01 Separately collected parts (except section 15 01)
20 01 37 * - wood containing dangerous substances
20 01 38 - wood other than that under heading 20 01 37

150

6.6. - Dangerous Waste

Components which make waste dangerous
Appendix II of directive 91/689/the EEC

Inorganic compounds

Organic compounds

Beryllium and its compounds

The PCBs (polychlorobiphenyls)

Compounds of vanadium

The PCTs (polychlorotriphenyls)

Compounds of hexavalent chromium (current wood/CCA)

Pharmaceutical or veterinary compounds

Compounds of cobalt

Biocides and Phytopharmaceutical substances

Compounds of nickel

Infectious substances

Compounds of copper (CCA)

The creosotes (old and current wood)

Compounds of zinc

Phenoles isocyanates and compounds

The arsenic and compounds of arsenic (CCA)

Halogenous solvents

Selenium and compounds of selenium

Organic solvents

Compounds of silver

Halogen compounds (except inert polymers)

Cadmium and compounds (Recent wood - before 1994)

Aromatic compounds

Compounds of tin

Polycyclic and heterocyclic organic compounds

Antimony and compounds of antimony

Aliphatic amines

Tellurium and compounds of tellurium

Aromatic amines

Compounds of barium (except barium sulfate )

Ethers

Mrcury and compounds of mercury ( recent wood)

Substances of explosive character

Thallium and compounds of thallium

Organic compounds of sulfur

Lead and compounds of lead (old to recent wood, painted)

The PCDFs (family of polychloride dibenzofuranes) (recent wood/PCP)

Inorganic sulfides

The PCDDs (family of the dibenzo polychloride para-dioxines) ( recent

wood/PCP))

Inorganic fluorine compounds (except calcium fluoride) (CCF)

Hydrocarbons and their oxygenated, nitrogenized and/or sulphurized

compounds not specifically mentioned again in the appendix

Inorganic cyanides
Metals: lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium
Acid solutions or acids in solid form
Basic solutions or bases in solid form
Asbestos (dust and fibers)
phosphorus and its compounds (except mineral phosphates)
Carbonyl metals
Peroxides
Chlorates
Perchlorates
Azides

151

Properties that make waste dangerous

(Extract from Appendix 1 decree 18/04/2002)
These properties are those that were retained for the classification of dangerous waste, and potentially for the classification

of treated wood.

H 3-A Easily inflammable: substances and preparations:

- which, in the solid state, can ignite easily by the short action of an ignition source and which continue to burn or to
be consumed after removal of the ignition source,
or
- which, in contact with water or humid air, produce easily inflammable gases in dangerous quantities.

H 3-B Inflammable: liquid substances and preparations, whose flash point is equal to or higher than 21 C and less than or
equal to 55 C.

H 4 Irritants: non-corrosive substances and preparations that, by immediate, prolonged or repeated contact with the skin
and the mucous membrane, may cause an inflammatory reaction.

H 5 Harmful: substances and preparations which, by inhalation, ingestion or cutaneous penetration, can involve risks of
limited seriousness.
H 6 Poisonous: substances and preparations (including very toxic substances and preparations) which, by inhalation,
ingestion or cutaneous penetration, can result in serious, acute or chronic risks, even death.
H 7 Carcinogenic: substances and preparations which, by inhalation, ingestion or cutaneous penetration, can produce
cancer or increase predisposition to it.

H 8 Corrosive: substances and preparations which, in contact with living tissue, can exert a destructive action on it.
H 9 Infectious: matter containing viable micro-organisms or their toxins, that are known to or with good reason are
believed to be known to cause disease in humans or other living organisms.
H 10 Poison to reproduction : substances and preparations which, by inhalation, ingestion or cutaneous penetration, can
produce or increase the frequency of undesirable non-hereditary effects in offspring or adversely affect reproductive functions.
H 11 Mutagenic : substances and preparations which, by inhalation, ingestion or cutaneous penetration, can produce, or
increase predisposition to, hereditary genetic defects.

H 12 Substances and preparations that, in contact with water, air or acid, emit a toxic or very toxic gas.
H 13 Substances and preparations likely to, after elimination, form, by some means, another substance, for example a
product of leaching, that has one of the characteristics mentioned above.

H 14 Eco-toxic : substances and preparations that present or can present immediate or deferred risks to one or more parts
of the environment.

152

The concentration calculation values and thresholds refer to those fixed by the decree of February 21 1990 (OJ
of March 24, 1990) defining the classification criteria and labeling and packaging conditions of dangerous
preparations (appendix 1)
Article 3 of decree 2002-540 of April 18, 2002 gives the following concentrations for the definition of dangerous
waste:
With regard to the properties H 3 to H 8, H 10 and H 11, considered as dangerous are those wastes showing one or several of the
following characteristics:
- a flash point of 55 C maximum;
- they contain one or more substances classified as very toxic with a minimum total concentration of 0,1 %;
- they contain one or more substances classified as toxic with a minimum total concentration of 3%;
- they contain one or more substances classified as harmful with a minimum total concentration of 25%;
- they contain one or more corrosive substances of class R 35 with a minimum total concentration of 1%;
- they contain one or more corrosive substances of class R 34 with a minimum total concentration of 5%;
- they contain one or more irritating substances of the class R 41 with a minimum total concentration of 10%;
- they contain one or more irritating substances of the classes R 36, R 37, R 38 with a minimum total concentration of 20%;
- they contain a substance recognized as being carcinogenic , of categories 1 or 2, with a minimum concentration of 0,1%;
- they contain a substance recognized as being carcinogenic, of category 3, with a minimum concentration of 1%;
- they contain a substance toxic to reproduction, of categories 1 or 2, of classes R 60, R 61 with a minimum concentration of
0,5%;
- they contain a substance toxic to reproduction, of category 3, of the classes R 62, R 63 with a minimum concentration of
5%;
- they contain a mutagenic substance, categories 1 or 2, class R 46 with a minimum concentration of 0,1%;
- they contain a mutagenic substance of category 3 of class R 40 with a minimum concentration of 1%. ()

153

6.7. - How to fill in an industrial waste follow-up form (BSDI)

The information on the BSDI commits the producer and must thus be filled in by a competent person.
1. Indicate the producers precise details. If the bill-to-address is different, this is to be specified.
2. The code nomenclature is the 6-digit code of decree n 2002-540 of April 18, 2002. (ignore letters C and A
which refers to the old nomenclature code).
3. The part under the RTMD on the follow-up form concerns the identification of waste as dangerous for
transport. Since RTMD is no longer in force, the terms classified matter and group number are obsolete. In
order to be in conformity with the ADR, it is advised:
In the box classified matter, indicate the identification (or UNO number) as well as the exact
designation for transport ( exact wording of the heading n.s.a for example)
In the box group number, indicate the class, the number and letter of the listing followed by initials
ADR.
If waste is not considered as dangerous matter for transport, it is then advised to indicate Not subjected to the
ADR).

154

If there is a shipment of conditioned waste, it is necessary to specify the number and the description of all the
parcels including the identification of the products. An appendix is then often necessary.
4. Designation of waste is the usual name of the waste, as easily listed by its producer.
5. The number of the preliminary certificate of acceptance (CAP) is obligatory. It allows association of the waste
concerned with a disposal path. This certificate is issued by the waste treatment responsible for disposal of it.
6. Indicate the wastes final destination. Specify the final disposal method :
physicochemical treatment.

storage center, incineration,

7. A signature is mandatory. Its absence means non-conformity on arrival. If the case arises, this signature serves
also as a declaration of the producer to the ADR (commitment to respect the regulation on the transport of
dangerous matter).

155

6.8. - Regulation relating to waste

Text

Key idea

Law of n75-633 of July 15, 1975 relating to waste disposal and the
recovery of materials
Decree n77-974 of 19 August 1977 relating to information required
about waste pollution
Decree of January 4 1985 relating to control of polluting waste disposal
systems (complement to the decree n77-794 of August 19, 1977)
Decree of February 21 1990 defining the classification criteria and the
conditions of labeling and packing of the dangerous preparations
Directive n 91/689/ EEC of the council relating to dangerous waste (list
drawn up by Decision 94/904/EC of the Council 22/12/94)

Law blueprint for waste: definitions, environmental risks and waste

management bases.
BSDI
Classification criteria of dangerous waste

The wood waste treated by reagents made up of Copper, Chromium and

Arsenic classified as dangerous waste whose disposal must satisfy the
requirements of this directive.
Does not include impregnated wood coming from construction and demolition
activities.
Directive of May 3, 2000
Establish the waste list procedure
Law n 92-646 of July 13, 1992 relating to waste disposal and to the Installation of departmental plans for household and similar waste disposal
and regional plans for special or toxic) waste see decrees n 96-1008 and
facilities classified for environmental protection
96-1009 of November 18, 1996
Decree of 20 April 1994 relating to the declaration, classification, Criteria of classification of dangerous waste
packing and labeling of substances
Circular DPPR/SRPD n 97-0807 of June 27, 1997 relating to the
regional disposal plans of DIS
Circular of April 28, 1998 relating to waste management , departmental Reinforcement of the objectives of development of matter
plans and reinforcement of the objectives of development of matter
Directive 1999/31/EC of the council of April 26, 1999 on waste Text of reference for operation of storage centers
discharge
Circular of February 15
Decision the EEC n2001/118/EC of the Commission of January 16, Nomenclature and list of dangerous waste
2001, decision n2001/119/EC of the Commission of January 22, 2001, Combines the old European waste catalogue with the European list of
decision n2001/573/EC of the Council of July 23, 2001, modifying the dangerous waste
decision of the Commission 2000/532/EC of May 3, 2000
- Integrates the demolition wood into dangerous waste
- Integrates wood from the communities (with designation
intended for dangerous wood
Decree n2002/540 of April 18 2002 relating to waste classification and Transposition in French law of the European decisions 2000 and 2001
Circular of October 3, 2002 relating to the implementation of the decree n
2002-540 of April 18 2002 relating to the classification of waste
Decree of 20/09/2002 relating to the incineration facilities and those Defines the method of operation of facilities
of co-incineration of dangerous waste
Circular of 03/10/2002 relating to the implementation of the decree n
2002-540 of 18/04/2002 relating to waste classification (not published in
the OJ)

156

6.9 Standard sections

The following table provides dimensions of the principal standard sections .
Type
Beam

E (mm)
100
100
100
100
100
150
180
200
250
300
Plank
75
75
75
Batten
63
63
63
50
Half-batten 32
32
32
Small girder 38
38
38
38
38

L (mm)
100
150
200
250
300
150
180
200
250
300
200
225
250
150
160
175
150
150
160
175
150
160
175
200
225

Type
Rafters

Planks

Small cuts

Batten

157

E (mm)
60
63
75
40
50
25/27
25/27
25/27
25/27
25/27
25/27
40
40
18
12
14
27
27
27
27
18
12

L (mm)
80
75
75
60
75
100
150
160
175
200
225
40
60
108
105
105
60
40
32
27
40
40

6.10 - Bibliographical references

Principal standards
Vocabulary
EN 844

Round wood and sawn timber - Terminology

NF B 50-001

Wood - Nomenclature

NF B 50-002

Wood Vocabulary

NF B 50-003

Wood Vocabulary

NF X 40-001

Protection Terminology

NF X 40-002

Preservation - Vocabulary

Safeguarding of wood
EN 20-1:1992

Wood preservation products - Determination of the protective effectiveness with respect to Lyctus Brunneus (Stephens) Part 1: Application by surface treatment (Laboratory method)

EN 20-2:1993

Wood preservation products - Determination of the protective effectiveness with respect to Lyctus brunneus (Stephens) Part 2: Application by in-depth treatment (Laboratory method)

EN 22:1974

Wood preservation products - Determination of the curative action against the larvae of Hylotrupes bajulus (Linnaeus)
(Laboratory method)

EN 46:1988

Wood preservation products - Determination of the preventive effectiveness against recently-hatched larvae of Hylotrupes
bajulus (Linnaeus) (Laboratory method)

EN 47:1988

Wood preservation products - Determination of the threshold of effectiveness against the larvae of Hylotrupes bajulus
(Linnaeus) (Laboratory method)

EN 48:1988

Wood preservation products - Determination of the curative effectiveness against the larvae of Anobiida punctatum (De
Geer) (Laboratory method)

EN 49-1:1992

Wood preservation products - Determination of the protective effectiveness with respect to Anobiida punctatum (De Geer)
by the observation of the laying and the rate of survival of the larvae - Part 1: Application by surface treatment (Laboratory
method)

EN 49-2:1992

Wood preservation products - Determination of the protective effectiveness with respect to Anobiida punctatum (De Geer)
by the observation of the laying and the rate of survival of the larvae - Part 2: Application by in-depth treatment
(Laboratory method)

EN 73:1988

Wood preservation products - Tests of accelerated ageing of wood treated before biological tests - Test of evaporation

EN 84:1997

Wood preservation products - Tests of accelerated ageing of wood treated before biological tests - Test of watering down

EN 113:1996

Wood preservation products - Testing method to determine the protective effectiveness with respect to fungi
basidiomycetes lignivores - Determination of the threshold of effectiveness

EN 117:1989

Wood preservation products - Determination of the threshold of effectiveness against Reticulitermes santonensis of
Feytaud (Laboratory method)

EN 118:1990

Wood preservation products - Determination of the preventive effectiveness against Rticulitermes santonensis of
Feytaud (Laboratory method)

158

EN 152-1:1988

Testing methods of Wood preservation products - Laboratory method to determine the preventive effectiveness of a
protection treatment of worked wood against fungi blueing - Part 1: Application by brushing

EN 152-2:1988

Testing methods of Wood preservation products - Laboratory method to determine the preventive effectiveness of a
protection treatment for worked wood against fungi blueing - Part 2: Application by methods other than brushing

EN 212:1986

Wood preservation products - Guide for the sampling and the preparation of the wood preservation products treated for
analysis

EN 252:1989

Field test to determine the protective effectiveness of wood preservation products in contact with the ground

EN 273:1992

Wood preservation products - Determination of the curative action against Lyctus Brunneus (Stephens) (Laboratory
method)

EN 275:1992

Wood preservation products - Determination of the protective effectiveness with respect to the marine borer organisms

EN 330:1993

Wood preservation products Field tests to determine the protective effectiveness of wood preservation products for
employment under a coating and out of contact with the ground: method with an L joint

EN 335-1:1992

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Definitions of the classes of biological risk of attack - Part
1: General

EN 335-2:1992

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Definition of the classes of biological risk of attack - Part 2:
Application to solid wood

EN 335-3:1995

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Definition of the classes of biological risk of attack - Part 3:
Application to the panels containing wood

EN 350-1:1994

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - natural Durability of solid wood - Part 1: Guide to principles
of testing and classification of the natural durability of wood

EN 350-2:1994

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - natural Durability of sawn timber - Part 2: Guide to natural
durability of wood and impregnability of wood types chosen for their importance in Europe

EN 351-1:1995

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood solid wood treated with preservative - Part 1: Classification
of the penetration and retention of the preservatives

EN 351-2:1995

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood solid wood treated with preservative - Part 2: Guide to
sampling for the analysis of the wood treated with a preservative

NF B 50-105-3:1998

Wood treated with preservative Part 3: Performances of wood preservation and certificate of treatment Adaptation to Metropolitan France

EN 370:1993

Wood preservatives - Determination of the curative effectiveness against the emergence of Anobiida punctatum (De
Geer)

EN 460:1994

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - natural Durability of solid wood - Guide to durability
requirements for its use according to classes of risk

EN 599-1:1996

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Performances of wood preservation products established by
biological tests - Part 1: Specifications by class of employment

EN 599-2:1995

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Performances of wood preservation products established by
biological tests - Part 2: Classification and labeling

EN 1014-1:1995

Wood preservation products - Creosote and creosoted wood - Sampling procedures and of analysis - Part 1: Procedure of
sampling of the creosote

EN 1014-2:1995

Wood preservation products - Creosote and creosoted wood - Sampling and analysis procedures - Part 2: Procedure to
obtain a creosote sample from creosoted wood for later analysis

EN 1014-3:1997

Wood preservation products - Creosote and creosoted wood - Sampling and analysis procedures - Part 3: Determination
of the content of benzo (a) pyrene in the creosote

159

EN 1014-4:1995

Wood preservation products - Creosote and creosoted wood - Sampling and analysis procedures - Part 4: Determination
of the phenol content extractable by water from the creosote

EN 12490:1998

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood solid wood treated with preservative - Determination of the
penetration and retention of creosotes in treated wood

ENV 807:2001

Wood preservation products - Determination of the effectiveness with respect to the micro-organisms of soft rot and other
micro-organisms in the ground

ENV 839:1993

Wood preservation products - Determination of the preventive effectiveness with respect to the fungi lignivores
basidiomycetes

ENV 1250-1:1994

Wood preservation products - Measuring the losses of active matter and other components of preservative from treated
wood - Part 1: Laboratory method to obtain samples for analysis to measure the losses by evaporation to the air

ENV 1250-2:1994

Wood preservation products - Measuring the losses of active matter and other components of the preservative from
treated wood - Part 2: Laboratory method to obtain samples for analysis to measure the losses after washing out with
water or synthetic sea water

ENV 1390:1994

Wood preservation products - Determination of the curative action against the larvae of Hylotrupes bajulus (Linnaeus) Laboratory method

ENV 12037:1996

Wood preservation products Field tests to determine the protective effectiveness of a wood preservative not in contact
with the ground - Method with a superposed joint assembly

ENV 12038:1996

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Panels containing wood - Testing method to determine resistance to
the fungi basidiomycetes lignivores

ENV 12404:1997

Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Evaluation of the effectiveness of a fungicide of masonry to prevent
the development in the wood of the Serpula lacrymans merule (Schumacher ex Fries) S.F. Gray - Laboratory method

HD 1001:1984

General document of introduction to the European testing methods (or CEN) of wood preservatives.

Classification
EN 338

Structural wood Strength classes

EN 518

Structural wood-Classification-Requirements for visual strength classification standards

EN 519

Structural wood Classification Specifications for wood classified by machine for its strength , and the machines to be
classified

EN 844

Round wood and sawn wood Terminology

EN 975

Sawn wood Classification of appearance of leafy woods

EN 1194

Timber structures Glue-lam wood Strength class and determination of characteristic values

EN 1310

Round wood and sawn wood Method of measurement of the singularities

EN 1315

Dimensional classification leafy and coniferous round woods

EN 1316

Coniferous round wood qualitative Classification

EN 1611-1

Sawn wood Classification of appearance of coniferous woods

160

EN 1912

Timber structures Strength classification Allocation of the visual and wood type classifications

EN 1927

Coniferous round wood qualitative Classification

NF B 52-001

Regulations for use of wood in the construction industries visual Classification for employment in structures of the
principal coniferous and leafy woods

NF B 53-520

Wood Sawing of coniferous timber Classification of appearance Definition of the choices

NF P 21 - 400

Structural wood and products based on wood Strength class and acceptable associated stresses

Manufacture and tolerances

EN 336

Coniferous and poplar structural woods Dimensions, acceptable variations

EN 385

Abutments with multiple splices in the construction timber Performance recommendations and minimum manufacturing
recommendations

EN 386

Glue-lam wood - Performance recommendations and minimum manufacturing recommendations

EN 387

Glue-lam wood large-sized abutments Performance requirements and minimum manufacturing recommendations

EN 390

Glue-lam wood Dimensions, acceptable variations

EN 1313

Round wood and sawn wood acceptable Variations and preferential dimensions

PR EN 14080

Timber structure Glue-lam timber - Requirements

ISO 8903

Sawing of leafy woods - nominal Dimensions

Joints
EN 383

Timber structures Testing methods Determination of the strength value of the seals and the fitting of the pin type
fasteners.

EN 409

Timber structures Determination of the breaking moment of stem- type point fasteners

EN 912

Fasteners Specifications of the connectors for timber structures

EN 1075

Timber structures Testing methods Assemblies by metal connectors

EN 1380

Timber structures Testing methods Loading of nailed joints

EN 1381

Timber structures Testing methods Loading of stapled joints

EN 1382

Timber structures Testing methods Tear tests of the timber joints

EN 1383

Timber structures Testing methods Performance tests of timber joints

161

EN 12512

Timber structures Testing methods Cyclic tests of metal joints

EN 13271

Wood fasteners Characteristic values of strength and sliding modulus of mechanical wood fasteners

EN 26891

Timber structures Joints produced with mechanical fixing elements

deformation and strength characteristics

EN 28970

Timber structures Tests of joints produced with mechanical fixing elements Requirements for density of wood

general principles for determination of

Adhesives
EN 204

Classification of glues for non-structural use for the joining of wood and derived materials

EN 301

Adhesives of phenolic and aminoplast, nature for wooden load- bearing structures Classification and requirements of
retention

EN 302

Adhesives for load- bearing wood structures: testing methods

EN 391

Glue-lam wood de-lamination test on glued joint

EN 392

Glue-lam wood Shear test on glued joints

EN 923

Adhesives - Terms and definitions

NF T 76-011

Adhesives: Classification of the principal adhesives

ISO 6237

Adhesives: Glued joints, wood on wood: determination of shear strength by tensile force

ISO 6238

Adhesives: glued joints, wood on wood: measurement of shear strength by compressive force

Tests and measurements

EN 380

Timber structures Testing methods general principles for static load tests

EN 408

Timber structures solid wood and Glue-lam wood Determination of certain physical and mechanical properties

EN 1193

Timber structures solid wood and Glue-lam wood Measurement of shear strength and mechanical properties
perpendicular to fibers

EN 3130

Wood Determination of the moisture content for the physical and mechanical tests

EN 3131

Wood Determination of the density for the physical and mechanical tests

EN 384

Timber structure Determination of the characteristic values of the mechanical properties and density

NFB51-001 with 032

Various standards on wood tests

ISO 3346

Wood Determination of tensile breaking stress perpendicular to grain

162

ISO 3347

Wood - Determination of the shear breaking stress in shearing parallel to the wire

ISO 3350

Wood - Determination of static hardness

Pr EN14358

Structural wood: calculation of the characteristic value corresponding to the fractile at 5%

Pr EN 14251

Round structural wood : testing methods

EN 1309

Round wood and sawn wood: method of measurement of dimensions

EN 1310

Round wood and sawn wood: method of measurement of the singularities

EN 1311

Round wood and sawn wood: method of measurement of biological deterioration

EN 13183

Round wood and sawn wood Method of measurement of humidity

Surface coatings
T 72-086

Wood protection products protective coatings Natural climatic aging tests

NF T34-202

Paint and varnish - Painting system for the protection of wood surfaces :protective coatings

EN 927

Paint and varnish Paint product and system for exterior wood

Panels
EN 300

Panels with oriented strips (OSB)

EN 314

Plywood quality of gluing

EN 636

Plywood Specifications: use in dry, wet or external environment

EN 789

Timber structures Tests of panels derived from wood for determination of the mechanical
properties for their use in structures

EN 635

Plywood Classification according to appearance of the faces

EN 315

Plywood Tolerances on dimensions

EN 309

Particle board Definition and classification

EN 1058

Panels derived from wood Determination of characteristic values of mechanical properties

and density

EN 313

Plywood Classification and terminology

163

EN 12369

Wood-based panels characteristic values for established products

EN 316

Wood-fiber panels Definitions, classification and symbols

EN 324

Wood-based panels Determination of panel dimensions

DTU
DTU 31.1
NF P 21-203
DTU 31.3
NF P 21-205
DTU 41.2
NF P 65-210
DTU 59.1
NF P 74-201-1

Timber frames and staircases

Wooden frames joined metal connectors or gussets

External wood cladding

Painting Paint work on buildings

Waste regulations

decree 2002-540 of April 18 2002 relating to the classification of waste;

decree 97-517 of May 15 1997 relating to the classification of dangerous waste;

decision of European Commission 2000/532/EC of May 3, 2000 modified.

164

6.11 - Guides and other technical documents

1. Ulrich A. Meierhofer. Timber bridges in Exchange Europe, yesterday, today, tomorrow. Paper
presented at the National conference on wood transportation structures, Madison, the USA, October 1996,
5p.
2. Sheila Rimal Duwadi & Michael A. Ritter. Timber bridges
http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/winter97/p97wi32.htm. 1997, 11p.

in

the

United

States.

3. Graeme P Walter. Timber Bridges in Australia. Paper presented at the National conference on wood
transportation structures, Madison, the USA, October 1996, 4p.
4. Vocabulaire du bois (Vocabulary of wood), Standard NF B 50-002, August 1961.
5. STEP 2 Timber Engineering , The Netherlands, 1995, E17
6. STEP 1 Structures en bois aux tats limites : introduction leurocode 5 (Timber structures at the limit
states: introduction to Eurocode 5 , Eyrolles, 1996, III-1.
7. Calvi D. Les ponts en bois (Timber bridges), JCBE 1998 p117-159, Epinal.
8. Dirol D & Deglise X. Durabilit des bois (Durability of wood), Herms sciences Ltd Europe, Paris,
2001,415p.
9. Rayzal Mr. Guide de la preservation du bois (Guide to wood preservation), CTBA, Paris, 1998, 165p.
10. Kropf FW. Durability and detail design-the result of 15 years of systematic improvements. Paper
presented at the National conference on wood transportation structures, Madison, the USA, October 1996,
7p.
11. Gtz, Hoor, Mhler, Natterer. Construire en bois (Building with wood), presses polytechniques et
universities romandes, 1987, 283p.
12. Natterer, Herzog, Volz. Construire en bois 2 (Building with wood 2) presses polytechniques et
universities romandes, 1991, 338p.
13. CTBA. Finitions des ouvrages en bois dans le btiment (Finishing wood structures in the building) ,
1994,121p.
14. CTBA: Lessentiel sur le bois, (The essential wood) 1998, 184p. (fort franaise et mondiale, props
mcas, finitions,)
15. Sandoz JL, Natterer J. Construire en bois : notions de base (Building with wood : basic concepts),
cours EPFL, 1997, 150p.
16. ATIBT Association technique internationale des bois tropicaux Atlas des bois tropicaux (Tropical
wood atlas)
17. Centre technique forestier tropical Prsentation graphique des caractres technologiques des principaux
bois tropicaux (Pictorial display of the technological characteristics of the principal tropical woods),
11 volumes.
18. CIRAD bois des DOMTOM (DOM TOM woods)

165

19. CTBA Le bois trait haute temperature : bilan technico-conomique, perspectives de dveloppement
(Wood treated at high temperature: technico-economic assessment, perspectives of development) ,
1999, 64p.
20. Programme des Nations Unies pour lenvironnement Aspects environnementaux de la prservation
industrielle du bois (Environmental aspects of the industrial preservation of wood, report n20, 1994,
179p.
21. Alon D, Chanrion P, Ngri G, Perez J, Snieg O. Schage du bois guide pratique ( Practical guide to
wood drying), CTBA, 1990, 103p.
22. CTBA. Le traitement curatif des bois dans la constructioin (Curative treatment of wood in the
construction industry, editions Eyrolles , 1996,140p.
23. Informationsdienst Holz Brcken- Planung, Konstruction, Berechnung, holzbau handbuch Reihe 1
Teil 9 Folge 1, 2000, 44p.
24. Informationsdienst Holz, Details fr Holzbrcken, holzbau handbuch Reihe 1 Teil 9 Folge 2, 2001,32p.
25. CTBA, Les assemblages dans la construction en bois ( Joints in timber construction), 2001, 129p.
26. B. Marrey Les ponts modernes (Modern bridges). Picard Editeur

Stra guides.
27. Guide pour la commande et le pilotage des etudes douvrages dart Stra novembre 1997.
(Guide for the ordering and control of engineering structures), Stra November 1997.
Reference F 9761 - 15 ;
28. Guide pour une demarche dAssurance Qualit. Etudes de conception et dexcution douvrages
de Gnie Civil Stra SNCF dcembre Rfrence : F9775 25 (Guide to setting up
Quality Assurance. Studies of execution and design of Civil Engineering structures), Stra
SNCF, December. Reference F 9775 25 ;
29. Guide du projeteur douvrages dart Ponts courants Stra janvier 1999 Rfrence : F 9850 Prix
de vente : 45 ( Project managers guide to engineering structures Standard bridges
30. The Technical Bulletin n 8 of Stra on the building of metal bridges gives useful information on building
a timber bridge. (No longer available in the original edition, it is still available upon request to the CTOA
of Stra).
31. Ponts mtalliques et mixtes _ Rsistance la fatigue Guide de conception et de justification
(Fatigue strength of metal and composite bridges Design and justification guide, Stra Guide Cticm
SNCF

May
1996.
Reference F 9611 - 25 ;
32. Epreuves de chargement des ponts routes et passerelles _ Guide technique Stra (Load tests of
highway
bridges
and
footbridges,
Guide
Stra

March
2004
Reference 0404 - 14 ;
33. Passerelles pitonnes _ Evaluation du comportement vibratoire sous laction des pitons Guide
mthodologique (Evaluation of vibratory behavior of footbridges under force of pedestrians,
Guides Stra - Afgc March 2006. Reference 0611 - 20 ;

166

6.12. - Tables of the figures and tables

Figure 1: Egyptian ships ...................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2: bridge made of boats ............................................................................................................. 10
Figure 3: Caesars bridge over the Rhine according to the reconstruction by Andrea Palladio ........................ 10
Figure 4: outside cantilevering abutment according to a drawing of Viollet-le-Duc ...................................... 11
Figure 5: collapse of the bridge at Petit-Chtelet in Paris during the winter of 1407...................................... 11
Figure 6: project for the "Pont des Arts" in Paris drawn according to the ideas of Andrea Palladio. Note the
masonry piers, on timber pile foundations ...................................................................................... 12
Figure 7: Pont-Rouge in Paris ............................................................................................................. 12
Figure 8: partial elevation of the Tournus bridge .................................................................................... 13
Figure 9: press article .......................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 10: Schaffhouse bridge (Switzerland) .......................................................................................... 17
Figure 11: definition of sawing on slabs and quarters ............................................................................... 24
Figure 12: detail of a butt joint ( vertical finger joint ).............................................................................. 25
Figure 13: effect of a diagonal grain orientation or of a shake.................................................................... 25
Figure 14: role of the trunk in the transmission of stresses applied to the tree............................................. 29
Figure 15: natural reference mark LRT identifiable on block (CNDB)........................................................ 30
Figure 16: transverse section (plan RT) of a trunk of oak (CNDB)............................................................. 31
Figure 17: photosynthesis and circulation of the saps............................................................................... 32
Figure 18: on the left, drawing of the ligneous plan of a coniferous tree; on the right microphotography of a
coniferous tree (X 50) .................................................................................................................. 33
Figure 19: details of a ligneous plan of a coniferous tree ......................................................................... 33
Figure 20: on the left a drawing of the ligneous plan of leafy trees and on the right microphotography of the oak
................................................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 21: various modes of rupture in compression. ............................................................................... 35
Figure 22: various modes of rupture in tension. ...................................................................................... 35
Figure 23: various modes of rupture under bending of a wood sample free from singularities. ....................... 36
Figure 24: model of the layers of the cellular wall of the tracheids.............................................................. 36
Figure 25: stages of drying ................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 26: hygroscopic balance of wood in outside.................................................................................. 39
Figure 27: solutions allowing the free shrinkage of wood.......................................................................... 41
Figure 28: shrinkage of wood ............................................................................................................... 41
Figure 29: deformations from drying ..................................................................................................... 43
Figure 30: deformations due to shrinkage or swelling............................................................................... 43
Figure 31: carbonization of wood ......................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3232: various sections of wood ................................................................................................... 47
Figure 33: typical laws of behavior of wood............................................................................................ 48
Figure 34: example of distribution of compressive strength of wood......................................................... 50
Figure 35: stages of the choice of preservation........................................................................................ 59
Figure 36: detail of the connection between the arcs and the suspending rods ............................................. 82
Figure 37: bridge at Innenferrera........................................................................................................... 85
Figure 38: longitudinal section of the bridge of Vihantasalmi .................................................................... 87
Figure 39: transverse section of the bridge over the river Dore.................................................................. 89
Figure 40: bridge at Merle - longitudinal Section...................................................................................... 89
Figure 41: bridge at Merle - transverse Section ........................................................................................ 90
Figure 42: bridge at Merle section of a strut frame ............................................................................... 91
Figure 43: bridge at Merle - detail of assembly ........................................................................................ 91
Figure 44: detail of the open boarding ................................................................................................... 97
Figure 45: Possible examples of causes of damage ................................................................................ 103
Figure 46: angle to envisage to protect the beam ................................................................................... 106
Figure 47: vertical boarding with covering ............................................................................................ 107
Figures 48: bad, good and very good lathing for a vertical boarding ........................................................ 108
Figure 49: various boarding arrangements ............................................................................................ 108
167

Figure 50: handrail ............................................................................................................................ 111

Figure 51: protected assemblies .......................................................................................................... 112
Figure 52: longitudinal connection of the handrail ................................................................................. 113
Figure 53: mortise and tenon joints ..................................................................................................... 113
Figure 54: slit-and-tongue joints.......................................................................................................... 113
Figure 55: some examples of metal joint parts....................................................................................... 114
Figure 56: gusset joint connection and spike nails.................................................................................. 114
Figure 57: bolted assembly ................................................................................................................. 114
Figure 58: rigidity of the joints............................................................................................................ 115
Figure 59: ventilation in joints ............................................................................................................ 116
Figure 60: joint with concrete support ................................................................................................. 118
Figure 61: bad joint design (solution a) and good joint design (solution b) ............................................... 119
Figure 62: Grooved wood for flooring................................................................................................. 120
Figure 63: detail of sealing of roadway ................................................................................................ 121

168

6.13. - Table of the photographs

Photograph 1: Erection of the railway-station bridge at Vaires-sur-Marne. .................................................... 8
Photographs 2: Tournon bridge of 1847 ................................................................................................ 15
Photograph 3: bridge on the Marne....................................................................................................... 15
Photograph 4: bridge of Montmerle (Ain) .............................................................................................. 16
Photographs 5: bridge of the chapel of Lucerne and bridge in the area of Davos, probably built in the 18th
century ...................................................................................................................................... 17
Photograph 6: Keystone-Wye bridge in South-Dakota. ........................................................................... 18
Photograph 7: Cocteau footbridge built in Nimes.................................................................................... 18
Photograph 8: Thalkirchen bridge in Munich (Germany)......................................................................... 19
Photograph 9: bridge over the river Dore (Puy de Dme) ........................................................................ 19
Photograph 10: Pinot footbridge in Blagnac (Haute-Garonne) .................................................................. 20
Photograph 11: sawing on slab off-cut................................................................................................... 24
Photograph 12: beam in Glue-lam spruce .............................................................................................. 25
Photograph 13: Judo Institute (Paris)..................................................................................................... 26
Photograph 14: Pinot footbridge .......................................................................................................... 26
Photograph 15: LVL ........................................................................................................................... 27
Photograph 16: LSL............................................................................................................................ 27
Photograph 17: PSL............................................................................................................................ 27
Photograph 18: OSB........................................................................................................................... 28
Photograph 19: plywood ..................................................................................................................... 28
Photographs 20: span of end of bridge at Isar in Munich......................................................................... 45
Photographs 21: various forms of knot.................................................................................................. 52
Photograph 22: cubic example of rot..................................................................................................... 55
Photograph 23: adult Capricorn (scale x4 approximately) ......................................................................... 55
Photograph 24: damage due to the Capricorn ......................................................................................... 55
Photograph 25: damage due to termites ................................................................................................. 56
Photograph 26: greyish aspect of timber left outside................................................................................ 57
Photograph 27: example of timber concrete connector .......................................................................... 80
Photograph 28: Pinot footbridge .......................................................................................................... 81
Photograph 29: general views of the bridge between Strada and San Nicla.................................................. 82
Photograph 30: sight from the roadway ................................................................................................. 83
Photograph 31: boarding of the arch and the spacers............................................................................... 83
Photograph 32: bridge at Innenferrera: 60 m of length, 3,50 m of road width.............................................. 84
Photograph 33: bridge at Vihantasalmi .................................................................................................. 86
Photograph 34: bridge over the river Dore (interior view) ........................................................................ 87
Photograph 35: bridge over the river Dore (exterior view)........................................................................ 88
Photograph 36: bridge at Merle - general view ........................................................................................ 90
Photograph 37 a: bridge at Crest........................................................................................................... 91
Photograph 38: footbridge over the river Doubs - general view................................................................. 92
Photograph 39 footbridge over the river Doubs - view of lower part ......................................................... 93
Photograph 40: composite timber-steel bridge at Sur-En (Switzerland)....................................................... 93
Photograph 41: footbridge and railway station at Vaires-sur-Marne............................................................ 94
Photograph 42: footbridge at Ajoux ...................................................................................................... 95
Photograph 43: footbridge at Saint-Jorioz ............................................................................................. 95
Photograph 44: footbridge in Grigny..................................................................................................... 96
Photograph 45: detail of flooring with edge and open boarding................................................................ 96
Photograph 46: footbridge at Danjoutin ............................................................................................... 99
Photograph 47: footbridge at Wald ....................................................................................................... 99
Photograph 48: connection beam apron and roadway of access .............................................................. 100
Photograph 49: connection beam apron .............................................................................................. 101
Photograph 50: Wood on wood assembly to avoid ............................................................................... 101
Photograph 51: handrail badly fixed .................................................................................................... 102
169

Photograph 52: fungus attack on the handrail ...................................................................................... 102

Photograph 53: degradation of protective coating and wood................................................................... 102
Photograph 54: poured side beams ..................................................................................................... 103
Photograph 55: accumulation of soil in contact with wood ..................................................................... 104
Photograph 56: increase in vegetation.................................................................................................. 104
Photograph 57: example of the covered bridge crossing the Bouzanne river near Argenton sur Creuse: It was
built in 1849.............................................................................................................................. 106
Photograph 58: beams under roadway protected from the bad weather .................................................... 106
Photograph 59: ventilated horizontal boarding...................................................................................... 107
Photograph 60: Protective hoods on the bridge at Thalkirchen ............................................................... 109
Photographs 61 a and b: Europe-Bridge at Saint-Georgen..................................................................... 109
Photographs 62 a and b: details of the bridge at Merle ........................................................................... 110
Photograph 63: protected end wood ................................................................................................... 110
Photograph 64: example of fixing of handrail ....................................................................................... 112
Photographs 65: ventilation of wood on all faces .................................................................................. 117
Photograph 66: minimization of surfaces of contact .............................................................................. 117
Photographs 67: two good examples of bottom of ventilated posts......................................................... 119
Photographs 68: various types of siding .............................................................................................. 120
Photograph 69: metal section delimiting the bituminous zone................................................................. 121

170

Rights concerning photographs and illustrations:

Board 1: project of Wiebeking preserved by Victor Schmitt

Photograph 1, Photograph 41: Bernard REY (the SNCF Engineering).
Figures 1 and 3: Gerard HOMANN (Stra Starting from the software Operated)
Photographs 2, Figure 39: Domenica CALVI
Photograph 3: Joel RAOUL (Stra)
Photograph 4: CETE of Lyon
Photographs 5, Photograph 13, Photograph 20, Photograph 29 straight lines, Photograph 60, Photographs 61,
Figure 34: Jacques BERTHELLEMY (Stra)
Photograph 6: Prof GUTKOWSKI (Colorado State University)
Photograph 7: Truong Trong CANH (consulting engineer)
Photograph 8, Photograph 26, Photograph 29 left, Photograph 30 in Photograph 32, Photograph 38 in
Photograph 40, Photograph 46 in Photograph 59,
Photograph 63 in Photograph 69: Vincent BARBIER, (CETE of the East - LRPC Nancy)
Photograph 9, Photograph 34, Photograph 35: BRUMAIRE
Photograph 10, Photograph 14, Photograph 28: local Agency of the French Road Directorate of the HauteGaronne
Photograph 11, Photographs 15 to 19, Figures 15 to 17, Figure 31, Photographs 21 to 24, Photo 37, Photograph
42: CNDB
Photograph 12: Robert LEROY (LCPC)
Photograph 25, Figure 26, Figure 58: CTBA
Photograph 27: Bernard Le TALLEC (ISBA)
Photograph 33, Figure 38: Timo RANTAKOKKO
Photograph 36, photographs 62 has and b: Jean-Louis MICHOTEY
Photograph 43: local Agency of the French Road Directorate of High Savoy
Photograph 44, Photograph 45, Figure 44: Jerome LAPLANE
Cartoons of Pierre ARNAUD (CETE the Mediterranean) and Jacques BERTHELLEMY (Stra)
Drawings formatted with the assistance of Guillaume PERRIN (Stra CTOA)

171

6.14. - Useful Addresses other than Stra

Centre de coopration internationale en recherch agronomique pour le
dveloppement
CIRAD Fort, dpartement Bois
TA 10/16, avenue Agropolis
34398 MONTPELLIER Cedex 5
Tel : +33(0)4 67 61 65 25 Fax : +33(0)4 67 61 65 60
Internet site: www.cirad.fr

PEFC - France:
6, Avenue de Saint Mand
75012 PARIS
Tel./Fax: +33(0)1.43.46.57.15

Rseau Scientifique et Technique de lEquipement

Centre dEtudes Technique de lEquipement de lEst
Laboratoire des Ponts et Chausses de Nancy
71, avenue de la grande Haie
54510 TOMBLAINE
Tel.: +33(0)3 83 18 41 41 Fax: +33(0)3 83 18 41 00
Mel.: D6.CETE.Est@Equipement.gouv.fr
Centre National pour le Dveloppement du Bois
6, avenue de Saint Mand 75012 PARIS
Tel.: +33(0)1 53 17 19 60
Internet site: www.bois-construction.org
Centre Technique du Bois et de lAmeublement
6, avenue de Saint Mand
75012 PARIS
Tel.: +33(0)1 40 19 49 19 Fax: +33(0)1 44 74 65 24
Internet site: www.ctba.fr

Syndicat National des Constructeurs de Charpentes en Bois Lamell

Coll (SNCCBLC)
6, avenue de Saint Mand 75012 PARIS
Tel.: +33(0)1 43 45 53 43 Faxes: +33(0)1 43 45 52 42
Mel.:snccblc@magic.fr Internet site: www.glulam.org

cole Nationale Suprieure des Technologies

et Industries du Bois
27, rue du Merle Blanc, BP 1041, 88051 PINAL cedex 9
Tel. : +33(0)3 29 29 61 00 Fax : +33(0)3 29 29 61 38
Mel. : enstib@enstib.uhp-nancy.fr

172

With the environmental concerns, the bridges owners rediscover

timber construction and its cordial aspect.
In addition, the timber bridges are light and easy to erect: they thus
have a strong potential of development, in particular for pedestrian
bridges.
However, the durability of these structures is mainly based on the
choice of the right initial drawings who protect the wood. It is also
based on the quality of maintenance. Moreover, in the event of
demolition of a bridge whose wood were treated with chemical
preservatives, the bridge owners are responsible for the produced
wastes.
After the history of timber bridges, the guide published by Stra :
recalls the essential concepts on the anatomy and the
mechanical and physical properties of this material;
presents the wood attackers and the methods used to preserve
wood, underlining the disadvantages of certain chemical
methods;
exposes the principal engineering drawings to ensure the
protection of timber structures;
provides recommendations to the project managers to
formalize a good choice of wood, to choose the treatments of
preservation and the engineering drawings.

This document is awailable and can be downloaded on Stra website:

http://www.setra.equipement.gouv.fr
Haute Garonne
Cover - Photographers: Jacques Berthellemy (Stra); Brumaire; D DE de 173
The Stra authorization is required for reproduction of this document (all or even part)
2007 Stra - Reference: 0743A - ISRN: EQ-SETRA--07-ED40--FR+ENG

The Stra belongs

to the scientific and
technical network
of the French Public
Work Ministry (RST)