PH 110

PHYSICS LABORATORY
Instruction Manual
CONTENTS

Page

#
(i) Instructions to Students
2
(ii) Introduction to Error Analysis
Expt 1. Decay of current in a capacitive circuit
8
Expt 2. Forced and damped oscillations
11
Expt 3. Study of Hall effect
15
Expt 4. Magnetic field along the axis of a coil
18
Expt 5. Compound pendulum
21
Expt 6. Speed of light in a glass medium
23
Expt 7. Fraunhofer diffraction: Single Slit
27

Expt 8. Velocity of sound in air

30
Expt 9. Photovoltaic effect: Solar cell
33

Department of Physics
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati
January - May 2008
Course Coordinator: Dr. Naveen Kumar Nishchal
Instructions to Students
Introduction:
Experiments provide a way of scientific enquiry and probing nature
through observations. A physics laboratory course gives exposure to
this. Physics experiments also lead to important technological
applications. Therefore, any educational programme in science and
technology cannot be complete without having experience in the
laboratory work.
As a scientist and technologist, you will be dealing with various kinds of
instruments and apparatus throughout your carrier. You will be greatly
benefited from the beginning if you take a serious and enthusiastic
attitude towards experimental work. There is no substitute for the
experience that you gain by conducting even a simple laboratory
measurement.
In addition to improve understanding Physics, a laboratory course would
expose you to the technology of measurement, use of basic instruments
and methodology of data analyses and the scientific documentation.
Moreover it offers a student the unique opportunity of learning science
by doing rather than by reading.
This manual provides a brief theoretical background and complete
procedure for performing the experiments. Also some references have
been given at the end of each experiment for further reading.

Specific Instructions:
1. Assessment in the course is based on (i) your performance in the
laboratory class (ii) your laboratory report, and (iii) the semester
examination.
2. A prior study about the experiment is essential for good
performance in the class. Read the instruction manual carefully
before coming to the lab class. If you come unprepared to the lab;
your performance would be accordingly affected.
3. You are expected to perform the experiment, complete the
calculations and data analyses, and submit the report of
every experiment on the same day within the laboratory
slot assigned for it.
4. You must bring with you the following material to the lab:
report sheets (A4 size paper), pen, pencil, small scale, this
instruction manual, graph sheets, calculator, a file cover, and any
other stationary items required.
5. Submit the file cover to the Technical Assistant on the day
of very first experiment. You should file your record regularly in
your file. You are not allowed to take your reports back. You
will be given your file and records back before the end semester
examination.
6. At least one set of observations must be signed by one of the
instructors.
7. It is important to estimate the maximum possible error of the
results using the given apparatus/data.
8. Each graph should be well documented; abscissa and ordinate
along with the units should be mentioned clearly. The title of the
graph should be stated on the top of each graph paper.
9. You are expected to give a careful thought on the precautions to
be observed in handling any equipment and conducting the
experiment. In case of any doubt you should feel free to interact
with the instructors.
10. Following is the format of the report:
i. Name, Roll No., date, and title of the experiment.
ii.Objective of the experiment, working formula (you might have to
derive it starting from the expressions given in the instruction
manual particularly for the linear fit to the data.), explanation
of the symbols and the figure/figures if required.

iii.Least count of all the equipment, constants if any to be used

and the well tabulated observations. Observation tables should
be neat and self-explanatory. (Typical tabular columns have been
given for some of the experiments. You may make your own
format).
iv.Relevant substitutions, calculations, and error analyses.
v.Graph/graphs if applicable.
vi.Results along with the error estimates.
vii.Remarks/suggestion/comments, if any.
(Your lab report should be ready with (i) and (ii) above
before coming to the lab. Some marks are allocated for
this initial preparation.)
11.Tentative scheme for evaluation:
Day to day performance in the lab
20%
(initial preparation, general skill, and viva-voce)
Records

40%

End semester examination

40%

Introduction to Error Analysis

All physical measurements are subject to various types of errors. It is
important to reduce the effect of errors to a minimum. In order to know
the uncertainty in measurement or to know the deviation from the true
value of a measured quantity, it is important to have an idea of the
sources of error as well as estimates. Errors involved in any
measurement may be broadly classified as (a) systematic error and (b)
random error.

(a)Systematic error
Errors that are not revealed through an entire set of measurements are
termed systematic errors. Systematic errors may arise because of
instrumental defect or experimental bias.

i.Instrumental errors
Zero offset (instrument does not read zero when input is zero) or
incorrect calibration of the instrument or changes of calibration
conditions (due change in temperature, pressure or any other
environmental changes) are the example of instrumental errors. Zero
error can be detected before hand and all the observations are

corrected accordingly. For the purpose of this course, it could be

assumed that the given instrument is calibrated correctly.

ii. Experimenters bias

This is a common source of error arising from some bias of the
experimenter and is difficult to eradicate. For example parallax error
in reading an analog meter is often encountered if care is not taken
to view the indicator needle perpendicular to the meter face.
Systematic errors are hard to handle. They are best identified and
eliminated.

(b)Random errors
Fluctuations in the recording of data or in the instrumental measuring
process result in random errors. The effect of random errors can be
minimized by appropriate data processing techniques.

Probable error
It is known from experience that the repetitive measurement of a single
quantity x shows up fluctuating deviations from the average. The
probability of occurrence of these deviations is expressed by the normal
distribution.
1 x - x 2
1
P ( x )dx =
exp -
dx
2
s
s 2p

(1)
where P(x)dx is the probability that
around x.

the observation lies in an interval dx

is the mean given by

x=

xP( x )dx

(2)
and s is the standard deviation given by
1

2
= x x P ( x ) dx

(3)
The quantity s is a measure of spread of observations about
discrete set of data

x.

With a

(4)

1
x = i xi
N

s =
(5)

2
1
2
N ( xi x )
i

where N is the total number of observations.

For a small set of data, the best estimate of the standard deviation is given by

s2 =

1
2
( N 1) ( xi x )
i

(6)
and s 2 is known as the variance.

Maximum possible error

Most of the experiments involve measurement of several different
quantities, which are combined to arrive at the final deduced quantity y.
Measurement of each of these quantities is limited in accuracy by the
least count of the instrument. These errors give rise to a maximum
possible error. It can be estimated in the following manner.
Suppose the physical quantity, y is given by the relation
y=

cx x

(7)
where C, m and n are known constants. Experimental determination of y
involves measurement of x1 and x2. The overall maximum uncertainty
or maximum possible error in y is given in terms of errors Dx1 and Dx2 in
the quantities x1 and x2 respectively, by

x1
x 2
y
+|n|
=|m|
y
x1
x2
(8)
Note that both contributions add up to give the maximum possible error
in y, irrespective of whether m or n is +ve or -ve.
This can be illustrated with the help of the following example:
The electrical resistivity of a wire of circular cross section is given by

r 2V
lI

(9)
where r is the radius and l is the length of the wire, V is the voltage and
I is the current flowing through the wire. The maximum possible error in
the

measurement

of

depends

resistivity

on

the

fractional

V
I
current etc. and is given by
uncertainties in the voltage
V
I

=2

r l V
I
+
+
+
r
l
V
I

(10)

Least squares fit

When the data (xi ,yi) are linearly related by
y = ax + b
(11)
the best estimates for the slope a and intercept b of the straight line are
obtained as follows:
If y is the true value as defined by the Eq. 11, then one should minimize
the quantity

( y
i

y)
i

= ( y a xi b ) 2
i
i

with

respect

to

and

b.

By

differentiating this expression w.r.t. a and b, setting them to zero and

solving the two simultaneous equations, we get the best estimates of a
and b as

a=

N x i y xi y
i

N xi
x i
i
i

(12)

y x
b

xi xi

2
i

N xi

xi
i

(13)
After obtaining the values of a and b, plot the straight line y = ax + b
using those values. Plot the observed points too on the same graph.
See how well the data are clustered around this straight line. Quite often
you may be able to reduce the equation to the linear form by a suitable
rearrangement. For example if y = cex, then lny = lnc + x, so a plot of
ln(y) versus x would be a straight line.

1.Decay of Current in a Capacitive Circuit

Objective:
To study the decay of current in an RC circuit.

Theory:
A capacitor can be used to store the energy by accumulation of charges
and a charged capacitor can be used to deliver the energy by
discharging it through a load. Both charging and discharging are not
instantaneous. It can be shown that the charging and discharging times
depend on the capacitance and total resistance of the circuit.

K1

Vo

K2

A
Fig. 1.1
a) Charging:
For the circuit (Fig 1.1), (with switch K1 closed and K2 open) having a
capacitance C, a resistance R and a source of constant voltage V0, the
equation for the potential (neglecting the source resistance and
resistance of the ammeter) is
q
Vo =iR +
C
(1)
where i is the current in the circuit and q is the charge accumulated on
the capacitor. Both i and q may be functions of time. Since i = dq/dt we
get the equation for q as

Vo =R

dq q
+
dt C

(2)
The solution of this equation is
t /
q
= CVo (1 e )
(3)
where
is the time constant of the circuit and is equal to RC. The
current i is given by

i=

dq Vo t /
= e
dt R

(4)
The voltage across C is given by
V = Vo (1 e t / )
(5)
Eqs. 4 and 5 describe the decay of current in the circuit and growth of
voltage on the capacitor respectively, during the charging of a capacitor.
b) Discharging:
When key K1 is open and K2 is closed with the capacitor charged to a
voltage Vo, discharging of the capacitor through the resistance R is
described by the following relations:
= CVo ' e t /

Q
(6)
i=

V '
dq
= o et /
dt
R

(7)
V = Vo ' e t /
(8)
Eqs. 7 and 8 describe the decay of current in the circuit and decay of
voltage across the capacitor respectively, during the discharging
process.

Procedure:
a) Decay of current during charging:

10

1) Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.1.

2) Set the source voltage V0 (from the power supply) between 2
to 4 V such that the largest (initial) current (V0/R) has a
reasonable value.
3) Set the ammeter A in an appropriate range (estimate the
range from V0 and R).
4) Complete the charging circuit by closing the key K1 (keeping
K2 open) and simultaneously start a stopwatch. Measure the
current i as a function of time at convenient intervals (say 10
seconds).

b) Decay of current during discharging:

1) After charging C to the full voltage, discharge it through R. For
this
purpose disconnect the power supply by opening key
K1. Close the Key K2 and start the stopwatch. Again measure
the current as a function of time.
Plot log i (for charging and discharging circuits) as functions of time.
Using the linear regression technique fit the data obtained for the two
cases to Eqs. 4 and 7 respectively and draw the best-fit line on the
respective graphs.
Determine the time constant in both cases and compare it with the
theoretically calculated values.
Write down the equation for / in terms of i/i and t/t and estimate
the maximum possible error in the result (in ) in terms of uncertainties
in the measured quantities (i and t).
(Hint: Maximum possible error will be at the point where the
time is equal to , the time constant of the circuit. You may do the
derivation to verify it)

Reference:
1. A. S. Mahajan and A. A. Rangawala, Electricity and Magnetism,
Tata McGraw Hill, 1988.

11

2.Forced and Damped Oscillations

Objective:
To study forced and damped oscillations using LCR circuit.

Theory:
Let us consider a simple harmonic driving force given by F(t) = Fo Cos (
t) on a damped oscillator. The equation of motion for such a system can
be written as
F
d 2x
dx
+2m +kx = o Cos (wt )
2
dt
dt
m
(1)
where, 2 is the damping coefficient, k is the spring constant, and is
the angular frequency of the driving force. If the driving force acts for a
long time, compared to 1/(2 ), we can expect that the system vibrate
harmonically at the same frequency as the driving force. The amplitude
of these oscillations is not necessarily in phase with the driving force,
but the phase difference has a constant value.
At the steady state the instantaneous displacement is given by
x =A cos(wt +d)
(2)
where
is the phase difference between the displacement and the
driving force given by
- 2m
tan d = 2
w - wo2
(3)
o is the natural frequency of oscillations of the system and A is the
displacement amplitude of oscillations given by

12

1/ 2

Fo
1

A=
2 2
m w2 - w2 2 +4mw
o

(4)
From Eq. 4, the amplitude A of oscillations will be maximum near
resonance, i.e when the frequency of driving force is equal to the
natural frequency of oscillations, ~ o. The velocity amplitude A is
maximum when
= o. This phenomenon is called resonance, which
appears when a lightly damped system is made to undergo forced
vibrations. From Eq. 3, one can see that at resonance ( = o), the
displacement of any harmonic vibration lags the driving force exactly by
900, which means that the velocity is in phase with the driving force at
resonance.
A very good example of the physical system described by Eq. 1 is a LCR
circuit connected to a sinusoidal voltage source (function generator) as
shown in Fig. 2.1. The resistance in the circuit acts as damping
coefficient. The resonance (natural) frequency for this circuit is given by
wo =

1
LC

(5)
To Scope
VR

Fig. 2.1
If the voltage applied from the function generator is given by
V( in ) =Vo ( in ) Cos wt
(6)

13

Then the equation governing the current in such a circuit is given by

L

or,
(7)

dI
1
+RI + idt =Vo ( in ) Cos wt
dt
C

d 2q
dq q
L 2 +R
+ =V0( in ) Cos (wt )
dt C
dt

Hence the circuit of Fig. 2.1 can be treated as a damped forced

harmonic oscillator whose velocity amplitude is the amplitude of current
given by
Vo ( in )
Io =
2
1

2
R +Lw
Cw

(8)
From the above equation, the current amplitude in the circuit will be
maximum when the driving voltage frequency is equal to the resonance
frequency of the circuit given by Eq. 5. An important parameter that
measures the damping in such oscillatory systems is Quality factor Q of
the system. It is defined as
Q =w

Maximum energy stored

average power dissipated

(9)
It can be shown that
w
u
Q= o = o
Dw Du
(10)
The band width
= R/(2 L), hence, the Q factor is also given as
L
Q =R
C
(11)
where
is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the resonance
curve for power. In this experiment you are expected to plot Io as a
function of frequency and therefore instead of FWHM,
( ), takes the
full width,
of the resonance curve between Io and , where the
1
current drops to
of its maximum value as shown in Fig 2.2. The
2
current I0 in this experiment shall be measured by recording the voltage

14

drop, VR, across the resistance R.

function of the frequency.

Alternately, you can plot VR as a

Fig. 2.2

Procedure:
1. Assem
ble the
circuit
as
shown
in Fig
2.1.
2. Set the function generator for sinusoidal signal and adjust the
amplitude of the signal to some suitable value (around 1 to 2
V) and keep it constant throughout the experiment.
3. Record the voltage drop across the resistance R as a function of
frequency in a suitable step. Make sure that you have sufficient
data point on either side of the resonance frequency (so as to
measure the value of ).
4. Plot the graph between frequency and the amplitude of voltage
VR ( Io).
5. Mark the resonance frequency and the width

on the plot.

6. Find the resonance frequency from the plot and Q factor (from
Eq. 10.).
7. Repeat the experiment by changing values of R.
8. Compare the Q factor for two different values of R.
9. Estimate the maximum possible error in the measurement of Q.

Note:
The voltage observed across the capacitor, resistor and inductance are
like displacement, velocity and acceleration amplitudes for mechanical
system. The VC has its maximum amplitude slightly below the resonance
frequency, VR has its maximum amplitude exactly at resonance
frequency, whereas VL has its maximum amplitude slightly above the
resonance frequency.

15

You must note that the coil used in the circuit is not purely inductive and
offers some resistance. What will be the effect of the resistance of the
coil?

Reference:
2. A. S. Mahajan and A. A. Rangawala, Electricity and Magnetism,
Tata McGraw Hill, 1988.

16

3. Study of Hall Effect

Objective:
To study Hall effect in extrinsic semiconducting samples and determine
type, density, and mobility of majority charge carriers.

Theory:
Consider a rectangular slab of semiconductor with thickness d kept in
XY plane (see Fig. 3.l). When an electric field is applied in x-direction, a
current I flows through the sample. If w is width of the sample and d is
the thickness, the current density is given by Jx = I/wd.

Y
X

VH
Z

JX
d
B
Fig. 3.1

Now if a magnetic field B is also applied along positive Z- axis (Fig. 3.1)

the moving charges experience additional force q v B , which in this

case is along negative Y-direction. This results in accumulation of
majority charge carriers towards one side of the material (along
negative Y-direction in the present case). This process continues until
the electric force due to accumulated charges (qEy) balances the
magnetic force. So, in a steady state the net Lorentz force experienced
by charge carriers will be zero. The potential, thus developed across Ydirection is known as Hall voltage VH (perpendicular to both current and

17

the field directions) and this effect is called Hall effect. Thus under
steady state condition

F y =q E y +v B =0

(1)
where v is the drift velocity of charge carriers. In the present case, Eq. 1
can be written as,
Ey= vBz = (Jx/nq)Bz
(2)
where n is the charge density and q is the charge on each carrier. The
ratio (Ey/JxBz) is called the Hall co-efficient RH. Thus
RH = Ey/JxBz = VHd/IB
(3)
From Eqs. 2 and 3, the Hall co-efficient can also be written as
RH =1/nq
(4)
From Eq. 4, it is clear that the type of charge carrier and its density can
be estimated from the sign and the value of Hall co-efficient RH. It can be
obtained by studying the variation of VH as a function of I for a given B.

Experimental set-up:
Sample is mounted on a insulating sheet with four spring type pressure
contacts. A pair of green colour leads is provided for current and that of
red colour for Hall voltage. Note the direction of current and voltage
measurement carefully. Do not exceed current beyond 8 mA.
The unit marked "Hall Effect Set-up" consists of a constant current
source (CCS) for supplying current to the sample and a digital miliVoltmeter to measure the Hall voltage. The unit has a single digital
display used for both current and Hall voltage measurement.
For applying the magnetic field an electromagnet with a constant
current supply is provided. It is capable of generating a magnetic field of
0.75 Tesla for 10 mm gap between its pole pieces. The magnetic field
can be measured using Gauss meter along with the given Hall probe.

Procedure:

18

1. Connect the leads from the sample to the "Hall effect set-up" unit.
Connect the electromagnet to constant current supply.
2. Switch on the electromagnet and set suitable magnetic field
density (<0.3 Tesla) by varying the current supplied to the
electromagnet. You can measure this magnetic field density using
the Hall probe. Find out the direction of magnetic field using the
given bar magnet.
3. Insert the sample between the pole pieces of the electromagnet
such that the
direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the
direction of current and the line connecting the Hall voltage
probes (Fig. 3.1).
4.

From the direction of current and magnetic field, estimate the

direction of accumulation of majority carriers. Connect one of the
Hall voltage probes into which charge carriers are expected to
accumulate to the positive side of the milli voltmeter. Connect the
other Hall voltage probe to the negative side of the milli voltmeter.
Dont change this voltmeter connection throughout your
experiment.

5.

Record the Hall voltage as a function of sample current. Collect

four sets of readings: V1(B,I), V2(B,-I), V3(-B,I), and V4(-B,-I) for each
current; V1 is for positive (initial) current and field, V2 is for reverse
current, V3 is for reverse field, V4 is for reverse field and current.
Note that field direction can be changed by changing the direction
of current through the electromagnet. The Hall voltage VH is
obtained by,
VH = [V1(B,I) V2(B,-I) V3(-B,I) + V4(-B,-I)] /4

(5)
Thus the stray voltage due to thermo-emf and misalignment of
Hall voltage
probe is eliminated.
6.

Repeat the above measurement for various magnetic fields.

7.

Plot suitable graphs from the above data and determine the
values of Hall co-efficient, type, concentration and mobility of
majority charge carriers.

8.

Estimate the percentage of maximum possible errors in the

measurement of Hall co-efficient and mobility of charge carriers.

Note: Write down the sample number in the beginning of the

observations.

References:
19

1. C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, John Wiley and Sons,

1996.
2. D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Prentice Hall, 1995.

4. Magnetic Field Along the Axis of a Circular

Coil
Objective:
To measure the magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil and verify
Biot-Saverts law.

Theory:
For a circular coil of n turns, carrying a current I, the magnetic field
along its axis is given by
B(x)

0 nIR 2
2

(R

+ x2

3
2

(1)

where, R is the radius of the coil.

B(x)

Axis

Coil
Fig.
4.1
In this experiment, the coil is oriented such that the plane of the coil is
vertical and parallel to the north-south direction. The axis of the coil and
the field produced by the coil are parallel to the east-west direction (see
the figure). The net field at any point x along the axis is the vector sum
of the fields due the coil B(x) and that due to earth BE .

20

tan

B( x )
BE

(2)

Procedure:
The apparatus consists of a coil-mounted perpendicular to the base. A
sliding compass box is mounted on aluminum rails so that the compass
is always on the axis of the coil.
Orient the apparatus such that the coil is in the north-south plane. (You
may use the red dot on the bar magnet as reference).
Adjust the leveling screws to make the base horizontal. Make sure that
the compass is moving freely.
Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

Fig. 4.2
Place the compass box at the centre of the coil and rotate it so that the
pointers indicate 0-0. You are now ready to take the measurements.
1. Close the keys K and KR (make sure that you are not shorting the
power supply) and adjust the current with the potentiometer (Rh)
so that the deflection of the pointer is between 50 to 60 degrees.
The current will be kept fixed at this value for the rest of the
experiment.
2. Note down the readings 1 and 2. Reverse the current by suitably
connecting the keys of KR and note down 3 and 4.
3. Repeat the experiment by moving the compass box on either side
at intervals of 1cm along the axis until the value of the field
(deflection of the pointer in the compass box) drops to 10% of its
value at the center of the coil.

21

4. Draw graphs for tan verses x and log(tan ) verses log(R2 + x2)
5. Find slope and y-intercept from the graph
6. Verify the results with the values obtained for B(x) by substituting
for various quantities in Eq.1.
7. Estimate the maximum possible error in the measurement of B in
terms of deflection .

Observations:
No. of turns of the coil, n = .........
Radius of the coil,

R = 10 cm

Current in the coil,

I = .........

Permeability of air,

=4

10 7 N/A 2

Earths magnetic field, BE = 0.39 10-4 T

Observation table:
x

4
1

Tan 4

log(tan
)

log(R2 + x2)

avg

Reference:
1. D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Prentice Hall, 1995.

22

5. Compound Pendulum
Objective:
To determine the acceleration due to gravity by studying small
oscillations of a uniform body.

Theory:
The time period of oscillation of a body constrained to rotate about a
horizontal axis for small amplitudes is given by the following expression
1/ 2

I
T = 2

mgd

(1)

where m is the mass of the body, d is the distance between centre of

mass (CM) & axis of oscillations, and I is the moment of inertia (MI)
about the axis of oscillations. If Io is the MI of a body about a parallel
axis through CM, then by parallel axis theorem
I = Io + md2
(2)
Let K be the radius of gyration (i.e. Io = mK2), then
4 2 2
T 2d =
(K + d 2 )
g
(3)
By observing period of oscillation T by varying d we can obtain the
values of gravitational acceleration g as well as moment of inertia Io of
the body.
The plot of T vs d, show a minimum Tmin at d = K given by
1/ 2

Tmin

2K
= 2

(4)

Experimental set-up:

23

In this experiment the rigid body consists of a rectangular bar with a

series of holes drilled at regular interval to facilitate suspension at
various points along its length. A screw type knife-edge can be fitted to
the bar at these points. The knife-edge can be rested on a wall-mount so
that bar is free to rotate/oscillate in a vertical plane. The oscillation can
be monitored accurately using a telescope. The radius of gyration for
this bar is
K2 =

l 2 + b2
12

(5)
where l and b are the length and breadth of the bar respectively

Procedure:
1. Determine the centre of mass of the bar by balancing it on a knifeedge.
2. Measurement of d is made from this point to the point of
suspension (Not necessary the centre of the hole).
3. Suspend the bar by means of knife-edge.
4. Measure time for around 20 oscillations for different d (only on
one side of CM). Repeat each observation thrice.

Observation table:
1. Length of bar =
2. Breath of the bar =
3. Mass of the bar =
S. No.

d2

T2d

Analysis:
1. Plot T vs d. Calculate K and hence g from this graph. Calculate the
maximum possible error in the measurement of g in this case.
2. Plot T2d vs d2. Calculate K and g from the graph.
3. Compare values of g obtained from the two graphs.

Reference:
1. D. Kleppner and R. J. Kolenkow, An introduction to Mechanics, Tata
McGraw Hill, 1999.

24

6. Speed of Light in a Glass Medium

Objective:
To determine the speed of propagation of light waves in glass.

Theory:
Light travels with the speed c = 2.998
108 ms-1 in vacuum. In a
material medium its speed (v) is less. As a result, light waves undergo
refraction at the interface of two media. In this experiment, we take the
material of the medium in the form of a glass prism. A parallel stream of
waves traveling from a medium 1 (here air) is incident on the interface
of air and glass (of the prism), at the angle of incidence 1. The angle of
refraction is 2. Snells law connects these two angles by the relation,
n1Sin

= n2 Sin

(1)
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two media 1 and 2
respectively.
Since the medium 1 here is air (n1
second medium is given by

1.000), the speed of light in the

= c (Sin

/Sin

(2)
We know that for a certain direction of incidence, the refracted ray
travels parallel to the base of the prism and the angular displacement of
the final ray that emerges from the second interface of the prism has
the lowest possible value. For this minimum angular deviation, m, and
the corresponding incidence angle 1, the geometry of symmetric
propagation inside the medium leads to the equation for
sin(

/2)
= c

(3)
sin( +

25

)/2

---------------

where
is the angle of the prism. Thus, from the measurement of the
angle of the prism and the value of the minimum angular displacement
m, the speed of light in the material can be determined.

Procedure:
A spectrometer is used to measure the required angles. The
spectrometer consists of three units:
(1) Collimator, (2) Telescope, and (3) Prism table.
The prism table, its base and telescope can be independently moved
around their common vertical axis. A circular angular scale enables one
to read angular displacements (together with the two Verniers located
diametrically opposite to each other).
In this experiment, we need to produce a parallel beam of rays to be
incident on the prism. This is done with the help of the collimator. The
collimator has an adjustable rectangular slit at one end and a convex
lens at the other end. When the illuminated slit is located at the focus of
the lens, (Fig. 6.1), a parallel beam of rays emerges from the collimator.
We can test this point, with the help of the telescope adjusted to receive
parallel rays. We first prepare the telescope towards this purpose as
follows:
Lens

Slit

f
Fig. 6.1 Collimator
Setting the eyepiece
Focus the eyepiece of the telescope on its cross-wires (for viewing the
cross wires against a white background) such that a distinct image of
the cross wires is observed. Henceforth do not disturb the eyepiece.
Setting the telescope
Focus the telescope onto a distant (infinity!) object. Focusing of the
telescope is done by changing the separation between the objective and
the eyepiece of the telescope. Test for the absence of a parallax
between the image of the distant object and the vertical crosswire.
Parallex effect (i.e. separation of two things when you move your head

26

across horizontally) exits, if the cross-wire and the image of the distant
object are not at the same distance from your eyes. Now the telescope
is adjusted for receiving parallel rays. Henceforth do not disturb the
telescope focusing adjustment.
Setting the collimator
Use the telescope for viewing the illuminated slit through the collimator
and adjust the collimator (changing the separation between its lens and
slit) till the image of the slit is brought to the plane of cross wires as
judged by the absence of parallax between the image of the slit and
cross wires.
Optical leveling of the prism table
Check whether the prism table is horizontally leveled (use a spirit level).
Finding the angle of the prism ( ) [Fig. 6.2]
With the slit width narrowed down sufficiently and prism table leveled,
lock the prism table and note the angular position of the telescope when
one of the reflected images coincides with the cross wires. Repeat this
for the reflected image on the other side (without disturbing the prism
and prism table). The difference in these two angular positions gives 2 .
Finding the angle of minimum deviation (

Unlock the prism table for the measurement of the angle of minimum
deviation ( m). Locate the image of the slit after refraction through the
prism as shown in Fig. 6.3. Keeping the image always in the field of
view, rotate the prism table till the position where the deviation of the
image of the slit is smallest. At this position, the image will go
backward, even when you keep rotating the prism table in the
same direction. Lock both the telescope and the prism table and to
use the fine adjustment screw for finer settings. Note the angular
position of the prism. In this position the prism is set for minimum
deviation. Without disturbing the prism table, move the prism and turn
the telescope (now unlock it) towards the direct rays from the collimator.
Note the scale reading of this position. The angle of the minimum
angular deviation, viz, m is the difference between the readings for
these last two settings.

27

Fig. 6.2 Experimental set-up: angle of the prism

Fig. 6.3 Minimum deviation geometry

Observation tables:
For angle of the prism:
Vernier A
Telescope 2
Reading
Face I
Face
II

Vernier B
Telescope
2
Reading
Face I Face II

For angle of minimum deviation:

Vernier A
Direct
Reading
Reading
at
minimum
deviation

Vernier B
Direct
Reading
Reading
at
minimum
deviation

References:
1. A. Ghatak, Optics, 3rd ed., Tata McGraw Hill, 2005.

28

2. E. Hecht, Optics, 4th ed., Pearson Education, 2002.

3. F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, Tata McGraw Hill, 1981.

29

7. Fraunhofer Diffraction: Single Slit

Objective:
To study the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern due to a single slit and
measure the slit width using a traveling microscope.

Theory:
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern (far field) is obtained when the source of
light and the observation screen on which diffraction pattern observed
are far away (effectively at infinite distance) from the aperture.
The diffraction pattern for a single slit S is shown in Fig. 7.1. The variation
of the intensity I at the observation plane P is given by

sin 2 m
I = I0
m2
(1)
where I0 is the intensity of the incident light and 2m is the phase
difference between the waves coming from edges of the slit given by

m =

1
kd sin m
2

(2)
where d is the width of the slit and k = 2 / , is the magnitude of the
wave vector. The minima of the fringes, according to Eq. 1 are located at
bm =mp , m =
(3)

1,

2,

3 --------

S
3
2
A

B
-1
-2
-3

Fig. 7.1

30

Experimental set-up:
The experimental set-up consists of a coherent source (laser), a slit and
a photodiode (with a slit on to it for better resolution). All these
components are mounted on an optical bench along with a micrometer
stage for each of them for alignment and measurement. Intensity will be
measured by measuring the photo voltage developed across the
photodiode.
Laser

Slit

DMM
Photodiode
Fig. 7.2

Procedure:
1. Align the laser and the slit to get a clear diffraction pattern. You can
observe the diffraction pattern by placing a white screen P at
certain distance from the slit, Fig 7.2.
2. Align the photodiode so that diffraction pattern falls on to it. (Ensure
that you are able to record the diffraction pattern up to some orders
on both sides of principal maxima by only moving micrometers of
photodiode.)
3. Record the intensity (photovoltage) as a function of x (Fig 7.1) by
moving the photodiode along the line perpendicular to the laser
beam in a convenient step.
4. Note down the distance D between the slit and the photodiode.
Plot the intensity as a function of x.
Note down the location of minima (m) from your graph, calculate the
corresponding diffraction angle m for various minima.
Plot a graph between Sinm and m. Find the value of slit width d by
linear regression.
Measure the slit width using a traveling microscope and compare
the values.
Estimate the maximum possible error in the measurement of d in
your experiment.
Wavelength of the source = 670 nm
Distance between the slit and the screen D =

31

Observation table:
S no. Micrometer
(x)

reading Photovoltage

Position of minima
from principal maxima

References:
4. A. Ghatak, Optics, 3rd ed., Tata McGraw Hill, 2005.
5. E. Hecht, Optics, 4th ed., Pearson Education, 2002.
6. F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, Tata McGraw Hill, 1981.

32

8. Velocity of Sound in Air

Objective:
To determine the velocity of sound in air at room temperature using a
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

Theory:
If two sinusoidal inputs, say, y1 = a1 sin ( t- 1) and y2 = a2 sin ( t- 2) are
fed to the x-plates and y-plates of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO),
the superimposed wave obtained in the screen of the CRO would have
the form [look up the method of superposition of sinusoidal waves in
Ref. 1]
Sin

) = y12/a12 + y22/a22 - 2 (y1y2/(a1a2)) Cos (

(1)
where a and represent the amplitude and phase of the two sinusoids
respectively. If the phase difference between these two waves
=( 1, i.e., S =
2n , then the above
2) is set to be an even multiple of
expression reduces to
Sin

) = Sin

(2n ) = 0

y12/a12 + y22/a22 - 2 (y1y2/(a1a2)) Cos (2n ) = 0

(y1/a1 - y2/a2)2 = 0
y1 = (a1/a2) y2
(2)
which is the equation for a straight line. It can be shown that for
(2n+1) (i.e., for odd multiples of ), Eq. 1 reduces to

y1 = - (a1/a2) y2
(3)
which is again the equation for a straight line (but with a negative slope
as compared to Eq. 2).
Suppose that one of the two electrical signals, x, is derived from the
audio generator which is simultaneously connected to a transmitter T
(speaker), as shown in Fig. 8.1 and the second one y is that from the

33

receiver R (microphone) placed in front of the transmitter (at a certain

distance). The transmitter will be emitting the sound waves of frequency
that of applied from the audio generator. The emitted sound waves
propagating in air are received by the receiver. In this case, phase
difference between the two signals
will depend on the path length
traveled by the sound (in air) between transmitter and receiver. If the
path length is nl (where l is the wavelength of the sound wave traveling
in air) then the slope of the line displayed on the oscilloscope will be
positive (Eq. 2) and
2n +1
then the display will be a straight line with negative
if it is
2
slope (Eq. 3). Therefore path difference between any two successive
straight line is l /2.

Fig. 8.1

Procedure:
1. Make the circuit as shown in Fig. 8.1.
2. Set the oscilloscope in XY mode and set the frequency of the audio
oscillator (between 1-5KHz).
3. Adjust the amplitude of the sinusoidal input such that an ellipse is
obtained on the screen of the scope.
4. Keeping the speaker (T) fixed, move the microphone (receiver R) until
the ellipse collapses into a straight line. Note the distance between
the speaker and receiver.
5. Move receiver R again and obtain immediately the next position for
which a straight line is once again obtained on the CRO screen. The
distance between such successive positions of the receiver
corresponds to half-wavelength ( /2) of the sound wave.

34

6. Take an average of many such /2 values and then obtain the

wavelength corresponding to the particular frequency.
7. Repeat observation for a few more frequency values.
8. Plot vs 1/ and obtain the velocity of sound from the graph.
9. Estimate the error in the measurement of velocity for each frequency.

Observations:
Frequency =
No. Position
of
receiver R

Position of transmitter T =
the

/2
m)

(in Mean
(m)

Reference:
1. F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, Tata McGraw Hill, 1981.

35

9. Photovoltaic Effect: Solar Cell

Objective:
To study (i) the variation of the open circuit voltage as a function of
incident light intensity and (ii) the load characteristics under the
illumination of a solar cell module.

Theory:
The depletion region of a p-n junction has a built-in electric field under
which negative charges drift towards the n-side and positive charges
drift towards the p-side. If the p-n junction is illuminated by light with
photon energy greater than the band gap energy of the material, then
this will result in the creation of electron-hole pairs. Electron and hole
pair thus created in the depletion region by the incident light, get
separated generating a photovoltage under open-circuit conditions
(photovoltaic mode, Fig. 9.1) or a photocurrent under some load.
If I is the intensity of light of frequency incident on the solar cell with a
sensitive area A, and all this light is absorbed by the solar cell to create
electron-hole pairs with a quantum efficiency , then the number of
electron-hole pairs created in the cell per second is

Representing the solar cell as a constant current source, the source

current (photocurrent) is given by

Thus the photocurrent is directly proportional to the intensity of the

incident radiation.
Fig. 9.1 shows the equivalent circuit of the solar cell, acting as current
source under illumination, giving a current i, the ideal diode D and a
shunt resistance Rp, all in parallel together with a series resistance rs.
For open circuit (Iext = 0), the voltage drop across the cell is nearly equal
to the voltage drop across the diode. From the ideal diode equation,
under open circuit condition, we can thus write

36

where Iso is the reverse saturation current of the diode. For the usual
operating conditions, i>> Iso. With Iso 0.01 A, Rp 108 and V
0.6V, we have the approximation relation

Thus the photovoltage V is a logarithmic function of the intensity I.

Under some load RL Eq. 3 modifies to

Fig. 9.2 shows a sketch of the current-voltage characteristics of a p-n

junction solar cell under illumination with light. Maximum power will be
delivered by the solar cell when the product iext V is a maximum. The
optimum load is determined by the point (Vm, im) corresponding to the
enclosed rectangle having largest area as shown in Fig. 9.2.

Fig. 9.1

Fig. 9.2

Procedure:
1. Illuminate the photovoltaic cell with a suitable light source and
record the open circuit voltage (toggle switch should be in no

37

load position) as a function of intensity (you can change the

intensity by placing filter plates. Transmission of each plate is
0.35).
2. Keep the switch in with load position. Record the variation in
voltage as a function of iv load current for various intensities and
frequencies.
3. Plot a suitable curve to verify Eq. 4. Plot variation of load current
as a function of voltage and determine the optimum operating
point for various intensities.

Reference:
1. J. Wilson and J. F. B. Hawkes, Optoelectronics an Introduction, Prentice
Hall, 1996.

38