ICS 91.010.30; 91.080.01 SABS 0160-1989 ISBN 0-626-09815-7 (As amended 1990, 1991 and 1993) SOUTH AFRICAN STANDARD Code of practice for The general procedures and loadings to be adopted in the design of buildings Reprint 1994 First Revision Published by ‘THE COUNCIL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN BUREAU OF STANDARDS Gr 1 8ICS 91,010.30; 91.080.01 SABS 0160-1989 (As amended 1990, 1991 and 1993) SOUTH AFRICAN BUREAU OF STANDARDS: CODE OF PRACTICE | for | THE GENERAL PROCEDURES AND LOADINGS TO BE ADOPTED IN THE DESIGN OF BUILDINGS Obtainabie from the South African Bureau of Standards. Private Bag X191 Pretoria Republic of South Africa 001 Telephone: (012) 428.7911 | Fax + (012) 344-1568 | E-mail sales@sabs.co.za Website : http:yiwww.sabs.co.za ‘COPYRIGHT RESERVED Printed in the Republic of South Aftica by the South African Bureau of StandardsSABS 0160-1989 2 (As amended 1991 and 1993) NOTICE This code of practice was approved by the Counei! of the South African Bureau of Standards on 7 November 1989. In terms of the regulations promulgated under the Standards Act, 1982 (Act 30 of 1982), itis a punishable offence for any person to falsely claim compliance with the provisions of a code of practice published by the South African Bureau of Standards, ‘Authorities who wish to incorporate any part ofthis code of practice into any legislation in the manner intended by section 33 of the Act should consult the South African Bureau of Standards regarding the implications, This code will be revised when necessary in order to keep abreast of progress. Comment will be welcomed and will be considered when the code is revised. First Revision Noverber 1989 Incorporating Amendment No. 4: 15 May 1990 Reprint incorporating Amendment No. 2: 15 November 1991 No, 3: 18 October 1993 This code of practice supersedes SABS 0160-1980 ISBN 0-626-09815-7SABS 0160-1989 Amendments issued since publication Text affected Date ‘Amdt No.COMMITTEE, SECTION 1. SECTION 2. SECTION 3. a4 aes bul Levees SECTION PA B BA aban Bh & RE RERS Be SECTION 5. 52 524 522 53 54 544 542 543 544 545 55 554 55.2 553 3 ‘SABS 0160-1989 (As amended 1990 and 1993) CONTENTS SCOPE DEFINITIONS GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS . Design Requirements 2... .....6.000eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 10 General .. Design procedure | Deformations under service loads Vibration... GENERAL GUIDANCE ON LIMIT-STATES DESIGNLOADS .......... 17 General... Limitstates Criterion of Failure Limit-states Approach ........- Uniform Load Factors and Load Combinations General eves nee eeeeeee Limit-states design toads | Design Codes for Individual Materials General sees eeeeee esses Assessment of parial material factors for maierial codes | LOADS .. General Load Factors and Load Combinations... Limit-states design methods Working stress design methods Nominal Permanent Loads G, Nominal imposed Loads Q, Nomina imposed floor loads n bulkings containing occupancies other than industrial and storage occupancies Nominal imposed floor loads in buildings containing Storage industrial occupancies Load reduction ..... Nominal imposed roof ioads Forces on walls, balustrades and glazing’. Wind Loads W, Determination of nominal wind loads Nominal wind speed V..........-- Nominal wind pressures and forces... 288 € sese BR Amdt 3, ct, 1993 Amat 3, (Get. 1983SABS 0160-1989 Blankbas Rea OSS 5 SABS 0160-1989 (As amended 1990) CONTENTS (continued) Page Pressure and force coefficients ...........+ 45 Dynamic effects -.......... i 2 64 Simplified wind load design’ - eee : 66 Earthquake Loads ..... a er Seismic hazard zones... - tn 6 Design considerations for mulistorey buildings in Zone land Zone il’... 70 Planning considerations for low-rise housing in Zone It. 7 Design icad effect and load combinations 2 Seismic base shear ......... oye 2 Distribution of seismic forces tre 7% Structural component load effects 7 78 Ba Pessoa g gaBTAED @ nom QSSsSshee8 8 Saaaaas & Soh wataane SECTION 6. 22 22 © Bo Boo 1 3.2 3 APPENDIX A APPENDIX B. APPENDIX C. APPENDIX D. APPENDIX E, APPENDIX F. Loads due to Overhead Travelling Cranes .: General. of Classification of travelling cranes Vertical wheel loads Horizontal transverse forces Horizontal longitudinal force Forces on end stops . Position of crane and crab. «- More than one crane ina building . - Combination of crane lateral forces and wind load Otherloads 2.0.2... SPEPICCeETICCTTT CEEOL Isai Provision for impact and vibration 82 Lifting and handling equipment 83 : 83 Lateral and uplift forces epieeeeiees : Inertia sway forces . eae : 7 Ceilings, skylights and similar structures 7 Lt 83 IN'SITU LOAD TESTING OF BUILDINGS AND BUILDING ELEMENTS... ...--. Ee eee eee 83 General ..... a 88 Types of full scale load tests, 83 Planning 4 Testing Authority 4 Test Procedures a Planning ... 5 a4 ‘Conducting of tesis 2 85 ‘Test precautions is 85 APPLICABLE PUBLICATIONS. - 88 NOMINAL UNIT MASSES OF MATERIALS arenes) NOMINAL IMPOSED LOADS .......---. 95 WIND FORCES ...... eee DEFORMATION OF BUILDINGS ..........- See 405 119 RAINFALL INTENSITY...SABS 0160-1989 6 COMMITTEE i South African Bureau of Standards : RH Watkins j (Chairman) | | Jablonski | {Standards Writer) | ‘Avan Wyk | (Commitee Clerk) | Bruinette, Kruger, Stoffberg Incorporated . HY Mare | Concrete Masonry Association 2... ecsescreeeeeeeeeeeeeceseees JW Lane i csiR Division of Building Technology... 2... : voce JAP Laurie RV Milford Division of Processing and Chemical Manufacturing Technology ........ MR Newham i South African Transport Services ...... J Geldenhuys Steel and Engineering Industries’ Federation of South Africa ............ FH Pienaar ‘The South African Association of Consulting Engineers DAW Wium University of Pretoria 0... 6..2 eee reece eee eee cose. BWJvan Rensburg | University of the Witwatersrand AR Kemp ‘AGaldstein | |44 12 13 24 7 SABS 0160-1989 SOUTH AFRICAN BUREAU OF STANDARDS CODE OF PRACTICE for ‘THE GENERAL PROCEDURES AND LOADINGS: TO BE ADOPTED IN THE DESIGN OF BUILDINGS. SCOPE ‘This code of practice details the general structural design procedures and the minimum design loads to be adopted in the design of buildings or their structural members. This code of practice does not cover the following: a) Detailed design appropriate to particilar construction materials or methods; b) loads on bridges; ©) loads on earth-retaining structures and on structures subjectto internal pressure from the contents (e.9. bunkers, silos, water tanks, etc.); and 4) dynamic loadings due to plant and machinery (other than loadings covered in 5.4.2. 57, 5.8.1 and 5.8.2). Loads incidental fo construction cannot, because of the wide variety and nature of the combinations, be specified. It is necessary, however, that the designer give conside- ration to the effects of such loads on a partly completed structure. (See also 5.1.2(b).) NOTE 2). The standards referred toin the code are stedin Appendix A-1, and references that may be consulled {er adltional information are sted In Appendix A-2, ) Nominal unit masses of materials that may be used In the calculation of loadings are given in ‘Appendix B, ‘o}. The assessment of floor loads in factories and warehouses is covered in Appendix C. {) Further information on wind forces is given in Appendix D. ‘2). Guidance on acceptable limits for deformations of various types of buildings is given in Appendix E. ) Guidance on the design of rainwater disposal ram roofs is given in Appendix F. DEFINITIONS NOTE: Where its desired to use terms in addition tothe terms listed below, these terms should be selected from ISO 8830. For the purposes of tis code of practice the folowing definitions shall apply: Act, The National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act, 1977 (Act 103 of 1977). Action. Any cause (load or imposed deformation) leading to intemal forces in, or deformation of, the members of a structure, or the structure as a whole. It may be 2) a set of concentrated or distributed forces acting on the structure (direct action), or 'b) imposed or constrained deformations within the structure (indirect action). Symbols such 8 a, a, ¢, etc., must be chosen to designate each particular indirect action. NOTE: Tho term “load may be used with essential the same moaning s "action". Combination of actions. A set of values for the actions occurring in a structure, that is Used for the verification of the structural reliability ofa structure fora limit state under the simultaneous influence of different actions. tee action. Action which may have any distribution in space over the structure, within certain limits, e.g. action of vehicles on a bridge. Permanent action. Action which is likely to act throughout a given design situation and for which the variation in magnitude with time is negligible in relation to the mean value, or for which the variation is always in the same direction until the action attains @ certain limit value, e.g. self-weight, prestressing force.SABS 0160-1989 8 ( ‘Sustained action/Transient action. Terms used for a qualitative classification of actions, e.g. in a floor loading, the weight of the furniture represents the “sustained” action, and the weight of persons represents the "transient" action. Building. As defined in the Act. Code of practice. As defined in the Act. Deflection. Movement of a defined point in a defined direction. ‘Medial deffection (Fig. 1). Deflection of the middie of a member relative and normal ta the line joining its ends. L ‘Terminal deftection (Fig. 2). Deflection of the end of a member relative and normal to the line through the opposite end parallel to its undeflected position. Designer. In relation fo the erection of a building or of part of a building, a competent person appointed by the owner to be responsible for the design of such building or part. Deviation. The distance of a defined point from a defined datum. “Medial deviation (Fig. 1). Deviation of the middle of a member from the straight line or plane joining its ends, ‘Terminal deviation (Fig. 2). Deviation of the end of a member from the straight line or plane, horizontal or vertical (as relevant) through the opposite end. Durability. Ability ofthe structure and its members to maintain adequate performance in time. Dwelling house. A building, together with any outbuildings appurtenant thereto, situated Uupon its own site and designed for occupation as a separate dwelling for one or more persons forming a household Dwelling unit. A dwelling other than a dwelling house comprising one or more rooms which have living, sleeping, eating, cooking and sanitary facilities for one or more persons forming a household. L ‘Ground movement. Disturbance of foundations by influences not dependenton the loads applied by the building, Limit states. States beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the design (performance) requirements, ‘Serviceabilty limit states. Limit states related to normal use (often related to function). ‘Ultimate limit state. Limit state corresponding to the maximum load-carrying capacity of ‘a structure or of a part of the structure. | Load (see also Action) Desian load. Design value of load. ed load (The term preferred to “live load"). Load due to intended occupancy {includes loads due to movable partions and loads due to cranes), snow, ice and rain, earth and hydrostatic pressures, and horizontal components of static and inertia forces. ‘Nominal load. Nominal value of load. Pointin-time toad. The most-lkely load which is on the structure at any instant in time (not the lifetime maximum vaiue). ight (The term io "dead load”). Load consists of the weight of all the ‘members of the structure itself, plus the weight of all finishes, including permanent paritions, which are to be supported permanently by any member of the structure | Load arrangement Arrangement of loads introduced into a calculation to allow for the Variation in space of a free action, e.g. arrangement of traffic loads on a bridge, Load case. A load case is determined by fixing the arrangement of each of the free actions, Local authority. As defined in the Act. National Building Reaulafions. As defined in the Act. | ‘Occupancy. The use or purpose to which a building or site is normaly put or intended to | be put. (See the National Building Regulations for clarification of the various types of | occupancies.) Owner. As defined in the Act. Parfition. An intemal vertical structure that is employed solely for the purpose of subdividing any storey of a building into sections, and that supports no load other than its own weight.9 SABS 0160-1989 Central axis Undettectes Deflected EaRS 9100 DBeg.t9aa-tc/00-07 2 and b are medial deviations before and after deflection a + b is medial deflection Fig. 1 - Medial Deffection and Deviation Vertical line representing the intended position of the member column) Terminal deviation in no-load condition b= Terminal deviation in loaded condition Terminal deflection or movement of the member, caused by the load Free-standing (na load) position of the member New position of the member ‘ABS O10 Drg.t901-£¢700-07 Fig. 2 - Terminal Deflection and DeviationSABS 0160-1989 10 ‘Serviceabitty, Abilty of the structure and structural elements to perform adequately in normal use (serviceability imit-states related). | ‘Settiement Differential settlement. Relative displacement of different parts of foundations under the action of loads applied by the building Span. The effective span of horizontal or inclined members, assuming conditions of simple support. (For cantilevers the overhang. For two-way spanning siabs-the shorter span.) ion. As defined in the Act. ‘Storey height. The vertical distance between the points of support of horizontal ‘Supporling members at successive floor levels. Structural safety. The capacity of a structure to resist all the actions, and also certai ‘specified accidental phenomena, which it wil have to withstand during construction and anticipated use (ultimate limit-state related). Value (of a parameter) ‘Characteristic value. Value fixed on statistical bases to correspond to a prescribed probability of not being exceeded on the unfavourable side during the lifetime of the structure. (See also Nominal value.) ‘Combination values. Values associated with the use of combinations of actions to take ‘account of a reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence of the most unfavourable values of several independent actions. They may be expressed as a certain part of the nominal value by using a factor y, < 1 Design values. Values obtained by application of partial safety factors to the relevant | nominal values. | Partial safety factor. This term describes all the y factors, which are principally | | a) the 7, factors (applicable to actions), the value of which reflects the uncertainties of the actions: b) the 7, factors (applicable to materials), the value of which reflects the uncertainties of the material properties. ‘Nominal value. The principal representative value of a parameter (either an action, or @ property of a member or of a material), fixed on non-statistical bases, for example on experience acquired or on physical constraints. 3 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 34 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS and General. Ensure that any building or any part of a building is designed to possess sufficient structural capacity to resist safely and effectively all loads and influences that may reasonably be expected to act upon it, having regard to the expected service life of such building. 342 Desian Procedure. In order that the design of a bulding or of part of a building may ‘comply with the provisions of the National Building Regulations”, ensure that ‘a) the procedures adopted in such design are in conformity with this code and with any | ‘other code of the South African Bureau of Standards thatis relevantto the materials used | in such building or in part of such building: or ') the design is in accordance with the empirical rules contained in SABS 0400, relevant { to specific elements of a building: or «) the design is in accordance with one of the following alternative methods: ' 1) A code of practice other than prescribed abov 2} an analysis based on generally established theory; 8) an evaluation of a full-scale building or a prototype by test loading; 1) Published by Goverment Notices 1211 of 6 July 1977, R441 of 1 March 1985, 729 of 18 April 1986 and 798 of 26 Apri 1986.313 11 SABS 0160-1989 4) studies of model analogues; or '5) an authoritative document covering in detail the design of a building or @ structural member for a specific purpose or a specific material or both, provided that where a ‘material is used for which there is no SABS specification, the design is in accordance with a safe method applicable to such material. In terms of the National Building Regulations, altematives (a) and {b) above are deemed to satisfy the regulations and therefore must in all cases be accepted by the local authority, A design based on one of the methods given in (c) above may have to be Justified by the designer to prove that it will ensure the level of safety and performance implicit in the reguiations. The deemed-to-satisfy requirements for the use of specific ‘materials employed in the construction of a building or of part of a building are given in ‘SABS 0100 for structural concrete ‘SABS 0137 for glazing ‘SABS 01641 for foundations ‘SABS 0162 for structural steel ‘SABS 0163 for structural timber ‘SABS 0164 for structural masonry ‘The empirical rules contained in SABS 0400 relate to Foundations (see Part H) Floors (see Part J) Walls (see Part K) Roofs, (00 Part L) Glazing (see Part N) Deformations under Service Loads. So design structural members that their deforma- tions under expected service loads will be acceptable with regard to a) the intended use of the building or member; ) possible damage to non-structural members and materials; and ©) possible damage to the building itself, taking account, where significant, of the additional effects of loads acting on the deformed building or member; and 4) possible damage to the adjacent buildings. NOTE: Table 1 is a summary of suggested detormation limits and should be readin conjunction with ‘Appendix E,12 SABS 0160-1989 7 eworoetap eatwieL 3 3 Sapa] ear 3 SS ee T= > % verona = 3 = 3 = 3 = 3 ‘ace 2 3 > sap oan 3 xm 280 2 socteepaeg 3 “ees | wemyouepee pen Se a ae ewe |e | tome, | “anor | isp on ane Banh ee onoty | wstmuang | “ha | Saar snes tan sascing sumapn sieuse m0 | uno mang | tue "DENGAN SWISLISSETOBID Hut SUOTIR Z Tea anent 7 ma = 7 (2 xppvoddy im onouniuoo uy pees q 01) ‘SNOILVLIAIT NOLLYM4O440 GALSIOONS JO AYYWINNS- F TTEVLSABS 0160-1989 13, ‘oresePsuco lpn LoReuso}> aM of s}ELED sy sioYH eant-od ose ue SUNS oUsha, BADR Wr eo "vonoeyep jane = 3-woRayop dan = 9 “fxanse Bue He "Duy anos Sw we BU0 ACO aM Mos pu Ye suRIPE LL, Sun are APE PeHEEL H DopHoU 9 KUO pOBU uDLIOS cose onsen uy uospod ap wo pases! 0 suo 019 3004 eA 080 a Tip T TITS CET TES cowed oSaE 5. ean omen ee Tae Tear css sips (aes) em a a.m oat oer umes | _ouymneinn Sa OT 0 zat a, SS Sean Toa ce» enon Toure | wns punaen Reon sees Sana ont jump sueuneveno | venesonp roves | mma? 7 ae (Ponunuoo} | Sav.SABS 0160-1989 Commentary: Vibration 14 ‘The deformation of a building or of any part of a building should not adversely affect the appearance or proper functioning of the building. The designer must satisfy himseif that the deformations under service conditions will not be excessive, having regard to the particular characteristics of the building, including its size, type of cladding, partition construction, finishes and occupancy, as well as the foundation conditions and environmental conditions to which it is subject. This consideration should cover the possible effects of differential axial deformations of members as a result of temperature, moisture and short- term or long-term loading effects, as well as effects due to deflection of members. Where experience or analysis shows that movement or stress relief joints are necessary to avoid damage, oversiressing or instability of elements of the building, such joints must be designed and suitably described in the de- sign documents, Note that the deformation in question in a particular case is that due to the relevant portion of the loading or environmental effect, e.g. for control of ‘cracking in partitions, it would be that portion of the elastic and creep de~ flection of the supporting floor that occurs after construction ofthe partition (this will also depend on when the floor props are removed). Note also that a distinction is made in Table 1 between deflection, which is the movement ofa defined pointin a defined direction, and deviation, which is the distance of a defined point from a defined datum (e.g. out of straightness or out of plumbness, whether due to deflection or to initial distortion). Deviation imits are generally related to appearance factors but may in some cases involve use and stability. Whilstitis undesirable that the deformations of a building damage adjacent buildings, or inconvenience their occupants or other members of the public, such matters are normally the subject of legisiation and are not appropriate to this code. Nevertheless, attention may be drawn to the fact thal the pro- vision of movement joints between adjacent buildings and the avoidance of interference with neighbouring foundations are normal good building prac- tice. 2) Give special consideration to floor systems susceptible to vibration, to ensure that such vibration is acceptable for the intended occupancy of the building. b) Investigate unusually flexible buildings and, where necessary, check lateral accelerations of the building to ensure that such accelerations are acceptable for the intended occupancy of the building. Commentary: @) In the majority of buildings, the stifiness provided to conform to the deformation limit state will be such that no further consideration of vibration is necessary. Where specific consideration of vibration is required by virtue of known repeated loading, the following should be taken into account (See also Table 1.): 1) The damping characteristics of the material; 2) the dynamic magnification effects on the structural members; and 3) the sensitivity of human beings to vibration.34.5 15 SABS 0160-1989 ) Two types of vibration problems require attention in building construc- tion, 2. continuous vibration and transient vibration. Continuous vibration results from the periodic forces of machinery or of certain human activities such as dancing, These vibrations can be considerably amplified by resonance when the periodic forces are synchronized with a natural frequency of vibration of a building. Transient vibrations are caused by footsteps or other impacts followed by decay al arate which depends on the available damping. The undesirable effects of continuous vibrations caused by machines can be minimized by special design provision, such as location of machinery away from sensitive occupancies, vibration isolation, or alteration of the rratural frequency of the structure. Human beings can create periodic forces in the frequency range of approximately 1-4 Hz, and floor resonant frequencies of less than about 5 Hz should be avoided for light residential floors, schools, auditoria, gymnasia and similar occupancies. For very repetitive activities such as dancing, some resonance is possible when the beat is on every second cycle of floor vibration, and it is therefore recommended thatthe resonant frequency of such floors be 10 Hz or more, unless there is a large amount of damping. ‘Stability. Ensure that adequate provision is made for the stabiity ofa building as a vihole and for that of its elements against overturning, uplif, sliding, foundation failure and stress reversal This requirement may be deemed to have beon met if a) in analysis according to the (ultimate) limit-state method: The sum of he effects of the destabilizing nominal loads multiplied by the appropriate partial load factors that exceed unity as specified in 4.4.2, combined with the effects of the stabilizing component of ‘self-weight load multiplied by the load factor less than or equal to unity as specified in 4.4.2, does not exceed the ultimate resistance of the relevant parts of he structure and its foundations; or b) inanalysis according to the permissible working stress method: The sum ofthe effects of the destabilizing design loads combined with 0,7 times the effects of the stabilizing Component of the self-weight load does not exceed the design resistance of the relevant parts of the building and its foundations, Commentary: “The adoption of the passive resistance of the soil as part of the resistance tosliding should be carefully considered, as full passive resistance general- ly comes into play only after movement has taken place. Integrity (See also 4.3) a) The degree of safety of a structure depends not only on the strength of the load-bearing members and of the structure as a whole but also on the integrity of the structure, ie. its ability fo withstand local damage without it causing or initiating widespread collapse. Adequate structural integrity may be achieved by 41) designing the structure in such a way thal, if any single load-bearing member becomes incapable of carrying load, this will not cause collapse of the whole structure ‘orany significant part of it within a period of time sufficient to make the necessary repairs (method of altemative paths of support); or 2) minimizing by design or by protective measures the probability of failure of a load-bearing member whose failure is likely to result in widespread collapse (method of local resistance). {SABS 0160-1989 16 b) Design every building to withstand, at any level, a horizontal force acting on the portion of the building above that level and acting in any plan direction, the magnitude of the force being at least equal to the greater of 4) the wind load acting above that level; or 2) 1% of the total nominal self-weight load above that level, including that due fo Uniocated partitions exerting a force exceeding 3 kNim of length. This force may be shared between the elements of the structure, depending on their F stifiness and strength ©) Traditional structures, particularly building structures, often possess an adequate degree of structural integrity. When a review of a structure's integrity indicates that the consequences of failure could be widespread or otherwise very serious or when the structural integrity of a new or unusual form of construction is being evaluated, specific provisions for structural integrity as indicated above should be incorporated in the design Commentary: ‘The following considered: intended to give guidance when progressive collapse is a) itis clearly not feasible to design all buildings for absolute safety nor is it economical to design for abnormal events unless there is a reasonable chance that they will occur, However, when there s a reasonable chance of i abnormal occurrences, the designer must, in terms of 3.1.6, consider | rational means of limiting the spread of local failure to an extent b disproportionate to the initial cause of local damage. | ‘Some abnormal events that can occur are explosions due to gas, boiler failures or ignition of industrial liquids, vehicle impact, falling or swinging objects, adjacent excavation or flooding causing severe local foundation failure, or very high winds such as cyclones or tornadoes. Most of the foregoing events would not in general be considered in design, but events such as fires, earthquakes (in certain areas of South Aftica), and ‘corrosion, which are taken into account in the normal course of design, { should also not cause progressive collapse. ‘Although a building should have resistance to progressive collapse caused by ‘accidental" abnormal events, itis accepted that well-placed explosives | could bring down any such building. Insome traditional construction systems thereiisinherent structuralintegrity, a tying together of elements and an abilty to redistribute overioads. This inherent integrity is frequently overlooked in new systems and, a5 a consequence, prefabricated systems in particular are often designed to resist the primary gravity and lateral forces only. The resistance to progressive collapse should be fully evaluated for any new system and if ‘such resistance is not inherent in the system, it should be provided by other means. ) There are four general considerations that can be used in designing to \ prevent progressive collapse: 4) Reduction of the probability of the occurrence of an abnormal event, 2) design using ductie connection; 3) design to resist abnormal loads; 4) design for alternative load paths in the event ofa local failure.44 42 17 SABS 0160-1989 (As amended 1893) ©) Itis difficutt to apply limits to collapse resulting from an abnormal event; however, itis suggested that collapse be limited, 1) where progression is vertical, tothe storey where the event occurred and to the storeys immediately above and below; 2) where the progression is horizontal, i) tothe truss, beam, precast strip loor, or roof panel damaged, and to the ‘one on either side; ji) toa single bay of a full bay-sized floor or roof slab except that where the principal support at one end of a slab isremoved, two bay-sized panels may act together as a cateniary. 4) Severe deformation is temporarily acceptable in the vicinity ofthe focal failure at the ultimate conditions. A load combination of selfveight oad plus, ‘one-third of the total of the specified imposed load plus wind load should be used in evaluating the ultimate stability and ultimate strength of the ‘damaged building after the event. GENERAL GUIDANCE ON LIMIT-STATES DESIGN LOADS NOTE ‘2) This section isnot to be used uniess there isa reference tot in the material code. b) See NOTE (b) to Section 5. ‘GENERAL. This section describes a standardized formulation for preparing limit-states ‘codes for diferent structural materials. This is achieved through a two-phase process: a) Acceptance of a set of partial load factors and @ uniform system for defining load combinations which would be applicable to all structural materials, as described in 4.4.2. ) Subsequent evaluation of partial material factors, and resistance (or performance) factors appropriate to each limit state in each material code in order to achieve a consistent level of rellabilty, as described in 4.5. LIMIT-STATES CRITERION OF FAILURE. The criterion of fitness for purpose is: Q, b, F,= Cya,b(d ~ 4b) + Cyg.2h(d ~ 4b) 5(i) where F, = the (otal frictional force in the direction of the wind C, = a frictional drag coefficient having one of the following values: 0,01 for smooth surfaces without corrugations or ribs across the wind direction; 0,02 for surfaces with corrugations across the wind direction; (0,04 for surfaces with ribs across the wind direction, ‘The first term on the right-hand side in each equation gives the frictional force on the roof and the second term gives the frictional force on the walls. Different values of C, and g, or both may be adopted for the roof and for the walls. Determination of overall forces on unclad buildings and frames. Determine the resultant characteristic wind forces on unclad buildings, frames, lattice towers, or individual structural members by means of the procedures and force coefficients, given in 5.5.4 Commentary: Most of the force coefficients given in 5.5.4 are for regular cross-sections with one or more axes of symmetry and for winds blowing along one of these axes. In such cases, the resultant ime averaged loading acts in the direction of the wind. However, for asymmetrical sections and for winds oblique to the major or minor axes of symmetrical sections, there will be a component of force transverse to the wind direction as well as ‘one in the along-wind direction. Table 22, which gives force coefficients for a variety of symmetrical and asymmetrical structural shapes for various wind approach angles, provides an indication of the influence. of wind direction and building shape on the normal and transverse forces. A point worth noting is that the along-wind force on a square cross-section with the wind directed along the diagonal is slightly greater than that with the wind normal to a side. This is therefore likely to be a critical design condition since the bending resistance of a square section would generally be smaller in the diagonal plane than in the plane parallel to its sides. It should also be noted that for buildings or structural shapes with curved surfaces, the force coefficient is dependent on Reynolds numbers, and ‘separate values of C, are therefore given for subcritical and supercritical flow conditions. In the tables, these are identified by the value of the parameters DV, or V.b, each of which is proportional to a Reynolds number if the kinematic viscosity of the air is assumed to be constant. (See also D-4.2 of Appendix D.) Press! Fe ficients Pressure coefficients. Average and local external pressure coefficients for walls and roofs of rectangular buildings of various types are given in Tables 6-9 (inclusive). ‘Table 10 gives values of internal pressure coefficients for rectangular buildings under various conditions of roof and wall permeability.SABS 0160-1989 46 (As amended 1993) Amdt 3, Oct. 1993 Tables 11A, 11B and 11C give values of pressure coefficients for canopy roofs of various shapes. For the purposes of these tables, a canopy roof is considered to be one supported on a structural frame and where walls or cladding, if present, are of minimal extent. Table 13 gives values of pressure coefficients for grandstands with a 5° roof slope. Attention is drawn to the fact that no standard set of values can deal adequately with all the variations which can occur in this type of structure. If the grandstand is of a size and an importance that justifies an individual assessment of the pressure distribution and ioading, a wind tunnel test must be undertaken. In addition, because of the unusual problems created by this type of structure, assessments should be carried out by a person versed in this type of design. Table 14 gives external pressure coefficients for the surfaces of cylindrical structures. NOTE: The value of gto be used with the coefficients may be varied over the height ofthe building in accordance with the wind speed variations given in 5.6.2 6(a), except in the case ofthe average and local coefficients forthe leeward and sige walls of rectangular buildings as indicated in Table 6. In the latter cases, the value of 9, applicable at the top of the walls should be used.47 SABS 0160-1989 ‘TABLE 6 - EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT C,, FOR THE WALLS OF RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDINGS NOTE a) fis the height to eaves or parapet, 0 is the greater horizontal dimension of a bullding, and w is the lesser horizontal dimension of a building. 1b) Use the following values of ¢. For windward walls: ¢, applicable at top of wail or as a function of helght in accordance with wind speed variation as given in 5.5.2.6 {or leeward and side walls: g, applicable at top of wal. |48 TABLE 7 - EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT C,, FOR PITCHED ROOFS OF RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDINGS SABS 0160-1989, (As amended 1991) ay Saas wie we al i Be 4 ce & 22 38 399 399 a u 398 283 ae Hy pect BB Bi one oon eae 333 $93 Bees 339 835 ay Ae foge oe ERR SRB} ane Saas 288s bet gee ui : eee49 1ubiey ofp ve aceon “Supe # fo uosuow reworua4 00s} a 81m pe ‘upHNG #0 LOSUAUIPUEREY eos SiN ee oN 339 399] S29 335] pamoirenciy | Renu, TAT Tr a_i ap or a7 or |— 35 w oT eer TT RaaT Fao FT “epee ead TET Ce a A jupaponb ajoym ayy 04 Toco aaSHE eo Gala a jays 7 DaJD pud Yy D9 “3L0N E 42ssa) ay) 5) JanaurUM “A gyi soy = A 2 > VY HLIM SONICTING GV19 YWINONVLOZY JO S4OON GSHOLICONOW YOd “0 LN3ID144500 SUNSSIUd TWNUSLXS - 8 STV.‘SABS 0160-1989 50 (As amended 1991) TABLE 9 - EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT C,, FOR SYMMETRICAL AND. ASYMMETRICAL PITCHED ROOFS OF MULTI-SPAN BUILDINGS (ALL SPANS EQUAL) Ying CASTE y= hor 01w whichever is the the lesser nye hye ft Amdt 2 Nov. 101 1 Wind angle 8, degrees tstwindward =a | ) Use values trom Table 7 with tstleeward ——b } roof angle a for windward 2nd windward —¢ ) slope Aw = 2 2rd leeward“ 0 3rd windward —e or Brdleeward ——1 | 140 Ath windward 9 i athleeward fh Sth windward | Allsucceeding —j i Average Cin over distance | 20 Roof angle a up to 45° bh he by 08-06 | Local Cy! 20 18 i NOTE: Use the value of a, applicable at ridge height51 SABS 0160-1989 TABLE 10 - AVERAGE INTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT C,, FOR RECTANGULAR BUILDINGS OF OPEN INTERIOR PLAN 1 2 Condition Average G, Two opposite walls equally permeable, other walls 2) Wind normal to permeable wall ) Wind normal to impermeable wal Four walis equally permeable 02 03 -0.8 of 0.0, whichever isthe more severe for ‘combined ioadi Dominant opening on one wal, other walls of equal permeability 2} Dominant opening on windward wa, having a ratio. ‘of parmeabilty of windward wall to total permeability of ‘other walls and roofs subject to external suction equal to Fortes 40,4 15 +03 2 +05 3 408 Sormore 408 'b) Dominant opening on leeward wall Value of C, for loeward external wal surface in Table 6 {)Dominant opening in side wall Value of C,. for side extemal wall surface in Table 6 <4) Dominant opening in a roof segment Value of Cy, for external surface of roof segment in Tables 7°2 Acbuiling effectively sealod and having non-opening | -0,2 oF 0,0, whichever is the more severe for windows ‘combined ioads, NOTE 2) intemal pressures developed within an enciosed building may be postive or negative, depending on the positon and sizeof the openings. 5) In the context ofthis table, the permeability of a surface is measured by the total area of openings in the surface under consideration. 2) As a guide, the typical permeability of an office block or house with all windows nominally closed is between 0,01 % and 0,05 % ofthe wall area, depending on the degree of draughiproofing, <¢) The value af G, can be Fmited or controlled to advantage by delioeate cistrbution of permeability in the wall and root, or by the deliberate provision of a venting device which can serve as a dominant opering ata position having a suitable external pressure coefficient. An example of such isa ridge ventilator on & lowepitch roof, and this, under all directions of wind, can reduce the uplit force on the roof. €) For buildings where internal pressurization Is utlize, tis addtional pressure must also be considered. 1) The value of gto be used with these cosficients is that applicable tothe relevant external pressure 0,3), »b) The values may bo Used for wind Blowing normal othe axes of eylinders having thelr axes normal othe ground plane (2. chimneys, sis) and to eylinders having thelr axes perl with tho ground plano. horizontal tanks) provided that the cleerance between the cylinder and the ground isnot ese than O. ©) Use interpolation te obtain valves of Cy for ntormediate valuos of iD. <¢) inthe calcaaton of the load onthe petiphery ofthe oyinder, take the value of into account. For openended cylinders where VD 1 0,3, take Oy 08 “08. For open-ended cylinders whore wD <0'3, take Cas -0.5. 9} The vale of g tobe Used may be varied over the height ofthe cynder in accordance withthe wind speed variation as gen in 5526(0) t57 SABS 0160-1989 5542 Force coefficients. a) Clad buildings, free-standing walls, hoardings and similar structures. Force coefficients for determining the overall resultant along-wind force in accordance with 5.5.3.3 are given in Fig. 6 for rectangular clad buildings, in Table 15 for clad buildings of uniform sections as shown, and in Table 16 for low wails or hoardings on or above the ground. In general, the value of g, may be varied over the height of the building, ‘b) Unclad buildings, frames, screens and latiice structures 41) Single frames. Calculate the resultant wind force on a single frame for the case where the wind direction is normal to the plane of the frame unless it can be shown that another wind angle is more appropriate. Determine the force by means of equation 5(g) in 5.5.3.3 but take A, as the net (ie. solid) projected area, excluding the openings between members. ‘The relevant force coefficients are given in Table 17 for a single frame consisting of i) members of flat-sided cross-section, or ii) members of circular cross-section, in which all the members of the framie have DV, values less than 6 m*/s or all members have DV, values equal to or exceeding 6 m’/s, When single frames are composed of members of circular cross-section, it is possible that the ‘smaller members will be in the subcritical flow range (i.e. DV, < 6 m/s) and the larger members will be in the supercritical flow range (i.e. DV, * 6 m’/s), and there may also be some details fabricated from flat-sided sections. In this situation, the wind force acting on the composite frame should be calculated by using an offective force coefficient equal to: Acres A ZG, spy * (1-Z). “SEM, giny + (1-Z)- SEM.C, ray 50) Assy Acsuey ieeee: = Atea of the frame 8 ‘a supercritical flow A = the total effective frontal area of the frame (Le. the net solid area) Cisup) =the force coefficient of the supercritical range for circular ue sections from Table 17 Gigupy = the forve coefficient ofthe subcritical range for circular sections {rom Table 17 Gipiaty the force coefficient ofthe fla-sided sections from Table 22 Accirc, sub) = the effective area ofthe subcritical circular sections Ariat) _= the effective area ofthe lat-sided sections Accu) = A(Circ. sub) * A(FiatySABS 0160-1989 58 ee 40 | i \ AN I 44 ; = 3.0 \ \ 1 i Eu} Hi ie | A TY s r \ THEE a 2 \ | \ i \ 0,754 = \ ASIN V EVA | 05 [Ai TAT 0,25 04 06 08 1,0 20 3,0 Breadth/depth ratio b/d Brg. 19831-£¢/00-07 To be used with value of g, at height h or with 9, as @ function of height ‘ABS 0160 rg. T053106¢/00-07 | Fig. 6 - Force Coefficients C, for Rectangular Clad Buildings with Flat Roofs (Force Acting in the Direction of the Wind) i59 SABS 0160-1989 ‘TABLE 15 - FORCE COEFFICIENT G, (ACTING IN THE DIRECTION OF THE WIND) FOR CLAD BUILDINGS OF UNIFORM SECTION Helghvoreadth ratio voto | + | 2] os ] 0 fol - EWipse, bricir2 o oa | oa | 03 | 03 | 02 | 03 | 04 02 | oz | o2 | 02 | 03 fos] o3 10 | 12 | 16 FT b/d 22 ee Ib r7b =176 os [as |os|os | os | oe] o6 “Rough surfaces are those with projections exceeding 1 % of the diameter,SABS 0160-1989 60 TABLE 15 (continued) Pian shape: raw oe ‘Alva Gedieneut oT o7} os }os |] 10 p41] 13 oe O7 o7}os]oo prof at | 13 * 0,3R, for T> T, where the parameters R,, T, and & are as given in Table 30. Aad 2, Nov. 1991 Amdt 3, ‘Oct 1803, Amdt 2, Nov. 1991 Amat 3, (ct, 1993‘SABS 0160-1989 74 (As amended 1990 and 1993) 56.5.4 Amdt 3, Oct. 1093, Ba = Fs s2 * [3 g 33 5 3 fab = Eo 1 1 14 L 2 00 05 40 450 $2 ecreo] Period T s Brg 477-€C/ Fig. 12 - Normalized Response Spectra R(T) TABLE 30 - NORMALIZED RESPONSE SPECTRUM PARAMETERS. 1 2 3 4 sor | & | 7 8 si | 28 | o« | 29 sz | 25 | os | 2 s3_| 20 | 10 | 28 ‘The three soil profiles are defined as follows: Soil profile $1: Rock (shear wave velocity exceeding 1 000 mis) or stable deposits or unconsolidated minerals as for S2, with @ depth of less than 50 m on a solid rock base. Soil profile $2: Stable deposits (compact sands and gravels or stiff clays) of depth ‘exceeding 50 m on a solid rock base. Soil profile $3: Sofi-to-medium-stiff deposits (sands, stif clays) having a depth of 10 m or more. When the site conditions are not fully known or ifthe site investigations do notenable any of the profiles to be used, then the most unfavourable of the three curves shall be used, Fundamental period of vibration. The fundamental period of vibration Tin seconds) may be determined by taking into consideration the properties of the building in the direc- tion being analysed, and assuming that the base of the building is fixed. The value of T may not exceed 1,27, . Alternatively, the value of T may be taken as equal to the ap- proximate period of the building T, obtainable from the following formula: For moment-resisting structures where the frames are not enclosed or do not adjoin more rigid components tending to prevent the frames from deflecting when subjected to seismic forces: | 156.55 75 SABS 0160-1989 (As amended 1990) Th= Oy hi where C, = 0,09 for steel frames C, = 0,06 for concrete frames. fh, = height above the base to the highest level of the frame of the building, m For buildings with shear walls or exterior concrete frames utilizing deep beams, Ty = 0,09 hiv where 1 = overall length of the building at the base in the direction under consideration, m Behaviour factor ‘a The behaviour factor K depends on the structural system used. In the absence of @ more detailed assessment and taking into account the required detailing requirements, the factors given in Table 31 shall be used. b) Structural systems. For the purposes of Table 31 structural systems are defined as follows: 1) Bearing wall systems. A system of walls or frames as vertical elements for resistance to lateral seismic forces. Horizontal elements of the selsmic-resisting system may be diaphragms or trusses. 2) Building frame system. A system with essentially a complete space frame providing ‘support for vertical loads, with shear walls or vertical bracing trusses to resist the lateral seismic force. The frame and shear walls shall conform to the requirements of ‘SABS 0100 for reinforced concrete and of SABS 0162 for structural steel 3) Moment-resisting frame system. A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for vertical loads. Seismic force resistance is provided by moment-resisting forces by flexure as well as the total prescribed forces along the axis ‘of the member. ') Ordinary reinforced concrete frame. A moment-resisting frame of ordinary reinforced concrete without special provision for ductility in the load-carrying system and that complies with the provisions of SABS 0100. li) Ordinary steel frame. An ordinary steel frame that complies with the provisions of SABS 0162. ii) Space frame. A structural system composed of interconnecting members, other than bearing walls, which is capable of supporting vertical loads and may also provide resistance to seismic forces.SABS 0160-1989 76 (As amended 1990, 1991 and 1993) TABLE 31 - BEHAVIOUR FACTOR K Behaviour factor K” Bearing wall system: Unceinforced masonry walls 18 Roinfercod conerete or reinforced masonry walls or braced frames 35 One, two-, oF three-storey steel frame ‘systems 50 Bullding frame system: 50 r Moment-resisting frame system: Ordinary conerete frames. 20 Ordinary stel frames, 50 Elevated tanks and Inverted pendulum 15 i ype structures: Structures required to remain elastic 40 * Soe the definitions applicable to structural systems given in (b) above. * The behaviour factors shal be reduced by a factor of 1,2 for use with structures comprising reinforced concrote fat or waffle labs, and by the factor of 1,4 for use with structures comprising prestressed concrete fat waffle sabe 565.6 Sustained vertical ioad. The sustained vertical load shall be taken as the total nominal ‘weight ofthe building (including partitions and permanent equipment) and the sustained portions of the imposed vertical loads. In the absence of other information, the sustained portion of the imposed vertical loads W/ shall be taken as: | Dit 2M y where i D, = nominal seif-weight load | 1, = imposed vertical loads ¥, = load combination factor (see Table 2) 5.6.6 Distribution of Seismic Forces 5.6.6.1 Vertical distribution of seismic forces. The lateral seismic shear force F,, induced at any | ievel shall be determined in accordance with the following formula: Fin = Cann where V, = seismic base shear (see Section 5.6.5) Wipe ama, c, «ee. at 1880 Dw |56.6.2 567 5871 77 SABS 0160-1989 (As amended 1990, 1981 and 1993) where k 0 for buildings having a period of 0,5 s or less = 2,0 for buildings having a period of 2,0 s or more = 1+ (27- 1)/3 for a period of between 0,5 5 and 2.08 W..W, — = portion of the vertical load at or assigned to level x ori, respectively hgh, = height above the base to level x or i, respectively Horizontal shear and torsion. The nominal seismic shear force Vj, at any level shall be determined in accordance with the following formula: t = oF, ix where F;, = the lateral shear force induced at any level, determined in accordance with 5.6.6.1 The force V,, shall be distributed to the various vertical components of the seismic- resisting system in the storey below level x, with due consideration given to the relative stifinesses of the vertical components and the diaphragm. For asymmetric buildings, the design shall provide for the torsion moment M, resulting from the location of the building masses plus the tensional moments M,, caused by ‘assumed displacement of the mass each way from its actual location by a distance equal to 5 % of the dimensions of the building perpendicular to the direction of the applied forces, ‘Structural Component Load Effects Lateral forces on elements of tru . Parts of structures, non-structural components, and their anchorages to the main structural system shall be designed to resist a lateral force equal to Mon F,, = nominal seismic force acting on the element 2, = nominal peak ground acceleration normalized by g, but at least 0,1 ©, = aseismic force coefficient given in Table 32 Wo, = weight of the element under consideration, plus imposed load if applicable ‘The distribution of these forces shall be in accordance with the vertical loads pertaining thereto, Amdt 3, Oct, 1993 Amdt 2, Nov. 1991,SABS 0160-1989 78 (As amended 1990 and 1991) 96.72 567.3 56.7.4 57 574 572 ‘TABLE 32 - SEISMIC FORCE COEFFICIENT C, FOR ELEMENTS OF ggSTRUCTURES AND NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS Nov. 1691 1 2 ‘Structural element or non-structural component Cantilever elements such as parapets, cantilever walls, and chimneys on buldings 20 Load-bearing and non-ioac-bearing wal elements, cladding elements, and partons 10 Various instalations in buildings such as pumps, machines, tanks, pipes, lc 05 t01.0 Ties and continuity. As @ minimum, a satisfactory connection of each beam, girder or {russ to its support shall be provided that is capable of resisting a horizontal force of at least 5 % of the design self-weight load and the imposed load combined. Concrete or masonry wall anchorage. Concrete and masonry walls shalll be anchored to the roof and to all floors that provide lateral support for the wall. The anchorage shall Provide a direct connection between the walls and roof or floor construction. The connections shall be capable of resisting a design seismic lateral force F, induced by the wall, of at least 15a, KN per linear metre of wall, where a, is the nominal peak ground acceleration normalized by g, of atleast 0,1. Walls shall be designed to resist bending between anchors where the anchor spacing exceeds 1,5 m Diaohraams. Floorand roof diaphragms shall be designed to resista minimum horizontal force Fj, equal 10 2) 0,5a, times the weight of the diaphragm and other elements of the building attached thereto, plus ) the portion of V, required to be transferred to the components of the vertical seismic- resisting system because of offsets or changes in stifness of the vertical components above and below the diaphragm, in accordance with Section 5.6.6.2. ‘Commentary: ‘The provisions for lateral forces on elements and non-structural com- ponents have been adopted largely from ANSI A58.1-1982, but categorized to bring them more into line with the provisions in use in this code of prac- tice. The provisions for ties and continuily, concrete and masonry wall anchorages and diaphragms have been adopted from ATC3-06 (which is ‘similar to that used in ANSI A58.1-1982). LOADS DUE TO OVERHEAD TRAVELLING CRANES. (See also E-6.4.4 of Appendix E.) General. Where overhead travelling cranes are intended or likely to be installed in a building, make provision in the design of the building or of any part of the building for the characteristic or service ioads imposed by such cranes. Travel ‘The design procedures described in the relevant Subsections ralafe to the follwing types of cranes: Class 1: Light Duty Hand cranes513 79 SABS 0160-1989 (As amended 1990) Class 2: Medium Duty Cranes for general use in factories and workshops Warehouse cranes - intermittent operation Power station cranes Machine shop cranes. Foundry cranes Class 3: Heavy Duty Warehouse cranes - continuous operation ‘Scrapyard cranes Rolling mill cranes Grab and magnet cranes - intermittent operation Ladle cranes in steelworks Class 4: Extra Heavy Duty Grab and magnat cranes - continuous operation ‘Soaking pit cranes Ingot stripping cranes Furnace charging cranes Forging cranes Claw cranes ‘Commentary: ‘The types of cranes listed cover most of those likely fo be encountered in practice, but the list cannot be allnclusive. In the case of crane types not ‘covered, the owner should decide the class of crane, preferably in consuk tation with the crane supplier. ‘The designer or owner may, at his discretion, allocate to any crane a higher Classification than is indicated in this subsection. Vertical Wheel Loads. Take as the vertical wheel loads imposed on the gantry bya crane the values provided by the crane manufacturer or specified by the owner. These are referred to as the static wheel loads. Make an allowance for impact and other dynamic effects in the vertical direction by ‘multiplying the static whee! load by the appropriate of the following factor Class 1 cranes Class 2 cranes Class 3 cranes : Class 4 cranes : ‘Commentary: itis important that crane loads be accurately ascertained as regards both the wheel loads and their spacings. Where it is necessary to use a preliminary assessment of crane loads in the design, this should be checked against the actual loads once these are finalized. It should never be sssumed that incorrect loading information can be compensated for by the impact factor.SABS 0160-1989 80 (As amended 1990) 814 The designer or owner may, at his discretion, specify higher wheel loads than those given by the crane supplier to allow for the possible future Uprating of existing cranes or the installation of cranes of higher capacity Horizontal Transverse Forces NOTE: The horizontal forces detailed in 5 7.4-6.7.6 need not be assumed to act simultaneously. ‘Take the horizontal forces imposed on the gantry by a crane and acting at the top of the crane rails in a direction transverse to the direction of travel of the crane, to be the most adverse of the following: a) Allowance for acceleration or braking of the crab. Apply a force equal to the combined ‘weight of the crab and load lifted, mulliplied by the appropriate of the following factors: Class 1 cranes : 0,05 Class 2 cranes : 0,10 Class 3 cranes : 0,15, Class 4 cranes : 0,20 Divide such force among ail the crane wheels, taking into account the relative transverse stiffness of the crane rail supports. Commentary “The above factors are based on the assumption of reasonably even distribution of vertical load among the crab wheels. In certain types of crane where the centre of gravity of the crab and other components rigidly attached to it (¢.9. the mast of a claw crane) is appreciably below the level of the crab rail, the distribution of vertical load during acceleration or braking willnot be even, owing toinertia or momentum effects. in such cases, or any ‘other cases where appreciably uneven istributionis likely tobe present, the resultant vertical loads on the driven or braked crab wheols should be ‘ascertained or calculated and the relevant horizontal forces assessed, assuming a coefficient of friction of 0,20 betwoen wheels and rails. b) Allowance for possible misalignment of crane wheels or gantry rails. Apply at each wheel a force P, such that = 5(0) P N where X = the appropriate of the following factors: Class 1 cranes : 0,05 Class 2 cranes : 0,12 Class 3 cranes : 0,15 Class 4 cranes : 0,20 and M = combined weight of crane bridge, crab, and toad lifted N= total number of crane travel wheels, Assume the forces P, to act in either of the direction combinations shown in Fig. 13, Whichever is the most sovero.SABS 0160-1989 81 Ag ft am ol 2 “SABE OW Beg h27-€c700.07 Fig. 13 - Plan View of Crane Showing Direction of Transverse Forces P, ‘Commentary: “The two direction combinations of forces P, shown in Fig. 13 are intended {o allow respectively for a toe-out or toe-in misalignment of the wheels, or a corresponding misalignment of the gantry rails. Note that the forces P, are equal on both ends of the crane. The forces are specified as being applied at both ends to enable an assessment to be made of the transfer of forces through the roof structure of a building. This is of particular importance in portal frame buildings and buildings having lightly constructed roof tusses, ‘where the presence of such forces might otherwise be overiooked. © Allowance for skewing of crane in plan, caused by wheel or gantry rail misalignment or by braking or acceleration of the crane with the crab at the extremity of its travel. 4) In the case of a crane not guided by rollers, apply at each wheel a force P, equal to 1,5 times the force P, (see (b) above). Assume the forces P, to act in either of the direction combinations shown in Fig. 14, whichever is the most severe, 72 2p fs p— \g p22 TABS 160 Org N33-CC/00-07 Fig. 14 - Plan View of Crane Showing Direction of Transverse Forces P, 2) In the case of a crane guided by horizontal rollers located at one end of the bridge, apply a force P, at each pair of rollers as shown in Fig. 15 such that the couple produced by the forces is equal to 1,3 times the couple that would have been produced by the forces P, at one end of a crane not guided by such rollers. Ps 0 o qj Q a |O o Sa ae Sip lec /on-07 Fig, 15 - Plan View of Crane Showing Direction of Transverse Forces P,SABS 0160-1989 82 (As amended 1993) 575 576 BIT 578 579 Arndt 3, Oct. 1999, 58 5.81 Commentary: ‘The forces imposed by guide rollers are difficult to determine accurately but are knowm to be severe. This subsection makes provision, albeitempirically, forthe action of quide rollers and is intended to ensure that gantry rails, theit fixings, and the lateral support of the girders, are adequately catered for in the design. ‘The reason for relating the forces P, to a couple and not directly to forces P, is that the forces P, depend upon the spacing of the guide rollers, the ‘spacing of the wheels, and the number of wheels per end carriage, and therefore a direct relationship could not have been presented in a simple form. Horizontal Longitudinal Force. Take the horizontal force imposed by @ crane on each line of rails, acting longitudinally in the direction of travel and caused by acceleration or braking, to be 0.10 times the sum of the maximum static wheel loads on that line of rails. Forces on End Stops. Take the horizontal force imposed on each end stop by a crane in the direction of travel to be the lesser of the following: a) A force equal to the combined weight of the crane bridge and crak ) a force calculated on the assumption that the crane strikes the end stop while travelling at its full rated speed, taking into account the resilience of the end stops and crane buffers. NOTE: In (a) and (b) above, the weight ofthe load carried by the crane may be ignored unless it is restrained in a horizontal direction as in a mast or claw crane, Position of Crane and Crab. In determining the crane loads set outin §.7.4-5.7.6, assume the magnitude of the load lifted by a crane (up to its rated capacity), the position of the crab on the crane bridge, and the position of the crane on the gantry, to be such as will produce the mostadverse effect upon the bullding or part ofthe building being designed. More than One Grane in a Building. Where more than one crane is to operate in a building, regardless of the number of bays, take the total forces imposed by such cranes to be as follows: Static whee! loads. from all cranes Allowance for impact as given in 6.7.3 from any two cranes. Horizontal forces as given in any one of 5.7.4(a), 5.7.4(b), and 5.7.5 from any two cranes Horizontal forces as given in either of 57.4(c) or 5.76 from any one crane Combination of Crane Lateral Forces and Wind Load. Where the effects of wind are to e considered in combination with the horizontal forces as given in any one of 5.7.4 - 5.7.6, then 0,5 times the nominal crane loads shall be taken as acting concurrently with the nominal wind load. OTHER LOADS Provision for Impact and Vibration. Ensure that where loads (arising from machinery runways, and other plant producing significant dynamic effects) are supported by or ‘communicated to the framework, allowance is made for these dynamic loadings.582 583 584 585 64 64.4 83 SABS 0160-1989 Lifting and Handling Equipment. Where lifting or handling equipment, including forklift trucks and trolleys for heavy loads or cranes, is intended to be or is likely to be placed ‘on any floor of a building and would result in loads in excess of those sel out in 5.4.1 or 5.4.2 being imposed on any area of siab or on any beam, make provision in the design ‘ofthe members concerned for the resultant maximum concentrated load orloads. Show inthe documentation such maximum concentrated load or loads for which the members have been designed. Lateral and Uplift Forces: a) Basement walls, etc. in the design of basement walls and other similar members. below ground level, due allowance must be made for the following forces: 1) The lateral force applied by adjacent soil; 2) fixed or moving loads on the surface of the adjacent soil; and 3) hydraulic force, b) Basement floors, etc. in the design of basement floors and other simitar members below ground level and below the level of a free water surface, due allowance must be made for upward hydraulic forces. Inertia Sway Forces a) Design all grandstands to resist the following inertia sway forces applied as indicated below to each row of seats or each row of standing accommodation, as applicable: 300 Nim parallel to each row, and 150 N/m normal to each row. b) Where, because of the occupancy of any building other than a grandstand, the activities within such building are liable to produce inertia effects, the designer must give consideration to such forces in the design process. Ceilings, Skvliahts and Similar Structures. Give consideration to the loads likely to be ‘supported by joists and hangers for ceilings, ribs or skylights, frames, and coverings of ceiling access hatches, and any similar structures. Such loads can be derived from ‘materials or workmen during construction and maintenance, and from electrical ftings, air-conditioning ducting and other services. IN-SITU LOAD TESTING OF BUILDINGS AND BUILDING ELEMENTS GENERAL ‘Types of Full Scale Load Tests. Full scale load tests fall into three main categories: a) Tests, as provided for in 3.1.2, which are used as an aid to the design of a structure or series of structures yet to be buil. b) Tests undertaken to monitor the quality or performance characteristics of serially produced buildings or components. ©) In-situ tests applied to a specific bullding, a set of buildings, or parts of buildings, completed or under construction, in order to assess whether they are in accordance with the basic standards of safety or serviceability (or both) inherent in the national building regulations and the associated codes of practice, either because of alleged or known inadequacies in design, construction or materials, or because of an intended extension of or change in use, or because of possible impairment of load-bearing capacity as a result of fire, corrosion, or similar agencies. Commentary: In-situ load testing is an aid to the assessment ofthe fiiness of a building or of part of a building to support a specified set of loads within a prescribedSABS 0160-1989 84 612 62 63 63.4 setof criteria. Itis an adjunet fo and nota substitute for engineering analysis or the exercise of competent professional judgement. This should be borne in mind in the planning, execution and interpretation of the results of load tests, Load testing should normally not be undertaken untl alternative avenues of investigation such as calculation, measurement, non-destructive material tesis, core diiling and testing, etc., have been found insufficient. Load testing should be preceded by a thorough analysis of the nature and extent Of the problem so that the objectives of the test or tests can be defined in detail and testing planned accordingly Tests of category 6.1.1(a) are usually applied to specially constructed assemblies and are more in the nature of development or quasi-research activities, and each individual case should be treated on its merits by the designer or by the competent research or testing authorty (or by both). Tesis of category 6.1.1(b) are part of the quality control specification for a contract and may therefore generally fall outside the scope of this code of practice. Tests of category 6.1.1(¢) are the primary concern of this section, although some of its principles may also apply to tests of categories (a) and (b) Furthermore, the section is mainly concerned with tests on suspended floor and roof constructions which are the cases most commonly encountered land which are covered in the structural design codes for various building materials, Probably the most significant difference between the three categories of load test is that, in general, the tests of categories (a) and (b) can be deliberately continued to failure to give @ direct measure of the safety reserves of the structure, whereas in a category (c) test, the objective is to assess whether the building will support he service loads with an adequate margin of safety but without so overloading it as to cause serious damage or collapse since, if the structure is found to be satisfactory, it must still be capable of being placed in service after the test. Planning. The competent authority (see also 6.2) will plan, execute and evaluate a load testor oad tests in accordance with the principles and guidelines contained in Section 6, where itis considered necessary to carry out such test or tests on a building or part of a building for any of the following reasons’ a) Doubts about the adequacy of the design or construction of an existing building or one that is under construction; b) damage or deterioration occasioned by fire or other agencies: ‘c) changed loading conditions. TESTING AUTHORITY. Ensure that the load test is designed, supervised and certified by a competent authority acting, whenever possible, in collaboration with the designer to ensure that the test effectively deals with those aspects of the construction that are in doubt. TEST PROCEDURES NOTE; Refer also fo A-2(),(q). and (1) of Appendix A. Planning. Ensure that at the planning stage of the test, there is, as far as possible, agreement between the parties concerned in regard to the following aspects: 2) The exact location, number and extent of the part(s) ofthe structure to be tested. (This will depend on the extent of the investigation.) i632 6.33 85 SABS 0160-1989 ) The test procedure to be adopted, including the following: 1) The various stages of loading and unloading, including making up for any part of the self-weight which may still be missing in a partially completed structure; 2) the levels of loading at each stage; 3) the allowances or procedures to be adopted to cater for lateral interaction or load transfer between the loaded and adjacent unloaded parts of the structure or for loads transferred to non-structural elements, or both: 4) the duration of each stage of loading and unloading, having regard to the creep characteristics of the materials of construction involved and the short-term or long-term nature of the service loads being simulated: 5) the method of application of the load, having regard to the nature of the service load being simulated; 6) the response parameters to be measured, such as deflection, rotation, strain, or crack formation, and the positions and methods of measurement; 7) the possible influence of, and methods of allowing for, the external environmental factors (e.g. moisture or temperature changes) which may be in force during the test. c) The criteria against which the results ofthe test and therefore the acceptability of the structure will be judged. Conducting of Tests a) Where the elements and materials concemed are designed in accordance with a specific code of practice and such code prescribes the load testing procedures and Interpretations for such elements and materials, the competent authority must ensure that procedures and interpretations are carried out in accordance with such prescriptions. 'b) Where the elements and materials concemed are not designed as set outin (a) above, follow the planning procedure as given in 6.3.1. Test Precautions a) Ensure that the condition of the structure and its materials (e.g. presence of floor screeds, maturity of concrete) is similar, within practical mits, to the minimum conditions assumed in the design. b) Adopt a method of loading that will ensure that the error in the applied load does not exceed 5 % of the applied load under service load conditions or 2 % of the maximum applied load in the overload test, whichever is the greater. ) Adopt methods of measuring the response of the structure that have an inherent accuracy of at least + 5 % of the maximum value expected in the tast. 4) Ensure that measurements of the deflection of members allow for settlement or elastic, deformation of the supports of the members. e) Ensure that adequate safety precautions are taken to prevent injury to persons and to avoid damage to property during the test, especially with regard to the possibly of collapse of the element under test. Commentary: ‘When tests are conducted, attention should be given to the following: a) The loading should preferably be applied in a sufficient number of increments (at least four) to enable a graph of load versus response (generally deftection) to be plotted during the test so that discontinuities or non-linearity in behaviour can be detected. ) For loads other than short-term transient loads (e.g. wind), creep behaviour should be allowed for by maintaining each increment ofload until the response (deformation) has stabilized. The deformation may be considered to have stabilized when the increase in deformation under constant load during @ given time interval (e.g. 5 min, or not more than one-quarter of the total ime for which the load incrementis maintained)‘SABS 0160-1989 (As amended 1993) Amdt 3 ‘Oct, 1993 86 does not exceed 15 % of the increase in deformation in the preceding (equal) time increment at the same load, Generally, each increment of load should be maintained for at least 30 min . ) Unloading may be done in one step but more useful information can often be obtained if unloading is done in step-wise fashion, using the same incrementai levels as for loading. Measurements of residual deformation after unloading should continue until the response has stabilized. d) Before the commencement of the loading test proper. a load to ‘compensate for the effect of that portion (ifany) of the self-weight load not already present in the assembly should be applied and maintained until all testing has been completed. The test proper should not commence until the deformation under the compensating load has stabilized. ) To allow for deformations of the structure and errors in measurement caused by temperature or other environmental changes, it is often advantageous, especially where the test extends over one or more days, to cary out a preliminary “dry run" during which no loads are applied but deformations are measured over a period of time corresponding to that over which the test will take place. if weather conditions, which should be ‘monitored, remain reasonably stable, then the deformations obtained in the dry run may be used for correcting the deformations measured during the loading test proper. 4) Lateral interaction or load sharing should be allowed for by loading a sufficient width of slab or panel or number of interconnected beams or trusses to ensure that all elements which are effectively interactive with the element under test are loaded, This may be determined by analysisin some cases; in others, the interactive width or number of elements may be determined by a preliminary load-sharing test up to a lower level of loading {not more than the characteristic or service load). For example, in such a fest, the selected beam or strip of a one-way slab is loaded and its (midspan) deformation and those at the corresponding points of the potentially nter-acting beams or strips of slab on either side are measured. ‘All beams or strips of slab that contribute more than 2,5 % to the sum of the deformations of the loaded and interacting elements are regarded as being effectively interactive. For wide one-way spanning slabs, such an analysis may be dispensed with if'a width of slab extending at least 1,5 times the span on either side of the portion under investigation is loaded in the test. For ribbed floors and similar ‘constructions, it may sometimes be possible to separate a narrower test section from the adjacent floor by cutting. For two-way spanning floor panels, it wll generally be necessary to load the whole panel. The number of one-way or two- way spans to be loaded will depend on whether the concem is with positive or negative moment behaviour (or both), shear strength, etc. Where non-load-bearing elements (such as partitions) with significant load-bearing properties ere present, these may have to be removed or cut free of slabs to ensure that they do not influence the test. 9) For checking the serviceability of the structure under working load ‘conditions, the applied test load(s) should normally be the nominal value(s) of the imposed loading, ie. the total load acting in the testis given by: 106,410, where G, = nominal self-weight Q, The load should be maintained until the response has been stabilized. At this stage it may be advantageous to unload the structure and repeat the = nominal imposed load87 SABS 0160-1989 leading procedure to allow for “bedding in" of the structure and instrumentation and to provide a check on observational techniques before proceeding with the overload test for structural safety. h) For assessing the safety (ultimate strength) of the structure, the load levels should be sufficiently in excess of the nominal values to provide a reliable indication of the overload behaviour, but not so large as to be likely to cause failure of an acceptable structure. For example, inlimit-state design terms, the total load appropriate for the test might reasonably be about 0,85 times the factored loads used in design for the ultimate limit state, On this basis, itis suggested that in the absence of other specific prescriptions, a maximum total load of 1,2 G, + 1,4 Q, be used during the test, to ensure safety. These values may need modification to aliow for duration of load effects with materials whose strength is highly time dependent. The values ‘should also be adjusted according to whether a single testis to serve as the basis for assessing a number of nominally similar structures or only the structure being tested. The load should be maintained until stabilization of deformation has occurred. i) The criteria for assessing compliance with the test for serviceability at working loads should normally be the design limits for deflection, deformation or cracking under service loads, reduced as may be necessary to.alow for any part of the loading effects or time effects not covered by the test measurements. A distinction is necessary between pre-existing cracks or deformations (which may have led to the need for a tes!) and those arising or extending curing the test. }) The structure under test may be deemed to have failed the test for safety or ultimate strength if one or more of the following conditions are attained: 41) The structure collapses or shows signs of distress or instabilly indicating that colapse is imminent 2) The maximum deflection exceeds span/50. 3) Cracking or other lacal damage spreads significantly under constantload. 4) The increase of deformation under constant load that occurs during each of three successive equal time intervals shows no decrease. The duration Of the intervals should be sufficient o enable the increments in deformation to be measured with sufficient accuracy fora valid comparison to be made. 5) The recovery of deformation after removal ofthe test load (after allowing ‘or stabilization to occur) is less than about 75 % of the maximum deformation during the test. (This value may be increased to 85 % for metal Structures, decreased to 70 % for timber structures and decreased to 80 % for plastics structures.) 6) The residual (permanent) deformation or racking (under dead load only) arising from the fest exceeds the values permitted in design for full service loading. k) When tests are performed on very sti structures, the deformations may be so small that they cannot be reliably determined and the criteria in ()¢4) and (6) above cannot reasonably be applied. 1) When structures are tested that are likely to exhibit brite fallures or iabilty failures, the assessment of performance becomes dificult since the response measurements may give no indication ofthe Imminonce of failure.SABS 0160-1989 88 (As amended 1990 and 1993) MM A2 Amdt 3, Oct. 1993 APPENDIX A. APPLICABLE PUBLICATIONS (This appendix does not form part of the provisions of the code) Reference is made to the latest issues of the following stendards: ‘ANSI AS8.1 Design loads for buildings and other structures, minimum, ATC 3-06 Applied Technology Council, 1978 180 2631 Evaluation of human exposure to wholebody vibration 180.4356 Bases for the design of structures. Deformations of buildings at the serviceability imit states 'SO 8930 General principles on reliabllly for structures - List of equivalent terms. ‘SABS 0100 The structural use of concrete ‘SABS 0137 The installation of glazing materials in buildings SABS 0161 The design of foundations for buildings ‘SABS 0162 The structural use of steel SABS 0163 The design of timber structures ‘SABS 0164 Structural use of masonry ‘SABS 0400 The application of the National Building Regulations ‘The information contained in this code of practice is considered adequate for the design of the majority of buildings. For those buildings, structures or elements that are not adequately covered or where special conditions apply or where additional information is desired by the designer, the following publications should be consulted: = Milford, RV “Annual maximum wind speeds for South Africa’, published in The civil engineer in South Africa, January 1987. @) NBRI Information Sheet X/BOU 2-41, ‘Wind flows around and pressures on buildings’, published by the National Building Research institute, CSIR, Pretoria, 1978, ) Weather Bureau Report WB 38, “Climate of South Arica, Part 12, Surface winds’, Published by the Weather Bureau, Department of Environment Affairs, Pretoria, 1975. ©) NEWBERRY and EATON, Wind loading handbook, published by the Building Research Establishment, HMSO, London, 1974. 4) The modem design of wind sensitive structures, published by the Construction Industry Research and information Association, London, 1971. (Wind characteristics, ‘along-wind response, vortex excitation, galloping, flutter.) ) Commentaries on Part 4 of the national building code of Canada _1877, published by the National Research Council of Canada, 1977. (Along-wind response: method and charts, vortex excitation, accelerations.) 1) DAVENPORT, AG, Gust loading factors, published by the American Society of Civil Engineers, Structural Division, Journal, Vol. 93, June 1967. (Along-wind response: method and charts.) ‘g) Australian Standard 1170, Part 2, 1975, “SAA loading code: “Wind forces”, published by the Standards Association of Australia, (Along- and cross-wind response discussed inan appendix.)89 SABS 0160-1989 (As amended 1880) h) VICKERY, Bd, ‘On the reliability of gust factors’, Civil Engineering Transactions of the Insfitule of Engineers, Australia, Vol. CE 13, No. 1, April, 1971. (Along-wind response: ‘method and charts.) |) SIMIU, E and SCANLEN, RH, Wind effects on structures - an introduction to wind ‘engineering, published by John Wiley, New York, 1978. (Wind characteristics, along-wind response: method and charts, vortex excitation, galloping, fluter, wind-induced discomfort in and around buildings.) )) SIMIU, E and LOZIER, DW, The buffeting of tall structures by strona winds, NBS Building Science Series 74, 1975, published by the National Bureau of Standards, US Dept. of Commerce, Washington, 1975. (Along-wind response: method and charts, ‘computer program. k) PINFOLD, GM, Reinforced concrete chimneys and towers, published by Viewpoint Publications, London, 1975. (Dynamic wind forces on chimneys, vortex excitation.) I) HOUGHTON, EL, and CARRUTHERS, NB, Wind f i : anintroduction, published by Edward Arnold, London, 1976. (Allaspecis of wind loading.) m) AYNSLEY RM, et al, Architectural aerodynamics, published by Applied Science Publishers, London, 1977. (All aspects of wind loading and environmental effects of wind.) n) CHASTEAU, VAL, "Wind effects on structures’, published in The civil engineer in ‘South Aftica, commenced in February, 1971 and concluded in March, 1971 issue: ‘Analysis for thunderstorm winds.) 0) DAVENPORT, AG and NOVAK, M, Vibrations of stru {nd bration handbook edited by Hats and Credo, published by MeGraw-Hil, 1876, ) ‘General recommendation for loading tests of load-bearing structures in situ’ preliminary recommendations of the 20-TBS Committee of RILEM, publishedin Materials No. 53, September - October 1976. q) MENZIES, JB, ‘Load testing of concrete building structures’, published in The structural engineer, Vol 56A, December 1978. 1) BARES, R and FITZSIMONS, N, ‘Load tests of building structures’, published by the ‘American Sociely of Civil Engineers, Structural Division, Journal, Vol. 101, No. STS, May 1975. s) Earthquake engineering, co-ordinating editor RL WIEGEL, published by Prentice Hall, USA. 1) Geological Survey - Seismological Series, compiled by FERNANDEZ, LM and GUSMAN, JA: No. 9 "Seismic history of Souther Africa’ No. 10 “Earthquake hazards in ‘Southern Africa’. u) Weather Bureau Report WB 36, "Climate of South Africa, Part 2, Extreme values of rainfall, temperature and wind for selected retum periods’, published by the Weather Bureau, Department of Environment Affairs, Pretoria, 1974. v) SCHWARTZ, HJ and CULLIGAN, PT, ‘Roof drainage of large buildings in South Africa’. The civil engineer in South Africa, August 1976. W) Hydrological Research Unit, Desian flood determination in South Africa, Report No. 1/72, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1972. x) CULLIGAN, PT, Compil 1n of drainage systems, MSc. Dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. y) Weather Bureau Report WB 20, “Climate of South Africa, Part 2, Rainfall statistics’ published by the Weather Bureau, Department of Transport, Pretoria. 2) DOWRICK, Dy. “Earthquake resistant design’, Wiley, 1977. aa) DOWRICK, DJ, "Earthquake resistantdesign. A manual for engineersand architects, Wiley - Interscience Publication, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1977, bb) FERNANDEZ, LM and SHAPIRO, A, Maps of the probabilities of earthquake ‘occurrence in South Africa. Geoiogical Survey, Pretoria, (1989, In press). cc) SHAPIRO, A and FERNANDEZ, LM, Probabilities of exceedance for prescribed peak ‘ground accelerations (PGA) at solected Southem Africa locations. Report No. 1987-0100, Geological Survey, Pretoria, 1987.SABS 0160-1989 90 B41 B2 B21 B22 B23 APPENDIX B. NOMINAL UNIT MASSES OF MATERIALS (This appendix does not form part of the provisions of the code) GENERAL. This appendix sets outa schedule of nominal unit masses of some materials used in the building process and of some liquids and semi-liquids. The values are given either as densities or as masses per unit area for a specific thickness, as appropriate. It is not possible to include a full range of all materials generally available or the many different forms of composite construction now in use because of the many combinations, and variations which are possible and available. The schedule endeavours to provide approximate information that can be used in preliminary calculations. The degree of accuracy necessary in subsequent calculations should be determined by the designer. The required information on the materials to be used in the construction of the building should be calculated on values determined in practice. Such calculations should also take into account the variations likely to be ‘encountered in the manufacturing process and in the climatic conditions of the particular area where the materials are to be used. ‘The values given in this appendix assume the materials to be in the dry state, unless otherwise stated and, where materials susceptible to moisture absorption are used in positions exposed to rain or water, due allowance for increase in mass must be made. BUILDING MATERIALS, GENERAL INSULATING MATERIALS Mass/unit area Expanded polystyrene foam : . 0,02 Folt, insulating ....... : : 02 Foamed polyurethane on Glass fibre mat ...... 0.04 METALS Density kof? ‘Aluminium alloys, eee Reie eee 2.800 Brass . 8500 Bronze... 8900 Copper: Cast... 8700 Wrought 8900 fron: Cast. a 7200 ‘Wrought i 7700 Lead 11300 Stainless stee! 7900 Steel et a aa 7800 Zinc: Rolled 7100 SUNDRY BUILDING MATERIALS ‘kolo Cork: Granular i ae 160 ‘Compressed 350 Glass... 2700 Macadam, waterbound 2.600 aie 2300 Tarmacadam\ | t 91 SABS 0160-1989 Mass/unit area koi? | Damp-proof coursing... 2.0.0 ae 5 j alm? per mm | thickness | Asphalt... . 2... E 22, Glass fibre (GRP) products .. et oz PVC products... 47 Paving, stonework 27 B24 TIMBER Density ° r Finishing: lroko 650 Mahogany -tasei strate eet eee tosernee : 520 Meranti . 530 t Sapele 570 Teak aoe 660 South African timber: | Structural up to Grade 6 . a 500 | up to Grade 10 700 { Imported timber | Structural pitch Douglas fir p nit | Timber boarding: Blockboard Chipboard : Fibreboard .. Floorboarding and blocks: Softwood - ree 05 Hardwood if 08 Hardboard (der e) : 1 Plywood ot 06 Woodwoo! 06 B3 CEMENT, CONCRETE AND CONCRETE PRODUCTS, Bat AGGREGATES Density kam? Cementin bulk... ....6eeeees : se 1450 | Coarse aggregates: | Normal weight natural aggregates ...... : 1600 | Lightweight: Clinker, foamed slag, expanded clay | : 700 | Fine aggregates: ae 1600 Normal weight: Sand... 7 Lightweight: Clinker, foamed siag, expanded clay... .. ss 1000‘SABS 0160-1989 92 B32 CONCRETE Density kgim? | iain, unreinforced: | Nominal ..... : cesses 2300 | Using broken brick aggregate 2.2... ceeececereeeeeee 2.000 | Lightweight aggregate : : 1500 | Reinforced: i Nominal ...... ac : 2.400 f B% reinforcement oe eee eee teense 2.500 3 % reinforcement : : 2.600 Special heavyweight concrete: Using natural heavy aggregates Seen 3.200 t Using steal shot aggregates ....... renee 5200 83.3 FINISHES Mass/unit area kalm? per mm thickness Plaster: Cement and sand ... 23 Gypsum ... : Hat Lightweight vermiculite <<... ieapeersnereuarneparsssaniec | Lime a 19 Granolithc, terrazzo, screeds : oe - 23 Paving slabs, precast ........ 2.2005 eer 24 REINFORCED SLABS Mass/unit area kai? Solid slabs: Thickness 75mm... - 180 00 Rime. te ti 240 150mm... eH ae0. peDrami eet 610 | 300 mm : = 730 | B35 FIBRE-CEMENT ROOF SHEETING (Laid, including taps and fixings and at moisture content of 15 %) Mass/unit area kal’ Corrugated roof shoots... eee eeeeeee neers sae 150 Long span roofing elements coe 20.0 NOTE: The above are average values to cover the main types of sheeting in general use, B4 FLOORING | Mas rea ka/m? per mm } thickness ‘lay floor tiles, including screed etc 44 i Grenolithic, terrazzo... : 23 I Floor coverings: Flexible PVC : f 16 | Rubber ... ee 17 } Vinyl asbestos 22 :B51 B52 B53 B54 93 SABS 0160-1989 ‘WALLING BRICKWORK Masslunitarea kai? Nominal 120 mm wide clay bricks in half-brick wating Solid bricks ... i Hi . nee 260 Perforated bricks Sora ENT 220 BRICKWORK AND BLOCKWORK, GENERAL Mass/unit area Blocks, hollow clay. Bricks: Calcium silicate Common clay Facing clay Refractory CONCRETE BLOCK WALLING Mass/unit area kal? Nominal 200 mm wide blocks made from: ‘Stone aggregate: Solid blocks ............... eee 440 Hotlow blocks 2220020000000. ci 280 Lightweight aggregate: Solid blocks . 260 Hollow blocks : : 210 STONEWORK Density aim’ Granite Reena coe 2700 Limestone .. 2500 ‘Sandstone 2300 Slate. 2800 ‘Stone rubble, packed 2200 Quarry waste... 1500 Hardcore, ‘consolidated 1.900 STORED MATERIALS LIQUIDS AND SEMI-LIQUIDS Bulk density a liquid stored in carboys, use 0,5 of the bulk density. Fora liquid stored in drums, use 0,75 of the bulk density Acids: Acetic SERS Eee = Het 1050 Hydrochioric 2.0... ccs ae EF . sane 1160 Nitric a 1350 Sulphuric... 1850 Alcohol, commercial . B00 900 ‘Ammonia | | iSABS 0160-1989 Beer: Bulk . Bottles in cases Barrels Benzine Bitumen oo... Methylated spirits Linseed oi 900 Mik... Mineral oils: Naphtha ... Paraffin Petrol... Petroleum oll Pulp (wood) Tar, pith ..... Turpentine Water: Fresh... Sea-water ..... Wine: Bulk .......... Bottles in cases 1050 750 800 700 00 750 1200 850 1000 4.050 14000 600ct 2 c2t 22 c23 c3 oat 95 SABS 0160-1989 APPENDIX C. NOMINAL IMPOSED LOADS (This appendix forms part of the provisions of the code) NOMINAL IMPOSED FLOOR LOADS IN FACTORIES AND WAREHOUSES, Imposed floor ioads in factories and warehouses consist of the following: a) Forces, including dynamic effects if any, that are due to the following manufacturing equipment: 1) Stafionary plant and suspended manufacturing equipment, and 2) industrial pipelines. b) Forces, including dynamic effects if any, that are due to the following handling ‘equipment: 41) Fixed handling equipment (conveyors, elevators, rollers; ete.), and 2) mobile handling equipment (trucks, cars, overhead cranes (see 5.7), etc.). +c) Forces due to staircases, ramps and access gangways, including movable building parts such as partitions. 4) Forces due to service equipment (heating, ventilating, etc.) and associated equipment. @) Forces due to materials and products, including waste products and animals, etc., used in production. 4) Loads due to people (operational staff, probable visitors). 49) Forces of an unusual nature (for example, forces resulting from the failure of hoppers. ‘of mechanical equipment). NOMINAL IMPOSED LOADS IN GENERAL ‘The characteristic value of the imposed floor load is the 95 % value of the least favourable load which has a probability, accepted from the outset, of not being exceeded uring the service life of the building, In the absence of the necessary statistical data, the nominal value should be chosen in accordance with the given (or expected) conditions ‘of normal use of the building and its various floor zones. (This nominal value should be verified from simitar buildings.) When structural members are being designed and calculations made, account should be taken of possible simultaneous actions of imposed floor loads. For certain loading conditions which are interdependent, the characteristic value should be determined stafisticaly for the least favourable combination of the loads. For floor loads whose floor position may alter, account should be taken of the least favourable position relative to the structural members being calculated for. ‘The influence of dynamic forces arising from operations with dynamically unbalanced ‘equipment, from the shifting of heavy loads over the floor, or from goodsin storage falling ‘or becoming suddenly displaced, should be taken into consideration, by calculating the structures dynamically or by using suitable dynamic coefficients. ESTABLISHMENT OF IMPOSED FLOOR LOADS Data conceming loads for calculations in respect of load-bearing structures should include the values, directions and any application diagrams for floor loads (uniformly distributed, concentrated, static and dynamic), determined on the basis of information available conceming weight, overall dimensions and position of items, and the fixing of equipment to floors, as well as the characteristics of machinery installed, etc. If erection loads are to be taken into account, their values and their possible positions on the lfing ‘gear (including positions of material already lifted and of the gear and its heaviest parts) should be determined.SABS 0160-1989 96 C32 C33 34 C35 36 car ‘The chief sources of the data referred to above are as follows: ‘a) Standards and catalogues of equipment; b) data supplied by the equipment suppliers; ‘¢) advice from experts responsible for the technical side of the building being designed; 4d) data supplied by the users of the building When the nominal load from the weight of manufacturing plant is being determined, account should be taken of 1a) the weight of the plant (including the weight ofthe drive, additional bearing devices, and insulation); 'b) the weight of the heaviest pieces under treatment or the weight of the products being processed (liquids, materials in bulk); ©) the weight of gangways and working platforms: 4) loads accruing from necessary maintenance or repiacement of stationary plant. ‘The weight of the product being processed should be determined by using its maximum, possible volume under normal operation in the plant. ‘When nominal loads due to handling equipment are being determined, the weight of the machine should be taken as its weight under working conditions (ie. allowance should be made for the weight of fuel, power sources, etc. and the load carried should be taken a8 equal to the nominal load-iiting capacity of the machine. Nominal loads in garages depend on the weights of vehicles, probable service ‘equipment, spare parts, etc., with provision for the values of possible loads on the vehicles depending on the types of vehicles and conditions of garage use. ‘Nominal loads in warehouses should be determined with regard to the types of materials. stacked and the methods of storage. Account should be taken of the greatest volume. of materials (the greatest number of stacked articles) located on the area of the floor under normal operational conditions of the warehouse, allowing for the densest stacking of materials and articles and the possible effect of the increase in density of some materials when stored for a long time (e.9. effects of the increase in moisture). When loads on floor zones not occupied by stationary equipment and in warehouses are being defined, provision should be made for loads from mobile handling equipment and for the following loads: 42) Loads due to crowds of people possible during normal operation of the structure; b) loads due to materials and semi-finished products temporarily stored near the processing equipment (at intervals between machining operations or ready for transport to the warehouse); 6) loads due to the weight of waste products, ete. When stresses and deformation in buildings are being calculated, the actual floor loads may be replaced by simplified load diagrams of equivalent effect. pice aayD4 Dad DA2 97 SABS 0160-1989 APPENDIX D. WIND FORCES (This appendix forms part of the provisions of the code) DYNAMIC EFFECTS. ALONG-WIND RESPONSE. Three basically similar methods of analysis which nevertheless involve slightly different assumptions and simplifications are covered in detail in A-2(e), (f) and (g), A-2(h) and A-2()) and (j) of Appendix A. OF these, the last appears to be based on the most realistic set of assumptions, All three methods are based on determining the effective peak loading or response as the sum of the (static) mean component associated with the mean (e.g. hourly) wind speed and an equivalent static component due to the short-term fluctuations (gustiness) of the wind about this mean. The latter component takes account of the distribution of energy in the wind fluctuations in relation fo the size, natural frequency and damping characteristics of the structure. ‘These methods of analysis have become known as gust factor or gust energy methods. As presently formulated, they apply only to wind originating in mature large-scale storms (extreme pressure system winds) and not to winds in localized storms such as the thunderstorms which are a primary source of extreme gusts on the Highveld. Such thunderstorms are characterized by low mean speeds and high gust speeds, and the variation of wind speed with height is known to be less than for large-scale storms. Furthermore, the relationship between thunderstorm wind speeds and different types of terrain has not yet been quantified. Reference A-2(n) of Appendix A gives a method of analysing the response of a structure to the sequence of peak gusts which characterize the initial stage of a thunderstorm, This approach involves certain rather arbitrary assumptions and has not yet been calibrated with the use of field observations. Gust factor methods should not be used for buildings of height less than 75 m in areas of Terrain Category 4 or less than 30 m in areas of Terrain Category 3. VORTEX EXCITATION a) The asymmetrical shedding of vortices into the wake of a bluff body and the resultant variation in cross-wind force tend to be periodic with a frequency which varies with the (mean) wind speed and is given by = aoe p(t) where n= the vortex shedding frequency $= the Strouhal number V,_ = the mean wind speed b= the breadth of the structure (across wind) Values of S are approximately 0,2 for circular cross-sections and 0,15 for rectangular cross-sections, F t ESABS 0160-1989 98 ( but the actual values are dependent on the Reynolds number and on the amplitude of oscillation of the structure, and there is some uncertainty about the values at large Reynolds numbers (i. in the region of 10”). ») If the frequency of vortex shedding at some wind speed within the expected range of design speeds coincides with the natural frequency of vibration of a flexible, lightly damped structure, then resonance and correspondingly large amplitudes of cross-wind oscillation can occur. If the ampiitudes of oscillation are large enough, the resulting interactive effects may force the frequency of vortex shedding to "lock in" to the natural frequency of the structure, even when the wind speed changes somewhat. t ‘The eriical (i. resonant) wind velocity is thus given by nob = pe) where 1, = the natural frequency ofthe structure i The calculation should normally be based on conditions at the top of the structure (z=). | ‘Where V.q lies well above the design range of wind speeds at the top of the structure, | fesonance will not oocur. Where Vz is within the design wind speed range, resonance | ‘may occur and further analysis is necessary to assess the magnitude of the response | and whether methods of reducing the response or preventing resonance are necessary. i For assessing the likelihood of occurrence of vortex shedding, a range of Strouhal | numbers should be considered, e.g. for cylindrical structures, Shas a value in the range 0,15 to 0.25. In the use of the above formulae and in the assessment of the resonant response, the problem arises of deciding on the appropriate wind speed averaging time. Clearly, the appropriate mean wind speed is that which persists for long enough to ensure that appreciable oscillation amplitudes can build up. Thus the 3s gust will be an overestimate while the hourly mean will be an underestimate. An averaging time corresponding to about 30 cycles of oscillation would seem to be appropriate. ©) An estimate of the wind speed averaged over a time interval of T seconds may be obtained by multiplying the relevant hourly mean speeds (see D-1.3) by the following factors: TABLE D-1 - WIND SPEED MULTIPLYING FACTORS. Terrain category so [30 Te [300 Ts00 [1000 [3600 ory 1 ats [ise [ato [106 | 1.05 [103 [1.00 Category 2 136 [120 [12s | ass | as | 108 | 100 caepoy senda | 105 | ssa | 146 | 128 | 120 | 114 | 100 Of the many methods of calculating vortex shedding response itis suggested that, for structures of approximately uniform cross-section, the method given in A-2(0) of Appendix A provides a simple and reasonably conservative estimate of the response, having regard to the many uncertainties sill existing in this aree. According to this approach, the dynamic effect of resonant vortex shedding may be approximated by the influence of a static lateral force per unit height, acting in the direction of oscillation, and varying in the same manner as the mode shape from the base to a value F, al the top | such that |0-13 D2 D241 99 SABS 0160-1989 = S c.b4 213) & where B = the critical damping ratio which may range from 0,001 to 0,02, depending on whether the construction is for instance an unlined welded steel stack or a reinforced concrete frame building with infill walls Cc = a lift coefficient which is dependent on turbulence, surface roughness, Reynolds number and aspect ratio or amplitude of oscllation. C, generally lies inthe range 0,16-0,25 for eylindors dax = the velocity pressure for the critical speed V,q. Note that the value of gux and hence of F, is very sensitive to the choice of values for parameters ‘Sand n,, which may often only be known approximately HOURLY MEAN WIND SPEEDS FOR DYNAMIC ANALYSIS. Maximum values of hourly mean wind speeds for a 50-year retum period at a height of 10 m in Terrain Category 2 for use in gust energy and vortex shedding calculations are given in Fig. D-1. The correction factor in Fig. 4 may be used to obtain an estimate of the values for other return periods. NOTE: The variation with height of the hourly mean wind speed dtfers significantly from that for gust ‘speeds and the power-iaw exponents ain Table 5 do not apply. The following expressions may be used to describe the variation with height ofthe hourly mean wind speed: ‘Terrain Category 4 ott 2,= 250m, 2,=0 045 3,=300m,2,=0 025 27,2400 m,z,=5m ‘Terrain Category 4 v.=167v 2-2) 036 7, =600 m,z,= 12m 2% where Vis the hourly mean speed at a height of 10 m in Terrain Category 2. As in the case of gust speeds, its considered advisable not to allow for any decrease 'nwind epeed below neigts of mit Terrain Categories 1, 2 and 3 end 20/m in Terrain rategory 4. CHANGES IN TERRAIN CATEGORIES GENERAL. Where a change in terrain category occurs, the wind speed profile for that particular condition does not develop to the full height h immediately but develops to a lesser height f,, which increases with the fetch or distance upwind x.SABS 0160-1989 100 D-22 LOW TOHIGH NUMBER. Where transition is from an area of low terrain roughness to an area of rougher terrain (Le. rom a low category number to a high category number), | the wind speed profile over the rougher terrain is determined as follows (see Fig. D-2) a) Below height h,, the speed is determined in relation to the rougher terrain. b) Above height f,, the speed Is determined in relation to the less rough (more distant) terrain. ietersbur 20 25 ‘ Pretoria| Johannesburg| g@ | \ Alexander Bay = 3 Usingtan ‘imberley i 2 jLoemfontei t 3 30 30 jeautort Wes S East London | ‘Geopae: cape Town GearDe SW port Elizabeth | 35 8 20 25 30 i Shas 10 Longitude, des. ing s02-Ecst-03 | Fig, D-1 - Maximum Mean Hourly Wind Speeds (m/s) for a 50-Year Retum Period in Terrain Category 2 (NOTE: For Otnor Retur Periods, se0 Fi. 3.) D-23 HIGH TO LOW NUMBER. Where transition is from an area of rough terrain to an area of less rough terrain (i.e. from a high category number to a low category number), the ‘wind speed profile over the less rough terrain is determined as follows (see Fig. D-3): a) Above height h,, the speed is determined in relation to the rougher terrain. ) Below height h,, the speed is taken as the lesser of 41) that determined in accordance with the less rough terrain, and 2) the speed at height h, as determined in relation to the rougher terrain, |101 SABS 0160-1989 x, = fetch hg height for Category & (Table 5} Profile for Category 4 Profite for Category 2 Design profile ct A —> Wind direction Category 4 TABS 0160 D Category 2 700-07 Fig. D-2 - Wind Speed Profiles - Wind Blowing from Terrain of Lower to Higher Category Number x= fetch hy = height for Category 2 (Table 5} sesees Profile for Category & Profile for Category 2 Design profile at A Category & Category 2 2 “SARS 0160, Brg *429-£¢/00-07 Fig. D-3 - Wind Speed Profiles - Wind Blowing from Terrain of Higher to Lower Category Number D-24 MORE THANONE CATEGORY. Terrain changes involving more than one category are treated ina manner similar to those changes described in D-2.2 and D-2.3(see example given in Fig. D-4).SABS 0160-1989 102 D3 D4 D32 fetch height for Category 4 (Table 5) h, fetch height for Category 1 Category 3 | Category 1 | A Category 48 * iH Profile for Category & Profile for Category 3 Profile for Category 1 Design profile Height j Height) ee \ " ‘y i hyo hy “I / A hy hy OP hgehy Beet 7 seete tetcee Vee Speed ‘Speed Speed ABS 0160 Drg.11435-£6/00-07 Fig 0-4 - Wind Speed Profiles where More than ‘One Terrain Category is involved THE EFFECT OF A CLIFF OR AN ESCARPMENT ON THE HEIGHT z ABOVE GROUND GENERAL. The design wind speed of a building on or near the edge of an escarpment ora relatively sudden change in ground level should be determined by using an effective height measured from an artificial ground datum Z, as determined in D-3.2. DETERMINATION OF ARTIFICIAL GROUND DATUM a) Where the average slope of the escarpment given by the ratio h,/y, (see Fig. D-5) is equal to or less than 0,3, measure the effective height from the natural ground surface adjacent to the building. b) Where the ratio h/y, exceeds 0,3, measure the effective height from the ariicial ‘ground datum Z, obtained as in Fig. D-5, ie. from A-D take 2, to be AB, and from D-E ‘obtain Z, by interpolation. Beyond E take Z, 1o be CDE where AB = the average ground level atthe bottom of the escarpment BC = the average face of the escarpment CDE = the average ground level at the top of the escarpment Z, = the artificial ground datum h, = the vertical height of the escarpment ¥, = the horizontal length of the escarpment103 ‘SABS 0160-1989 Fig. D-6 ~ Determination of Artificial Ground Datum D4 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY PRESSURE 9g, D-4.1 The value of velocity pressure q, may be found from Fig. 0-6.SABS 0160-1989 _peinssaig AooI@n 10; ude - 9-0 Bi eoua/aeeen a0 nu pases pum, (O30 Sev sju'7) paads pum sao ood so gH OL0'O ‘aanssacd K4:30184 7 S/W Le ‘paads pum E60 Jardyinw paads pum 0 i aenjanays .y, $801) ze :punos6 aaoqa’ yyBiay S/u on ‘paads pum r1S0q jaUe!5ay uy 1yoRH w 2 16iaH 2 0 ainyansis o 7 yo ssny) wn 76 aunssaud Aypojan 2 os Auobayn) ——4 05 wns oo'z Sth OSE SZL_ 00, Sud oso seo 0 - : sg o a of oe 8 oo cece eee eee = oy sae eee Zin fois pom a i 000 | a180q 1DUCIBay os fH us ® Ow norm oes — ” « i ooz «Sct OSL SZS OL Su’ SO go uh so 80 Lo v0 0 28/9 7b aunssase Ai00199 We peads DUIEA £2 B21 £22 53 £34 105 SABS 0160-1989 APPENDIX E. DEFORMATION OF BUILDINGS (This appendix does not form part of the provisions of the code) NOTE 2) The information contained inthis appendix is based on information given in ISO 4956. ) The following deffnitons relate only fo words or phrases appearing in this appendix: ‘Long-term temporary action. Any action that occurs ether for relatively lang periods of ime or for short DBeriods of ime that recur repeatedly over a long period, ‘Shor-term temporary action. Any action that occurs ony for short periods of time and that affects the ‘Sructure infequenti. “Temporary action, Any action that occurs ony at certain times during the construction or existence ofthe ‘sructure, or whose magnitude cannot in practice be considered constant GENERAL The aim of this appencixis to assist the designer toidentify hose aspects of deformation that affect the suitability of a building for the purposes for which itis intended, and to suggest criteria by which the performance of the building can be assessed. In addition, numerical values for some of these criteria are suggested in order to give some guidance where this might be desired. ‘The recommendations for criteria of deformation, and the suggestions for limiting values, are given in Table 1 and in Tables E-1 to E-5 of this appendix. In view of the wide range of acceptable values of some of the criteria, and in view also of the difficulties of estimating deformations, itis believed that some guidance towards uniformity and degree of compliance would be of assistance, particularly as the economics of modem building designs are increasingly controlled by deformation and ‘maintenance during use. ‘Some suggestions are therefore made in regard to the methods for controling the assessment of deformations. APPLICATION TYPE OF BUILDING. This appendix refers to the deformations atthe serviceability limit states of buildings that are covered by this code of practice, namely 2) residential and institutional buildings; ) offices and commercial buildings; ©) public buildings; and 4d) storage and genera! industrial buildings. ADJACENT BUILDINGS. Attention is drawn to the fact that the provision of movernent jpints between adjacent buildings and the avoidance of interference with neighbouring foundations are normal good building practice, and that it is undesirable that the deformations ofa building damage adjacent buildings or inconvenience thelr occupants or other members ofthe public. CAUSES OF DEFORMATION GENERAL. Deformations are caused by major ground movements, by differential setttements of foundations, by environmental and occupational loads, by pre-stressing forces and by movements of building materials to creep and changes in temperature, in moisture content and in chemical composition.SABS 0160-1989 106 £3. Ea E44 E42 EFFECTS AND REMEDIES. Beside possibly affecting the strength or stability of a structure, deformations may affect serviceability by causing damage to adjacent parts of the building, by disturbing or harming the occupants, or by preventing proper use of the building ‘In many such cases, the designer may be able to avoid troublesome effects either by removing the original cause or by taking suitable precautions in the process of design and construction to permit some or al ofthe deformation to occur freely, before or after completion of the building, and masking the remainder by suitable constructional or decorative treatment. This course of action has the advantage that it avoids the problem of precisely estimating the magnitudes of causes and their effects. It can be adopted ‘when the deformations, and the constructional measures taken, do not conflict with other requirements of the design. Some troubles that may often be dealt with in this way are listed in E-8. Camber can be used to reduce the final value of deflections. The normal use of camber Is to reduce the contribution to deformations that is made by self-weight and other permanent or long-term temporary action. In other cases, the designer may have no option but to provide sufficient stifiness to limit the deformations and thus reduce their effects to acceptable levels; this will inevitably increase the first cost of the structure. The designer may choose this course or choose to combine both approaches. LIMITATIONS GENERAL. Limitations may need to be applied to vertical or horizontal deflections or deviations, to inclinations, to curvatures, to the widths of cracks or to the effects of vibrations. The limitation of beam or slab deformations may be basically a matter of deflection, rotation or curvature. However, these requirements are specified throughout this document in terms of defiection, or of deflection in relation to span, since this is the most easily observable parameter. For simply supported spans under uniformly distributed loading, the slope at the ends may be taken as equal to 3 times the ratio of medial deflection to span, and the radius of curvature at the middle as equal to the span divided by 10 times the deflection/span ratio. LEVELS OF MAGNITUDE. When specifying limitations, itis necessary to consider the levels of magnitude at which the actions that cause deformations should be assumed to ‘occur. A knowledge of this is essential if designers and the local authorities are to find ‘a common basis for assessing and controlling deformations, ‘Some of the factors that enter into this consideration are 4) the extent to which information is available about the actions or propetties involved, land the degree of accuracy of any estimates of the effects likely to be produced; ») the possible response of the building or member, in view of the duration ofthe action in question; ¢) the probability of the simultaneous occurrence of several actions contributing to a given kind of deformation; 4) the consequent levels of dissatistaction. tn connection with (c) above it wll be noted that both spatial and chronological variations, of disturbing actions are involved and also that, given the necessary data, an estimate of the combined probability might be mado; in the absence of sufficient data it becomes necessary to adopt other means of expressing the reduced magnitudes of several actions that should be assumed to be present simultaneously. i