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    Cristine Noisette Madeleine

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    Children, Advertising, and Product Experiences: A Multimethod Inquiry ELIZABETH S. MOORE RICHARD J. LUTZ* ssge rcrnct, To shes ore uy re Children belong to a world of thinking and Yecting tat 1s propery their own, (GEORGE 'SANTAYANA) lvonsverng pervasive pence ties Tere careaeeis ares res ne tat hl btwn th ag of 6 and 1d wach stot Seren tn 0 ean od Ut wae ahem ten soemerh uous se (Leo oh SAO corm to cae so ou ad ee es Canam te me os et ia ech nd al etre ont See ee Fans ans ect noses sev aberog Sia sage 98) However we hI couaing cane et tact cium fe eeu ee oe Sacer Rocke: Semta bd Cate 1D} ne wale reir Smut anand el Blais §. More wan ple of warkeng, Uae ot ‘Nous Dame, Noe Dane, N 46586 mm Snape ose 96nd cn ‘Richard La profesc of market. Univers of Fiori, This ale {is bed onthe frau’ doctor sera, conducted nde he fepervision ofthe second ator Te ators hank avid Mick, Rich Ramana and Alea Seaye for tis plsnce nd comment as member! ‘tthe ft aubor's eas commis swell sober duets acy tember athe University of Fora They abo thak Barbar Bick Stem Coben. s. Rameshvar Cale Maclin, Pamela Richards, Tom (O'Guing, aswell st be ede sscie ete, snd reviewers fr tht Sopa cham 3 periment and ober vg rami fis asue in saaton to roma ‘special emphasis was placed onthe role fective const playin sha>- Teoulsdeated tal bot produ al ‘The Interaction of Advertising and Consumption Beyond advertisements, children gain marketplace infor. ‘mation from the products they encounter, advice from ‘friends and relatives, and their own consumption experi- ences. Through consumption, children learn what fare good and bad, whether advertising claims are truthful, ‘what brands they prefer, and even that products convey so- cial meanings apart from their functional properties. ‘To a child, these experiences take on a heightened im- portance because many commercial sources that an adult ‘might consult for additional information are simply inac- Seeible, For example, ntl they are functionally ltratn children do not access the writen information available through print advertising, packaging, and labels. Children also often lack information about price, a primary consid- ‘ration in adult decisions. Prthen children’s product ve are oriented less toward the weighing of options and more toward the enjoyment each new snack, toy, or cereal offers. (Over time, a child encounters advertisements ina fashion td is interwoven wit product experience. Thus, the actual impact of advenising is difficult to study. The research lit- erature has not yet explored the relationship between ad- Yertsing and children’s usage experience. In reality, how- ‘ever, children’s ads are being interpreted wihin an ongoing stream of experience, ‘This fact has been recognized as an important issue by commentators on children’s advertising. For example, critics have expressed concer that if ads preset information dit- ferent from a child's actual experience, confusion may result and trust in advertising may be undermined. Conversely, ‘others have suewested that until children actually experience Siscrepancies between products as advertised and as con- 2 sumed, they are unable fully to comprehend advertsing's persuasive intent (e.g, Robertson and Rossiter 1974). Con- ‘em about advertsing’s capacity to foster unrealistic ex- pectations has long been an issue for advertisers charged. ‘with self-regulation: industry guidelines include specific provisions discouraging the use of porrayals that might ex- Dili of implicidy foster unreasonable expectations (Chil- dren's Advertising Review Unit 1999). Without question, this code is based on the assumption that children have Cope: Cogs = As)- Tinpais uf Ad Affect in die Prescuce uf Product Trial ‘Traditionally, researchers have assumed that Aye has its great impact wioan ie immediate exposure sering (Lutz 1985). With the exception of Smith (1993) and Wright and Lutz (1993), litle empirical research has assessed whether ‘Ago reiains its mediating role in 2 consumption context. [Netter of these studies found a substantial impact of Ap ‘when a product tril was also present. However, they were conducted with adults, who should rely heavily on the usage evidence, and both studies used relatively pallid experi- ‘menier-cteated print ads rather than the colorful entertsining ‘commercials that children see. In our stady, therefore, we consider how A,o's impact may change when a product trial is also introduced. Two cases are examined: one when ad ‘exposure precedes product tril, and another when adver- tising follows a trial experience. Both circumstances natu- 38 rally occur in children's everyday lives, but advensing’s influence should differ in each case. Advertsing, Then Trial, Moving from Hypothesis 4, stich dealt wth an aversion condition, this cast ‘resents a greatly enhanced information environment forthe hil. Here the a i processed fist, then the product tial dds more information, and of a different wpe, In essence. the eh faced with te formidable ak of negating the Playful and idealized images of advertsing with the Con- fret, sensory-laden data ofthe product tril. For younger tlilden th fouls ecsivatin and abily foe each ae ‘gration may simply not be present Further, inthis condition the cild will not be aware that «tial is Tortheoming and thatthe ad itelf should be processed mach as in the a> uly condition, Tor both of tose recsona, if any inflecnee ‘of liking forthe ad is seen, i should appear as a direct influence on the atitude toward the brand (direct route), without invoking the more cognkvely demanding indirect ms Ta contrast, older cilécen’s greater motivation and ability to process the ad should mia in favor of the indirect Toute o persuasion, i addition to the direst route (Mac- Kenzie and Spreng 1992). Further, albough aftece re- setion tothe ad may help to form ial brand perceptions, Older children shouldbe prepared to revise these inital per cxpions when the more credible sensory data are avalsble from product wil, much as adults do. However. ince Any is formed prior to product tial in this stuation, it should exerts influence on older children's acceptance of brand Claims: these perceptions may then be seaforced through product ial, hus, we hypoeszet HHS: When ad exposure precedes product tial, older and younger children difer in te Ways Ayyin- ffuences dp. Younger children exhibit only a direct effect Ay Ap), while older children are likely to exhibit both direct (Ayy~* Ay) and an indirect effect (Ae Cogn Coe > Aa Trial, Then Advertsing. It may sometimes occur that 1 child is exposed to a trial experience witha brand (e.g. aa tena’s nome, curing scnoot tunenes) prior to naving seen an ad for it. In ths situation, the trial experience should have significant impacts on the nature of the childs later processing of an ad for that produc. Although no previous ‘work on this topic has boen undertaken with children, useful studies with adults are available that address this situation, First, consumers should be expected to have formed com fidently held higher-order belies (Smith and Swinyard 1983) and attuudes (Fazio 1986) on the basis of their ex- perience with the brand. Second, because of these already existing higher-order predispositions, reactions to the ad should have less eapacity for impact (consistent with this ‘expectation, both Smith (1993) and Wright and Lutz [1993], ‘observed the weakest effects of Aa in this same wiaV/ad exposure sequence). Third, consumers’ motivation to pro- ra and intograte tho advertising i diminished afer a prod %6 ‘ct trial because the direct experience is seen to be more trustworhy and more vivid than the advertisement (TyboUt and Scott 1983). ‘In the present study with chilren, this set of consider- stions leads to anticipated weakened impacts for Ayo when product trial precedes advertising. AS indicated earlier, Younger children ae not likely to possess the levels of mo= tivation and/or capacity to undertake the indirect path in any cof our conditions. Thus, we anticipate a weakened effect on the direct path (Ang ~A,) relative to what is found forthe ad only (Hypothesis 4) and ad before tral (Hiypothesie 8) conditions, and no evidence of ya's indirect impact Ajo Cogs) here. For older children, we likewise antici- pate weakened impacts of Ayo, but now along both linkages Foe dn Gogg es dy aed ng = Copy). Overall Shen for both younger aid older children we expec the lowest effects ‘of Aap in any of our conditions, consistent with what Smith (1993) observed for adlts. Thus, we hypothesize: |H6: When product trial precedes ad exposure, Aj has 4 weaker impact relative 10 the ad-only and ad/ teil conditions. In particular, the Ayp ~> Ay link is weaker for younger children. while the Ace “+ ‘Ag and Ajy Cogy links are weaker for older children, ‘METHOD Design and Subjects A2 x 4 mixed experimental design was used. Two age soups, second graders (seven to eight yeas old) and fifth sraders (10-11 years ol), participated inthe study. A total ‘Of 72 children (31 percent female, &5 percent White) Were recruited from public elementary schools. The content of brand related information was manipulated ona within-sub- jeots basis. By manipulating the information source and the Sequence or exposufe, 10ur expenmental conaitons Were created: (1) ad only (2) product trial ony, (3) ad followed by product tial, and (4) product trial followed by ad. Procedure ‘A total of 288 experimental sessions were conducted over 1 five-week period. Each subject participated in four ses- sions, at roughly one-week intervals (one for each experi ‘mental condition) using a different ad and product in each session. The onder ofthe experimental conditions was coun- terbalanced in the design. All sessions were held at the schools and carried outon an individual basis. In the ad- ‘only condition, each child was shown 2 videotape with two filler ads followed by the target commercial (shown twice) with 10 seconds of black as « buffer. Inthe product trial condition, the child was provided withthe target brand (ia its original packaging) and given four minutes to consume 1 sample of it Subjects in the two ad-plus-ial conditions received both inputs, in the order indicated. Afterall stim- JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH ulus materials were presented, dependent measures were collected. On average, the procedire took 20-25 minutes et szsion. In aduon,darag the frst session rapport ‘ding games” were played is which poe band arias ‘were collected for both experimental and filer brands. At the conclusion ofthe inal session, childten were asked about their chopeing ientvemen. ond pvteenees TV viewing. and general atitudes about advertising. Children were given 4 prize asa small oken of appreciation. Demand effects are, of couse, a concem in any sty ‘We took caret uy to mnie such eats here ie the one-week lag between each ofthe four experimental sessions helped to make procedural differences actos cells es st- lien. Further, the children were directly questioned about Shake posopone of to ony» purpose ot conclu No suspicion was evident ‘Test Advertisements and Product Selection ‘One of the limitations of prior research on interactions Desween advertising and tral is that the effects typically Ihave been examined for only a single product category, poteatally woufowaling vowstteis suvh a9 aubiguty with product class. To enhance the external validity of out fnd- ings (Lynch 1982), four simulus pairs (commercials and product samples) were used inthis study ina Latin square ‘design. ‘To select the four ad and product sets, a large pool of food commercials tha had sited on children’s programs was created. Ads were then eliminated from the pool if they ‘covitined premium offers (©. contests, prizes), program characters acting as endorsers (e.g, Fred Flintstone, Bugs Bunny) or if the brand required additional preparation for use €., Kids’ Cuisin frozen entrees, Eggo frozen wafles), leaving some 40 candidate commercials. Four juoges With advertising research or agency experience were then asked to eliminate unrepresentative ads with respect to execution product, or quantity of information, Fifteen ads were elim: {nated st tus stage. The remaining ads were shown 10 18 fourth graders who rated both the commercial and the brand on familiarity, liking, comprehensibilty, and prior experi ‘ence, The four test ads were selected based onthe follow ‘ntesia: (1) muluple prodoct categories were repese ‘within the set, 2) variation existed in children’s attitudes toward the specific ads and brands promoted, and (3) the Set of ads reflected the quantity of information typical in children's ads. The final ads selected for inclusion were (I) Keebler Pizzaria Chips, (2) Sodalicious Fruit Snacks, (3) Smarties Chocolate Candy (imported from Canada), and(#) Double Dip Crunch Cereal Dependent Variables Measurement took on special importance in our study because, ith the exception of scales to assess chilien's ‘brand atiudes and general attiudes about advertising, few established measures exist to examine children’s responses ‘to marketing stimuli (e.2., Macklin and Machleit 1989: Ros CHILDREN, ADVERTISING, AND PRODUCT EXPERIENCES: TABLE IMPACTS ON CONFIDENCE IN BRAND PERCEPTIONS AND ATTITUDES: ADVERTISING VERSUS PRODUCT TRIAL (MEANS) epomct in oo prea a al ay = ry rs ‘Younger cero: 736 ‘Contionoe in brand bol ‘sat 73 on 2 Cetidence in brand athode 260 3188 ‘oot 2 Odor cor: n= ‘Condenoe in brand boils 348 4097 ‘001 33 Genidence a brand attode 383 5163 ‘008 a siter 1977). Taree sets of new measures were developed for this study (assessments of Ayo, brand beliefs, and belief and ‘auuude couldence). Oiven the aifaculdes inherent 10 de- veloping valid and reliable measures for use with young children, a series of steps was taken to ensure thatthe new measures. were L. Two industry researchers ex. ‘enenced in designing questionnaires for children supplied Sample questionnaires and critiqued our items. Methods for constructing and administering psychometric scales for chil- dren were also gleaned from the education and psvcholoay literatures on children’s sttiudes about reading, selfper- ‘ceptions, attitudes about smoking, and school-related beliefs snd attitudes. Tis search proved useful in guiding the design of our measures. which were then pretested with second and fifth graders. All scaled items were verbally administered to preclude problems with variation in literacy level, Brand Beliefs. For each of the four products. a list of six or seven attributes was generated through pretest with small groups of children. Each atibute reflected a product characteristic that could be discerned from both the adver fisement and the tal experience Gnchuding the packaging) ‘We then created a variation of the “sentence strip technique (amiliar to these students from their reading comprehension lessons) as our measurement vehicle. Sentence stems, such 15 “Tastes lke soda” (forthe Codalicious frit seach) were ‘created using the attribute lists Four belief options ranging ‘rom “I really believe" to “I dont believe at all" were laid ‘ut on a table in the form of sentence strips. The child was, Ihaudeu We seatence scm for each aurbute ONE Ha ME ‘and asked to make the best match for it. Belief scores were averaged across attributes. These measures were also com- bined mulilicatively with confidence scores to create the ‘Coa measure reported in several of our analyses. Ris ad Cogg), older children’s affective reactions to the ad stongly influenced their perceptions ofthe brand (47), and thatthe Second step (Cofy > Ay) was also significant (37). Finally, ‘consistent with our hypothesis, there was also evidence of affective influence via the direct route (Ayp~* Ag) among. te older children (30). Thus, for these older children ad liking exerted its influence through multiple persuasive routes vera, the resus of Hypothesis indicate tat when atuonising pencvios podiet wal heh signficont 6 ties and differences between the older and younger children emerge, In the case of direct impact of Ay, on brand ati tudes. the age eroups were aute similar. Inthe case of the indirect impact of Ay, however, th older and younger chil dren were dissimilar in expected ways. In this regard, the finding that older children's liking forthe ad significantly affects their perceptions ofthe heand appears to huttest the ad framing fining reported earlier in Hypothesis 2 Ad Affect: Trial before Advertising. This condition was expected to atendte the impacts of affect toward the ada tial would have already helped to form higher-order beliefs about the product. Findings generally suppor. our expectations here. Hypothesis 6 predicted thatthe tnalad Condition war expected to produce reduced yy impacts TABLE PATH ANALYSIS RESULTS: INDEPENDENT SAMPLES (UNSTANDAROIZED PARAMETER ESTIMATES, BY AGE AND (CONDITION) Toungar waren Ger ‘Aaoniy Adtial Twaled Adoniy Adve Taled Aonk 8 B8 (oo) (08) (0) (on fa Ao Cay 20" 10 ar aa ar" 35 ay) Gy GG) omy Come Ae 08-098 2a ty a8 415) 32) (1) (8) _ Gh) Toe n= 8 abana van a Saad ore are ppnow Asariancctesgnearce ot fpesion cutis pee, pe 08 {ee of an sin: A oye recon bey Ye ‘td oder rn (seco) se 00% fetch 8 = asa ‘Sorenoe, younger Son ad eny ve wale) a 8 (ola C= ‘Scr rooney vtec) at 0 Grae Sirsa tren oer ron civ aad PE Owe 0 relative tthe ad-only and ail conditions. Among the younger cilren A's diet inBence on brand tine {ada deci he conan (10) ve ote mpast inthe aon condition (38), as hypothesized, and wasn the expected drecon in comparison the atl coniton (a9 vs. 38) albough ca not reach sail significance Among the oer cite, the alovan alan within the inet out Was Aug Cope Here, statistically significant expected decreases wee apparent from the ad-nly (15 vs. 43), and adil (15 v.47) conditions, We also assessed wheter djg's dct impacts were reduced for te ct shilren (given i siguticmoe in the ata condton, ‘ote pevouly). As indicated in Table 3, ie: tionally consisten’ (17 v.26 and 30), the Any Ay o> Inns id ot evel site iinaion Of Age act. Overall the els of Hypothesis 6 indicate tat g's Stews ae ned ese, bor elites, weno x ure follows ln paral A loses capacity ts rao perceptons among tne Cie? cic bu ead capacity to exert a diet influence on both younger and ‘ler children's brand andes DISCUSSION tne empincal results ofthe experiment offered song suppor: for our primary expecatons regarding children's reactions (advertising and product ia. When studied a5 stimu, acual usage of the product viele hiher tefl of conidcoe in band atts tan Gd averse. Fre, when product usage preceded exposure to adver sng it weakened the affective impacts of the ade. Ths, feliive o conceras of marketer and one rey makers Shout adverunings power over cilre, these rela sug. fest that product usage experiences wil att offer some Protections inthe marksplce (he conditions under which Soch usage ocr. sch as raring 4 pchase in ovdr to ay the prod, are t separate issue). Advertsing also emerged as significant nfence on children's perception. Sever! intgung findings appeared here. The inclsion of ‘on sor group i the ody (eoond and Aifth grads) a lowed us tote hypothaes based on ferences copuve developmen, knowledge, and motivation to proces lt native fypes of simul. Both group of hen wer inf ced by advising and reduc ir bat in tome what diferent ways Fr the younger children, i appears thatthe dul tsk of ad interpretation ad integration with inpts fom th pod Seeenpunine von estate comic Dopey Soe 4, lite brand information may be conveyed Beyond the asl inerpreable sensory data from product tilling four data show that an ad may sil be infoensl through Alfeaive min). Atempes 10 reconcile te al-depiced ‘orld of fanasy and hyperbole with enidence from product {se may over the young child's resoures a the integra tin tage of processing. Theoretical, one reaction to sks that Sess processing ts nar S's fous tthe JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH ‘most important or perceptually salient dimension (Siegler 1996b)—in this case product trial. It should be noted that, spar from tia sapecicy or strategic oxplanaton the younger children’s reliance on the experiential data might alte tively be atributed 0 knowledge or motivational differ. fences, Although seven-year olds can reason in multiple di- mensions, they have less avertsing kuowledge and ‘experience on which to base more complex processing. Re- cently, researchers have shown that many age differences traditionally attributed to capacity constraints now appear 'o reflect differences in domamn-telated knowiedge (Siegler 19964). In a similar vein, one reviewer pointed out that Younger children are less involved than older children in ‘decisions about product purchases, rom a purely functional perspective, then, older children may be more motivated to process ads carefully, since they may have more occasion to act on the basis of the information gleaned from advertising. Consistent with older children’s enhanced levels of pro- cessing capacity, motivation, and knowledge, this study did provide clea evidence of information tegration. Most no- {ahly, adverising's capacity to frame the interpretation of 2 later product use experience was readily apparent. With the provision of advertising prior to product wial, older children shifted their beliefs and atitndes; this was not the case sswong the younger childcea. Loicrcatngly, i appease thet ‘these framing effects can operate in either a positive or negative direction, a finding that suggests the need for cae- fal ad planning when the intended audience includes chil- ‘ure, We aso found mar Ajo's InnveNce among tne o1der children was not confined 10 a direct transfer to brand at- titude bu that it also helped to shape their beliefs about che brand. Thus, for these older children ad liking exerted its influence through multiple paths to persuasion In summary, this experiment incorporated several useful features in its design, some of which are new to consumer research on children, and that have yielded additions co our understanding of advertising’s effects on children in con- sumption coatexts. The combination of product tril and advertising, fr example, revealed persuasive impacts across. {range of products and conditions. As just discuseed, the inclusion of distinct age groups allowed different patiares of influences to emerge. Among the most interesting ofthese was the demonstration of advertsing’s capacity to frame an older child's later usage experience. Further, because mol tiple products and commercials were bult into the design, ‘we were able to discern directional differences in he framing process: cases of significant negative influence from an ad. Eqposuic cisenged ab lls eabes Uf puntve pain AM and trial impacts were assessed across levels that spanned confidence in brand judgmems, brand beliefs, and brand attitudes. Finally, the addition of the “stitude toward the fad” construct proved very user in expanding our appre= ciation for ways in which adversing may work with chi dren. Of particular note is the fact that Ayo retained its capacity to influence both, ‘and older children in all, ‘conditions. While this effect was stenuated when actual CHILDREN, ADVERTISING, AND PRODUCT EXPERIENCES wpe uf we roduc preveued exposure 10 te aa 1 tlt remained asa igificant influence, Ths, the evidence fom this experiment suggest that adversing's creative elements lay more central roe inthe persuasion process than a deh pronouiyTecopeced win te ede a serisinglnerature ‘THE INTERPRETIVE STUDY: ADS AS CHILDREN SEE THEM. ‘We then pursued the isoues of age, ade, and product waage employing qualitative inquiry. Methodologically, wiangu- lation across methods allows different aspects ofa phenom- enon fo emerge. Here interpretivist methods offered us an Sppertunity wo aia additonal asia tn ow lle think about ads and products, free ofthe close-ended mea- sures of experimental research (Denzin 1989; Lutz 1991; ‘McQuarrie and Mick 1992). Method Interviews and Sampling Procedure. Individual pti interviews were conducted with 38 children (60 per cent female, 87 percent white) from a different schoo! in the same community. Younger and older children were again included: 18 of the children were in the second grade and 20 were inthe fifth grade. Most interviews were conducted in two sessions (range = 1-3) scheduled 2-10 days apart: all interviews were conducted by the first author. Tis format allowed the researchers tn review audiotapes and identify ‘areas for further exploration in the second meeting. Inter views ranged from 45 to 130 minutes, varying as a function of the child's interest and schedule. The flow of the inter- views was cast largely by the children, on they recounted ther personal experiences and views of heavily promoted ‘products (Thompson, Locander, and Pollio 1989). Props. (trial of the Sodalicious fruit snack used in the experiment lanl cxywoue w ils ad win (wo Mller ds) were Included carly inthe interview, a strategy recommended by children's researchers (eg, Bierman and Schwartz 1986; Peracchio 1990; Wells 1965) and used with substantial effectiveness sm our exploratory research. Inese props served asa staring ‘pint for discussion, which then shifted tothe child's own ‘experiences and opinions about other products encountered in their everyday lives. The children were enthusiastic and involved participants frequently etuming tothe second ses- sion with topics they wanted to introduce, clarify, or embellish. Analytic Srraregy. Data analysis was conducted ac- cording to grounded theory procedures (¢.., Glaser and Strauss 1967; Strauss and Corbin 1990) Approximately 00 ‘pages of verbatim transcripts were developed from the au- ‘owed interviews. Extensive analytic field notes were taken. Detailed in these notes were theoretical assumptions, summary of the process and content of each interview, and preliminary interpretations of the data. An extensive, structured process was used 10 wdeaity and preserve key insights. During the frst phase (open coding), data were broken down into discrete even and ideas: these ‘were then compared such that conceptually similar phenom- ‘ena were grouped to form categories and subcategories. In the second phase (axial coding), relationships among cate- gories were articulated: paterns were sought both within and cross informants. Finally. inthe third phase (celective ‘oding) the central or core phenomenon wat identified, one that appeared most comprehensive and revealing ofthe chil dren's individual and collective experience, ‘Multiple steps were taken to enhance the trurtworthiness ofthe findings (Wallendorf and Belk 1989). Both internal and extemal audits were conducted on a continuous basis, covering all research materials This process was conducted by evo individuals, onc a sovioloiat with eateasive caper rience conducting’ interpretive research and in using ‘rounded theory analysis, and the other, the second author. ‘Thus, attributes to ensure trustworthiness of interpretation ncluged triangulation across sources (age groups) and re- searchers (authors plus an extemal auditor). Findings ‘As noted in our discussion of method, the experiment's restricted focus was here supplemented by a much wider range of topics and issues. Given their retrospective cov- ‘erage, moreover, the interviews here embodied the chil- ‘dren’s own natural exposures to many forms of ads, as well, as multiple use experiences with many products. This rich hase of consumer experience was evident among all of our participants, including the younger consumers. AS expected, children of both age groups offered a wide range of com ‘ments on advertising and product use. They reported their enjoyment in using Various products and their strategies for acquiring new products. They elaborated on how they were interested in, as well as amused by, advertising and how they were informed by its contents. Thus, there were some clements of sully across ue sample. However, er esting differences also appeared between the two age groups. ‘These were quite consistent with our findings inthe exper. iment and, in fact, help us to beter understand the genesis (of those results, as explained in the Yollowing sections. Younger Children: A Baseline View. Whereas the ex- periment had forced exposure and focused atenton to par ticular ads, here he respondents were largely fee 10 decide ‘which product use experiences and ads they wished to dis- cuss. In general, the younger children's reports were con- sistent with expectations from the literature and thus provide 8 baseline of Sorts against which the older children can be compared. For example, one interesting difference between the age groups involved the scope of products and ads dis- ‘cussed. The younger children, not surprisingly, chose to ‘eport on products of personal relevance for their daily lives and largely restricted their discussions of ads to those in- volving products either personally owned or sought for fu- ture acquisition (other ade senmed tr he cumenaeily dee 2 missed for lacking personal interest on these dimensions leg, "I don’t like GI Joes [ike Barbie") In this regard, there was an emohasis in the vouncer children's descriptions on how they used commercials as a means of discovering heretofore unrecognized opportunities and desires. For ex- ample, informants readily described ads that had been help- fil t them in compiling @ personal wich list fr shiny ot holiday. Furthermore, across interviews children recounted, some- times vividly how they looked forward to seeing particular sen thie focused conte, the younger shildeen emerged ae active and involved, not passive recipients of advertising. Finally, these children displayed an obvious enthusiasm for ‘and enjoyment oftheir advertising experiences. 1 realy, relly watch some commercials about Barbe. like to watch them because [ike to see how prety the Barbies se and if thee is going to be, like, a new kind of Babi. could dance witha Ken doll Then it comes with sme litle lipsick type thing on a towel. You dip it in cold water and ‘ut the lpsck on the Barbie The Barbie's ipstick ews Sites 20,59 ‘The extent ofthese children’s comments was indeed im= pressive: line extensions and new features were noted, and Somperisono to other brands spontancowsly cffeed The children readily shared details oftheir se experiences, store visits, and strategies they used to ty to influence thei par- ents purchases. However, the younger children in our study id seem to assume that the product was as depicted in tie advertisement: there was litle reporting of tus or credibility ‘concems. And, while the children enjoyed humor in some commercials, ad exccution in itself appeared not to be of oval interest. Fually, the parent's role as gatekeeper Was & salient consideration, even to the extent of apparently re- ceiving weight in product evaluations. These points are i- Iustrated in te following quotes ike the ove [Super Soak) where you get the concentted color water unk. You pu it inthe gon and it shoots and it's isappearing ink, that Hf Tt has a motorized one that you Inne to buy baueres fr, and you ean shot W304 con ‘ented so if it ges in your ees It won't burn. haven't soten it yet but T want my Mom o get it for me. (204, M) T have « colletion of My Litle Posies an I the those commercials. They show diferent pores. They show gis playing with ponies and they make the ponies Hike, jamp nd suf. Just for one certain pony for on kind. ke if you ‘ist up oF smearing Wal gance. have One OF tose have, ike, ewenty-fve My Lite Ponies. get one fr every bihday and stuf. 207, F) 1 dow’ the Ua oe fad fr Clips Aboy cookies boone i ~Tarackndefrpaon Weise dagen oe oa (2X = wenen wrepteseaolde send pases RX LO -yearade fet pean JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH made me too hungry. Cookies are my fvorite, And we're ‘ot allowed to have snacks. (203, F) sm atv, ts stay ores aaa! night ana Sup- port for some ofthe results obeaned in the experiment. or Example, recal that these interviews began with ana ex. sue and product tral fr one ofthe bands Sodalicious) Sed in the experiment Evidence from he younger chil ‘re’ reactions fo thi a is bef in explaining why the younger chlden in the experiment would have reflected Simpler processing routes as resarls Aun (ie Aun > Ay Dut Ot Ang > Cofy oF Coge >A) but provided to evidence ‘ofthe ad feaming effec found withthe older cilren.Con- Sider the following quotes fom wo of th younger chile. 1s tik a fairytale onthe commercial. I mean, people can't really be thin. And they can't jst pop out of i ke tha ‘That's not ea. 212, M) | did't ike it whe he just ik walked oa machine because 1 don't know any machines that give ft sacks. 1 don't ike that You can't just be flit an then just ar round. (209, M) It is apparent that these children are having difficulty understanding the figurative language and depictions ofthis, ‘commercial (actual content will become clear presently, with ‘quotes from older children). This in tr restricts their ca- abilities to develop appropriate brand beliefs (Copy mea sures). Further, this should have constrained the develop- meat of a set of product use expectations thus working against the creation of a ueage foaming effect thenugh advertising, ‘Older Children: A Broadened, Richer View. Beyond the baseline of performance established by the younger chil- dren, the older children in our study revealed higher lan- ‘guage capacity and a broader and richer set of comments and insights on advertising and products. With respect (0 the Sodalicious example just discussed, consider these ‘quotes from several ofthe older respondents: 1 you leave soda out too long the fiz init gets fat and then it doesattste very good. I think they sd it. If you ‘eat it, youre not fat or someting. They're probably tang ‘bout Sodalicius tastes like real Coke, like real sodas and ‘ull. And it does't taste like the somal fruit sacks that ‘are supposedly a inthe commercial (504 F) ‘There were oer people eating it because be did sot of like ‘ne was popular He asi and then all hese ether people ate {CTP ike a ot of people would do that. Ove person wl xy ‘ening lat edd hee ppl pope ‘hey go and get to. Happens in elif. ($01, MO) Ti heft sack ad sal eacoon wav wd 9 promate Feces wale convesonal beds Spel efecs ep the chile ve [he brand. Soda bubbles soe th seen and om Sen come 0 Pere ae CHILDREN, ADVERTISING, AND PRODUCT EXPERIENCES: ‘They were trying to say that Sodaicious wl give you energy. And it wil because i's sugary. 1's covered in, lik, this Suga tf. has Like sugar spinked on i They'e trying 0 Say tnt you'll be beter afer you try Sodlcous. After he ted the Soxlicios, be popped out and just gota Jot of energy, I did't happen © me, mean {id fel good but was sill the same aftr [tied it It sted good, Tike i GBP Notice how the older children were more sensive tothe figurative content ofthis message and were able to detect. rmutope levels ot meaning in tis tanasy-iaden ack con trast to the younger children, they knew these images are ‘ot meant be taken Tieraly and tat the fantasy i used to convey an underlying idea orsraeny. Ths, dey were thie wo ook to'a message's eral esting 1s well 28s figuative properties, “The older children also departed from the younger chil deen in terms of the scone of the commer they were imerested in escussing. Beyond products personally pu chased and used—the essential ange of dicssion forthe younger childen—the oder paricipantin this std readily Denti ne foe mang procs aeorviee roc ae Sala maser carpets oF Huggies dapes, that they themselves ‘would not be involved in buying. Thus, in const othe younger children, there was a larger distinction dravn be- {wean advertising and pewonal prodt tse among these ler respondents. “The esetial motivators for this expanded range of ad- vertsing interest peared tobe a fascination oa the part of Uo vider student alverisiy's comma Us ad executional elemens In this sense, tey appear to be ‘consuming ads much the way they might consume a tele- vision progam, as an appreciative audience, iespetve of the speine react promote. ror exami “he Honey Comb commer as eer et myheadbecanse its gotall toe detains got ih color and mai ‘dts wit aetesing things ta Tas wha aes Stayin ay bead d'etat kindof eal ore ne cs do ike sweet eel [jhe commecls though. (07, 5) {watch most ofthe commercials that come on (laughs). wach them for stuff that they do that make people get ‘enton. If they fasbed different things, of hey just stayed on the se theme the whole way tug Ue tomate {ike well in the Pepsi commercial, tay i's got to words "Goaa Have It" That's three words andi makes people chink bout it “Coa Have I.” So, suf ike hat makes you think bout tor remember Like someting Sup tat wl make {yo think shout how domb that commercial was, that makes you think abou it (503, F) Relative to other forms of communications, advertising is unique in its aims and content, and the older children’s reports recognized that ads are strategic constructions. These 10-11 -year-olds noted not only that ads incorporate a selling moive but also tae this leads fo & message in which product “3 claims are positive and exaggeration is common. They read- ily acknowledged the appeal of celebrity endorsers and de- sctibed how music, humor, and action are used in “getting ‘ids to pay altention and remember ‘They show the shape ofthe cereal alo of times. When they show the box lt of times, they show the name 2 lot of ‘umes, MaKe sure you remeroer I. UF someumes te Nave ong, andi’ ike whea you get songs in your head and you cant get them out Like sometimes I'l do that. Like the ‘other day, had tat Target song in my head. L coulda’ get itout of my bead. When T Ava of the song. I thik ofthat Jogo wih he target, and that makes you remember (513,F) ‘A final age-based distinction uncovered in tis stady in- volves bouuuates fur persuasive appeals, Cousisteat Wilt Past research, both the younger and older children here read- ily acknowledged adverising's persuasive purpose, How- ‘ever, a5 noted earlier, the younger children seemed to assume. That the product was as depicted in the adverusement: there was litle reporting of trust ot credibility concems. Mean- ‘while, some ofthe olde children, reflecting their interest in executional elements, reported that advertisers naturally do ‘employ substantial creative license in presenting the postive aspects of their product offerings. However, ths celebration of creativity in advertising was at times offered without a concern for limits. For example, Have you seen “Make it, Tak ic?” You pu lite beads ito ‘ame and then you melt iin te oven. Well, mean they show itso easly onthe commercial. ust pour ie it in and then ou put it inthe oven and in 10 seconds i's done. But they fae ike tiny beads and you have o put each individual one iw everything. And it sully flows over and ges into your frame. fs not that easy as theyre trying to make it ok ike! fT buying someting lke tha, don't lke when bey do that But sometime if i's aval op ofa product they have (o do that to protect tei product. 303, F) Autbough this girl knew from her own experience thatthe product had use problems, she did not reflect a broader view ‘of a marketer's responsibility to fairly porray product per formance in ads. Such gaps in knowledge about standards for commercial persuasion were readily apparent among our ‘older informants, Discussion ‘The interpretive approach of the second study was quite ‘usefol in gaining adaiional insights into the topic of od. vertsing and product use. The findings here appear to be in accord with those of prior literature and with the findings Of the experimental study as regards age differences among uldcen. In puricular, we should now dat the advanced Tevels noted on the part of the olde children are in keeping with a broad array of results in the field of literary devel- ‘opment. Here studies show that important changes in coay- ‘mand of genre occur duting the Upper elementary schoo! “ years (e.g. Fitch, Huston, and Weight 1993; Gardner 1980), ‘Advertising literacy, and an understanding of this genre's defining avaities, rest on children's evolving language and ‘comnaunication skills (Fiesta and Wright 1994; Ritson and Elliott 1995; Scott 1994; Young 1990). From early adoles- cence (11-12 years old), children’s thinking becomes more rrultidimensional. involve ahetnct xe wall ae concrete ep resentations, and becomes less absolute and more relative in nature (Keating 1990). As readers, children shift from a primary reliance on the physical events in a story 0 an Slermass to motivations, inoentives, and other poychological features (Durkin 1993). Greater insight into these underlying clements enables the decoding of new layers of meaning, ‘both literal and figurative (Nippold, Cuyler, and Braunbeck- Price 1900, Winns. 1906). Wilin Gguave Language He Fhumor, metaphor, and fantasy, all creative tools in the ad- Vertser’s arsenal, and as Gartner etal. (1978) suggest, all capable of involving an individual in the affective realm {ex shrough Taugmer, tne sausfacuons denvea trom cont prehension, et.) Thus, itis understandable why we should have seen the older children in this study exprestng interest and involvement in adverising’s executional elements; their relatively recently enhanced interpretive powers were al- lowing them a deeper appreciation of the multiplicity of ‘meanings that ads can convey, and they were enjoying the exercise of this capability. “Methodological, open-ended interviews with children hhave not often been used in consumer research, in part be- ‘cause of early concerns about the verbal abilities of younger children (e.g. Goldherg and Grn 1084)" Howmuer, in re- lated fields psychologists, anthropologists, and educators rely extensively on open-ended interviews, both to describe ‘and to draw inferences on developmental differences in per ceptions and understanding (e.g. Gelman and Kremer 1991), We were therefore alert to both benefits and barriers in adopting this approsch in consumer research (e.8, we ‘ensured thatthe children in our study were older than the (groupe identfed ao being of greatcat conceit sil die bheavily upon closely allied work in related fields in the design, conduct, and analysis of the interpretive studies), SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ‘This article reports the results of two studies, representing ‘a combination of positivist and interpretvist research meth- ‘ds, to examine children's responses to advertising and ‘product usage. Although children are commonly exposed to ‘oth of these stimuli in their everyday lives as consumers, ‘his remains a relatively undeveloped area of research. Sub- Tha Tog boon copied Ga condictng ema wih clea ecsens seca challenge: Foruni, he eins research ete ‘vies substan inns hse str (Golder and Go 198 ‘Femctv 190), However he pvestal tenth an icles ected ‘wih imereve metas have aot Den mach explore inthe hires versing veo Ia conta estos an pry hologats ate ed ese ‘ethos extnively wih school-aged clea for bth cial an re. ‘euch purpose (se exp. Batter 199: Fine a Santen TORR Ca ‘i tnd Sto 1968 Tnmivaca and Earp 1980) JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH antve findings emerged regarding (1) product usage, (2) advertising effects, (3 children’s development, and (4) the ‘alin of multiple renserh perepertve and methode in work with children General Conclusions Product usage was examined in two ways inthis project, through children’s selreports and through structured prod- uct als; its important role emerged in both ofthese venues. ‘Fox dione products dat Inierest CHOATE, usage 1 & Ou, ay involving component of their lives, and a source of salient information that advances leaming about the marketplace. ‘Advertising was also examined through two means—depth Imerviews and expenmental exposures. It was evident that advertising for some products is highly involving and leaves 4 strong impact on children, Participants readily recalled ‘ads, sang jingles, mimicked characters, and related product information gleaned from these sources. Overall, avertsing is clearly an important source of information ad influence for children ‘Age-Related Conclusions ‘The field's primary lines of inquiry and theorizing about ‘hilden's developmental eevee were largely eupportad here. In particular, age-related differences were apparent in both studies. For the younger children, our findings reveal sig- nificant infuences from product til experiences and com- paratively simple responses to advestiing, ennai with prior research showing that younger children’s processing sills and strategies lack the sopbistiation and efficiency cof ‘older children. However, three parcular findings ‘emerged for younger children tha allow us to beer appre: ciate both cognitive and motivational dimensions in the re- sponses of this age group: 2. Younger Children Were Influenced Directly by Product Trials and Showed No Evidence ofan Ad Fram ing Process. The experiment showed that initial exposure to adverising did lite to sift the younger children's per ‘epon oa product tal experenee This eal be nerpeied 18a manifestation ofa younger child's capacity imitations: imegraion ofthe images in commer With cosets from product usage can bea relatively complex brotesag tn, dye ta apeted to stk Oe apes of the younger children. 2. Liking of an Ad Influenced Younger Children’s Attitudes about the Brand lise, Within the experiment the observed effects of atinde toward an ad were strong but also consistent with a relatively simple or rudimentary processing style. The younger children did not engage in uch elaboration, as only the simple, direct effects of ad liking on brand attitudes were evident. Within the depth interview study, moreover, their quotes of directed reactions ‘othe Sodalicious commercial provided further evidence of the younger children's simpler approach to understanding CHILDREN, ADVERTISING, AND PRODUCT EXPERIENCES the commercial. In this cas, limitations in appreciating the ‘figurative language and images would likely hinder devel- ‘opment of certain brand cognitions and expectations for product use experiences. 3. The Younger Children's Reports on Advertsing in Their Lives Stayed Noticeably Close to Products They Bier Already Onned ur Wished ty Onn in dhe Future. For this group it appears that advertising, acqui- sition, and product use are closely intertwined, as we would expect from a business perspective on the role of advertising 1s marketing mix. Here, t WOUld appear tat successful commercial from the younger child's perspective would be ‘one that would attract his or her attention to the product itself and to the enjoyment or benefits to be gained from personal use experiences with that product. Older children, on the other hand, are better equipped to perceive and appreciate advertisements’ multiplicity of ‘meanings and 10 integrate these with product use, Three findings of particular tnteest emerged for this age group: 1. For Older Children, Advertising Has the Power to Frame the Interpretation of Subsequent Product Usage. Further, this framing can be a significant source of influence in either a positive or negative direction, Ad- ‘ertsers should be alert to the potential for commercials 10 iter enhance of detect om the yuality of Vex hens ‘brand usage experiences: it would be worthwhile to ensure that copytesting efforts are expanded to overtly assess this kind of impact (e.g, assess the extent to which specific cecutons enlace receptivity by dhis target group of, alk tematively, foster expectations that will not later be realized). 2, uking of an Ad Inpiuencea Uider Children’s At- tinudes about the Brand Itself, through Multiple Per- suasive Routes. Consistent with previous research in- yolvine adults. in our experiment liking for an ad not only influenced brand attitude directly but also inuenced beliefs bout that brand, which in turn influenced liking for the brand. These multiple routes to persuasion suggest consid temable elaboration of points being made in commercials, & conclusion receiving support in the depth interviews as wel ‘Significanly, this effect of advertising was strong enough to persist even when these children also had direct product ‘wil evidence available to them, 3. More Generally, Older Children Approach Ad- verising with a Broadened and Richer Perspective. ‘Ujuu velit is nou spay ven Ue eee ane world in which they live, btit was lear that older children's reactions to advertising not onl included the brand message but also extended to an interest in executional elements and surategic consrucions, In a sense, then, older children can 'be seen to be “consuming” advertising asa form of enter tainment, in addition 10 their reacting as potential product purchasers and users. 4 Implications for Future Research ‘Our primary impetus in this project was to exemine the ‘interaction of advertising with use experience in children's ‘consumer behavior. The results strongly suppor the Value of further work on this topic. In particular, the role and power of usage experience relative to advertising is an interesting tnd important fete Pach nf the prceelate pattern emer ing in this project is also worhy of attention in furure re- search. We should also take care to view the broader context ‘within which children are developing, and it would be useful {enamine farther the role thet ad sracutional slement are playing in the persuasion process, particularly since their Influence appears to be evolving rapidly within the industy. For example, in 1996, ad spending in child-pecific media reached $1.5 billion, represcating. more than a. 50 percent ‘increase from 1993 (Leonhardt and Kerwin 1997). To stand ‘ou, coramercals are increasingly focused on entertainment and image creation and are ess focused onthe produc itself. Iurrecent years, nost-sellng, creadve icensing, promodonal tie-ins, and other techniques have attained unprecedented levels of reach and sophistication. Thus, persuasive mes- sages today are in some sense more subtle, as Drogramming, ads, and the products themselves Mow into and reinforce one another. ‘Our findings on adverising framing effects among the ‘older children (11-12-yearolis) are relevant here and de~ Serve more focused research atention in the future. Adver- tisers, for example, should be quite interested in learning ‘under what conditions that these children (“cued processors") possess the capacity to process both the ad and usage experience in a relatively complex fashion (yet may not spontaneously invoke an un- derstanding of houndares Foe perwiasiveininence attempts) does seem to call for further stention from our field. ‘The present results are naturally subject to a number of caveats and limitations, The four products all involved fede fe presible that proceeren tight differ for ther categories, such as toys. Whether the effects of advertising ‘on product tral as seen here would holdin more naturalistic settings in which there isa delay between exposure and use i alco an important empirical issue. Our dacign could be overstating adverising’s immediate effects by minimizing recall demands. In this regard, however, the extensive ad Vertising recall demonstrated by informants during our in- depth incrviews offre some mitigation ofthis rise, Finally, the direct impact of advertising repetition is not examined here, Repetition may serve to enhance advertising’ s impacts ‘on product tial, particularly among the younger children (Petacchi 1992), ahdwough siguleandy he Feels uni, be necessary t0 produce such effets ‘Overall, the use of both interpretive and positivist research approaches in a single project was beneficial to learning ‘more about children’s reactions 10 advertising and product trial, Each method has sirengths and weaknesses, but in combination there are obvious synergies. 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